Structural formulas of apatites: M(1)4M(2)6(XO4)6Z2 [2].
\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Milestone",originalUrl:"/media/original/124"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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He has published more than 95 research papers in various International Journals and conferences and reviewed many research papers submitted to various international journals. He has more than 27 years of teaching experience for graduate and undergraduate students. Dr.Singh is a Senior Member of IEEE and Fellow IETE-India.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"192404",title:"Dr.",name:"Ajay",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"ajay-singh",fullName:"Ajay Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192404/images/system/192404.jpg",biography:"Dr Singh is working as Professor in the Electronics and Communication Engineering of NIIT University-Neemarana Rajasthan India. Prior to joining this Unversity, he was Associate Professor in Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Multimedia University-Melaka Malaysia. 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Cation substitution, where M = Ca2+, Pb2+, Sr2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Cd2+, Ba2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, Zn2+, Sn2+, Eu2+, Na+, K+, Li+, Rb+, NH4+, La3+, Ce3+, Sm3+, Eu3+, Y3+, Cr3+, Th4+, U4+, U6+ and □.
Substitution for phosphorus by one or two cations, where X = PO43−, AsO43−, SiO43−, VO43−, CrO43−, CrO42−, MnO43−, SO42−, SeO42−, BeF42−, GeO44−, ReO53−, SbO3F4−, SiO3N5−, BO45−, BO33− and CO32−.
Z-site substation, where Z = F−, OH−, Cl−, O2−, O3−, NCO−, BO2−, Br−, I−, NO2−, CO32−, O22−, O2−, S2−, NCN2−, NO22− and □.
where □ represents the vacancy cluster [1].
\nBesides the monoionic substitution, the co-substitution and mutual combinations of substitutions in anionic and cationic sites (multi-ionic substitution) were also often reported [3],[4],[5],[6]. Mutual substitutions of trace elements into apatite structure brought new physicochemical, mechanical and biological properties in comparison with pure apatite or monoionic substituted apatite materials, e.g. hydroxylapatite [3].
\nSome substitutions can proceed only at the synthesis stage, while a limited ion exchange between solid apatite and surrounding solution can also occur. Due to their high chemical diversity and ion-exchange capabilities, apatites are considered as materials for toxic waste storage and for wastewater purification. The ion exchange in apatitic structures in human organism also presents an interest for medicine [7].
\nRecent studies have shown that a number of alkaline-earth-rare-earth silicates and germanates also have the apatite structure, and these have the cell sizes which span the division between the “apatites” and the “pyromorphites”. Some, particularly barium and lanthanum apatites, have the lattice parameters comparable with the members of the pyromorphite group. Thus, Ba2La8(SiO4)6O2 has the cell parameters
The ionic radius of elements that can be accommodated instead of M in the lattice of apatite (M5(XO4)3Zq).
The structure of hydroxyapatite allows large variations from its theoretical composition as well as the formation of nonstoichiometric forms and ionic substitutions. More than half of naturally occurring elements are known to be accommodated in the apatite lattice to significant extent. Ca2+ cation can be substituted by Na+, K+, Mg2+, Sr2+, Pb2+, Mn2+ (Fig. 1(a)) or rare-earth elements The minerals with essential rare-earth elements (REE or rare-earth metals, REM) or chemically related elements Y or Sc are termed as rare-earth minerals. They must be named with suffix (Levinson modifier [10],[11]), indicating the dominant rare-earth element (some examples can be found in
The substitutions at Z site play a very important role in the crystallography of specific species. The Z site lies in the channel formed by the X sites in fluorapatite and is of just the right size to fit between X atoms, and it lies on (001) mirror planes to yield the space group P63/m. When Cl substitutes for F, Cl is too large to fit on the mirror plane, so it is displaced along the c-axis and the space group becomes P63. The OH substitution is even more complex. OH anions are not spherically symmetric due to H+ (proton) present in the charge cloud of O atoms. H causes a displacement of O off the mirror plane, the O-H orientation tends to align in a given channel, but adjacent channels may have different displacements and orientations. The result is that well-crystallized hydroxylapatites are usually monoclinic with the space group P21/m or P21 [12].
\nSome of the various families of substitutions that were experimentally established in apatites are summarized in Table 1. In general, the ions that substitute for Ca in the A position have the valences from 1 to 3 and the coordination numbers of VII at Ca(2) (6
M10 | \nX6 | \nO24 | \nZ2 | \nDesignation | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
\n | O12O6O6 | \n\n | \n | |
Ca10 | \nP6 | \nO24 | \n(OH)2 | \nHAP | \n
C4Ln6 | \nSi6 | \n|||
Sr10 | \nS3Si3 | \nF2 | \nFAP | \n|
Ca2Ln8 | \nSi6 | \nO2 | \nOxyapatite | \n|
SrCa9 | \nP6 | \n□ | \nZ-site vacancies | \n|
Nd4Ca6 | \nGe6 | \n□2 | \n||
Sr10 | \nP4Si2 | \n□2 | \n||
Na2Ca8 | \nP6 | \n□2 | \n||
□2La2Ca4La2 | \n□2 | \nM-, Z-site vacancy | \n||
□2La2La2 | \nGe6 | \n\n | (OH)2 | \nM-site vacancies (?) | \n
Structural formulas of apatites: M(1)4M(2)6(XO4)6Z2 [2].
Substituents | \nCoordination number | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arens | \nShannon and Prewitt | \n|||||
\n | \n | VI | \nVI | \nVII | \nVIII | \nIX | \n
M2+\n | \nBa | \n1.34 | \n1.36 | \n1.39 | \n— | \n1.47 | \n
Pb | \n1.20 | \n1.18 | \n— | \n1.29 | \n1.33 | \n|
Eu | \n— | \n1.17 | \n— | \n1.25 | \n— | \n|
Sn | \n0.93 | \n— | \n— | \n1.22 | \n— | \n|
Sr | \n1.12 | \n1.16 | \n1.21 | \n1.25 | \n— | \n|
Ca | \n0.99 | \n1.00 | \n1.07 | \n1.12 | \n1.18 | \n|
Cd | \n0.97 | \n0.95 | \n1.00 | \n1.07 | \n— | \n|
Mn | \n— | \n0.83 | \n— | \n0.93 | \n— | \n|
Zn | \n0.74 | \n0.745 | \n— | \n— | \n0.90 (E) | \n|
Co | \n0.72 | \n0.735 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n|
Cu | \n0.72 | \n0.73 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n|
Mg | \n0.66 | \n0.72 | \n— | \n0.89 | \n— | \n|
Ni | \n0.69 | \n0.69 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n|
M+\n | \nK | \n1.33 | \n1.38 | \n1.46 (?) | \n1.51 (?) | \n1.55 (?, E) | \n
\n | Na | \n0.97 | \n1.02 | \n1.13 (?) | \n1.16 | \n1.32 (?, E) | \n
Cation radii of possible apatite substituents at M10-site of M10(XO4)6Z2 unit [2].
(E) and (?) denote interpolated and doubtful values, respectively.
An example of charge compensating substitution for phosphorus by two cations is the substitution during the synthesis of apatite species of the composition of Ca10(SiO4)3(SO4)3F2 (CSSF, fluorellestadite [16]) [2],[17],[18]:
\nThese synthetic phases have mineral equivalents in the minerals from the ellestadite group, which are listed in Table 3. Since the mineral with ideal end-member formula Ca5(SiO4)1.5(SO4)1.5Cl is assumed not to exist, the name ellestadite-(Cl) is discredited [19].
\nDescriptor | \nBrief description | \n
---|---|
Lattice constant of hexagonal unit cell | \n|
Variable axial ratio | \n|
Shannon’s ionic radii of M(I)-site ion (nine-coordination) | \n|
Shannon’s ionic radii of X-site ion | \n|
Shannon’s ionic radii of M(II)-site ion (seven-coordination for X = F−, eight-coordination for X = Cl− and Br−) | \n|
RZ [Å] | \nShannon’s ionic radii of Z-site ion | \n
Av CR [Å] | \nAverage crystal radius = [( | \n
MEN - OEN | \nElectronegativity difference between M and O atom | \n
XEN - OEN | \nElectronegativity difference between X and O atom | \n
MEN - ZEN | \nElectronegativity difference between M atom at M(II) site and Z atom | \n
MEN - XEN | \nElectronegativity difference between M atom at M(I) site and X atom | \n
M(I) – O(1) [Å] | \nDistance between M(I) atom and O(1) atom | \n
M(I) – O(1)M(I)z = 0 [Å] | \nDistance between M(I) atom and O(1) atom with the constraint | \n
ΔM(I)−O [Å] | \nDifference in the lengths M(I) – O(1) and M(I) – O(2). | \n
\n\n | \nDifference in the lengths M(I) – O(1) and M(I) – O(2) with the constraint | \n
Angle that M(I)-O(1) bond makes with respect to | \n|
\n\n | \nAngle that M(I)-O(1) bond makes with respect to | \n
Counter-rotation angle of M(I)O6 structural unit | \n|
Metaprism twist angle ( | \n|
Orientation of M(I)6 unit with respect to | \n|
<X-O> [Å] | \nAverage X-O bond length | \n
< | \nAverage O-X-O bond-bending angle | \n
M(II)-M(II) triangular side length | \n|
M(II) – Z [Å] | \nOrientation of M(II)-M(II)-M(II) triangles with respect to | \n
M(II) – O(3) [Å] | \nDistance between M(II) and O3 atoms | \n
O(3) – M(II) – O(3) angle | \n|
Etotal [eV] | \nTotal energy calculated from ab initio calculations | \n
The list of 29 discrete descriptors of electronic and crystal structure parameters [23].
The fluorellestadite apatite and its solid solutions are minor components of many fluorine-mineralized clinkers. It is stable to liquidus temperature of 1240°C at which it incongruently melts to dicalcium silicate (2CaO·SiO2) and liquid [16]. The solid-state synthesis and the luminescence properties of europium-doped fluorellestadite (CSSF:Eu2+) cyan-emitting phosphor were described by Que et al [20]. Ellestadite apatites and their solid solutions are promising materials for the immobilization of toxic metals or hazardous fly ash [21],[22].
\nThe general composition of silico-sulfate apatites, i.e.
The syntheses of Sr and Pb analogues of CSSF are also reported [18]. Strontium silico-sulfate apatite is not stable and decomposes to the mixture of strontium silicate and sulfate when heated to 1130°C for 30 min. Since high temperatures must be avoided, several attempts to prepare cadmium and barium silico-sulfate apatites were unsuccessful and the silicocarnotite-like phase was obtained from a mixture of the composition of Ca10(GeO4)3(SO4)8F2 rather than apatite [17].
\nSince there is a huge potential for the substitution in apatite structure (M(1)4M(2)6(XO4)6Z2 and for the formation of solid solution as well, the classification method enables to identify the key crystallographic parameters which can serve as strong classifiers of crystal chemistries. The structure maps for apatite compounds via data mining were reported by Balachandran and Rajan [23]. The selection of the pair of key parameters from a large set of potential classifiers is accomplished through the linear data dimensionality reduction method. This structure can be represented as a 29-dimensional vector, where the vector components are discrete scalar descriptors (Table 3) of electronic and crystal structure attributes utilized for the construction of the map of apatite compounds.
\n\n\nBasically, the structure map approach involves the visualization of the data of known compounds with known crystal structures in a two-dimensional space using two scalar descriptors (normally heuristically chosen), which are associated with physical/chemical properties, crystal chemistry or electronic structure. The objective is to map out the relative geometric position of each structure type from which one tries to discern qualitatively if there are strong associations of certain structure types to certain bivariate combinations of parameters [23].
\nBond-distortion angle applied for the construction of structure map [
A new structure map, defined using the two distortion angles (Fig. 3) [23]:
1.The αMII (rotation angle of MII-MII-MII triangular units);
The
That enables to classify the apatite crystal chemistries based on the site occupancy at M, X and Z sites and this classification is accomplished using the K-means clustering analysis (Fig. 3).
\nStructure map for the classification of apatite chemistries based on the site occupancy (
For example, clusters 1 and 2 (
Cluster | \nSite occupancy | \n||
---|---|---|---|
Site | \nM | \nBa, Pb, Sr, Ca | \n|
X | \nP, V, Mn | \n||
Z | \nF | \n||
Site | \nM | \nBa | \n|
X | \nP | \n||
Z | \nCl, Br | \n||
Site | \nM | \nSr, Hg | \n|
X | \nP | \n||
Z | \nCl, Br | \n||
Site | \nM | \nCa, Cd, Pb | \n|
X | \nV, Cr, As | \n||
Z | \nCl | \n||
Site | \nM | \nCa, Pb | \n|
X | \nP | \n||
Z | \nCl, Br | \n||
Site | \nM | \nZn | \n|
X | \nP | \n||
Z | \nZ | \nZ | \nF, Cl | \n
Even though Ca2+ and Hg2+ cations have roughly the same ionic size (1.18 and 1.23 Å at M(I) site), their electronegativity data indicates that Hg atoms (electronegativity value of 2 in Pauling scale) are relatively highly covalent compared to Ca atoms (electronegativity value of 1 in Pauling scale). In the structure map, this covalent character is predicted to be manifested in the bond distortion angle \n
Sr2+ ion, which is larger than Ca2+, is ordered almost completely into the smaller Ca(2) site in the apatite structure (Fig. 4). The bond valence sums of Sr ions at two sites demonstrate that Sr is severely overbonded at apatite Ca site but less at Ca(2) site. Complete ordering of Sr into Ca(2) sites has important implications for the diffusion of that element in the apatite structure. It is the subject of several recent studies. The diffusion of Sr in (001) was shown to be as rapid or even more rapid than the diffusion parallel to [001]. As there are neither sites available for Sr, which are linked in (001), nor any interstitial sites, which can contain Sr2+ ion, the diffusion mechanism involving the vacancies or defects or both is indicated [24].
\n\nA series of Sr-substituted hydroxyapatites, (SrxCa1−x)5(PO4)3OH, where
The structure of natural Sr-bearing apatite refined by
Strontium is often substituted for calcium in order to confer the radio-opacity in glasses used for dental cements, biocomposites and bioglass-ceramics. It can be concluded that strontium substitutes for calcium with little change in the glass structure as a result of their similar charge to size ratio. Glasses with low content of strontium nucleate in the bulk to form calcium apatite phase. Glasses with medium strontium content nucleate to mixed calcium-strontium apatite at the surface and glass fully substituted by strontium to strontium fluorapatite [26].
\nMagnesium-substituted hydroxyapatite (MgHAP) powders with different crystallinity levels, prepared at room temperature via a heterogeneous reaction between Mg(OH)2/Ca(OH)2 powders and (NH4)2HPO4 solution using the mechanochemical- hydrothermal route, were reported by Suchanek et al [27]. The as-prepared products contained unreacted Mg(OH)2 and therefore had to undergo the purification in ammonium citrate aqueous solutions at room temperature. MgHAP contained 0.24 - 28.4 wt.% of Mg and the concentration of Mg was slightly lower near the surface than that in the bulk.
\nTwo effects of different magnesium sources (magnesium nitrate and magnesium stearate) on the synthesis of Mg-substituted hydroxyapatite (Mg-n-HAP) nanoparticles by the co-precipitation method were investigated by Lijuan et al [28]. There was no obvious difference of morphology, nanoparticle size and thermal stability between those two Mg-n-HAPs. However, Mg-n-HAP synthesized by magnesium stearate had lower crystallinity and better dispersibility, suggesting that magnesium stearate was a novel magnesium source to synthesize Mg-n-HAP, which can effectively reduce the powder crystallinity and prevent the aggregation of Mg-n-HAP nanoparticles, owing to the introduction of organic magnesium source, so as to obtain a promising candidate material to prepare Mg-n-HAP/polymer composite used in a variety of bone applications.
\nCopper-substituted hydroxyapatite (Ca10−xCux(PO4)6(OH)2 (where
According to Mobasherpou et al [30], the reaction mechanism corresponding to equimolar exchange of nickel and calcium and yielding to Ca10−xNix(PO4)6(OH)2, where
In this process, Ni2+ ions are first adsorbed onto the surface of hydroxyapatite (surface complexation,
Zinc is a common bioelement. The zinc content in human bones ranges from 0.0126% to 0.0217% by weight [7]. Zinc as a cationic substituent in hydroxyapatite provides the option to counteract the effects of osteoporosis [31]. The incorporation of zinc into the HAP structure (Zn-HAP) was abundantly studied, owing to the key effect of Zn2+ cations in several metabolic processes that makes zinc eligible for use in many biomedical applications and to its possible antimicrobial activity [3].
\nThe results of structure analysis indicated that Zn ions substituted partially for Ca ions in the apatite structure and the upper limit of Zn substitution for Ca in HA was about 20 mol.%. In general, the HAP lattice parameters,
Zn-substituted apatite was synthesized by the precipitation method as follows [33]:
where 0 ≤
The synthesis and the characterization of iron-substituted hydroxyapatite via a simple ion-exchange procedure were described by Kramer et al [34]. Using a ferric chloride solution and a simple soaking procedure, FeHAP can be prepared with no apparent formation of the second phase. The substitution of Fe3+ into the HAP lattice results in FeHAP powders with magnetic properties. This novel simplified room temperature soaking procedure can be applied in the future to synthesize magnetic apatite-based nanoparticles for biomedical applications.
\nThe synthesis and the characterization of cobalt-substituted hydroxyapatite (Co-HAP) powders via the precipitation method were described by Kramer et al [35]. Using a cobalt chloride solution and a simple soaking procedure, it is possible to prepare CoHAP with no apparent formation of second phases. Cobalt-substituted samples displayed paramagnetic properties as opposed to the diamagnetism of pure HA. The degradation studies showed that Co-HAP did not display markedly different degradation behavior from pure HAP, and the amount of cobalt released over the course of a month was extremely low, alleviating the toxicity concerns. Cobalt-substituted hydroxyapatite nanoparticles, the biomaterial with magnetic properties, could be a promising material to be used in a variety of biomedical applications, including the magnetic imaging, drug delivery or hyperthermia-based cancer treatments.
\nSingle crystals of chlorapatite [Ca5(PO4)3Cl] with the substitution of approximately 20% of Ca2+ by Co2+ (space group P63/m,
Naturally occurring manganese-substituted apatite is known as manganese-bearing apatite (Mn,Ca5(PO4)3F,
The structure of natural Mn-bearing apatite refined by
It is interesting to note that apatite acts effectively as a geochemical sieve that traps Mn2+ and excludes Fe2+ elements, which are virtually inseparable in most geochemical systems. The bond valence sums for Fe2+ at apatite Ca sites yield 1.26 and 1.19 valence units for Ca(1) and Ca(2) sites, respectively; large discrepancy from the formal valence prohibits extensive substitution of Fe2+ in the apatite structure (Fig. 5) [24].
\nThe crystal structure of pale blue transparent Mn-rich fluorapatite (9.79 wt.% of MnO) with optimized formula (Ca8.56M2+1.41Fe2+0.01)P6O24F2 was resolved by Hughes et al [24] to be of the space group of P63/m with the cell parameters
Crystals of La-, Gd- and Dy-bearing fluorapatite [La-FAP, Gd-FAP, Dy-FAP, Ca10−x−2y NayREEx+y(P1−ySixO4)Z2, where
The structure of some REE-bearing apatites [37],[38] is shown in Fig. 6.
\nRare-earth-element ordering and structural variations in natural rare-earth-bearing fluorapatites (a), LaFAP (b), NdFAP (c), GdFAP (d) and DyFAP (e) [
The partitioning of REE between two Ca positions in apatite contradicts usual first-order dependence on spatial accommodation, with LREE Rare-earth elements or metals (REE or REM) are Sc, Y and lanthanoids [40]. Light rare-earth elements (LREE) are Sc, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu and Gd (7 elements from La to Eu are known as the cerium group or cerium-group lanthanides). Heavy rare-earth elements (HREE) are Y, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu. The definition of LREE and HREE is based on the electron configuration. LREEs possess unpaired 4
Substitution mechanism;
Electronegativity difference;
Bond valence.
The preference of individual REE among multiple Ca positions in minerals (the site occupancy of individual REE) was not extensively studied because of the inability of conventional diffraction methods to distinguish among individual elements at multiply-occupied sites. The site preference for individual LREE from theoretical bond-valence sums was estimated by Hughes et al [38], reasoning that La → Pr should preferentially substitute into Ca(2), whereas Pm → Sm should selectively substitute into Ca(1).
\nThe isomorphic substitutions of neodymium for strontium in the structure of synthetic Sr5(VO4)3OH apatite structure type (P63/m) were reported by Get’man et al [44]. The synthesis of apatite specimen was performed via the solution thermolysis on the assumption of the following reaction:
where x = 0, 0.02, 0.08, 0.10, 0.12, 0.14, 0.16, 0.18 and 0.20. The substitution scheme can be expressed as:
The procedure includes three stages:
Preparation of solution;
Thermolysis;
Treatment of the dry residue.
The solutions for the thermolysis were prepared by dissolving Sr(NO3)2 in water; Nd2O3 was dissolved in water with nitric acid added; NH4VO3 was dissolved in water with hydrogen peroxide added. Dry residues after concentrating the solutions were pestled in an agate mortar and calcined with the temperature steadily raised from 600 to 800°C and intermittent grindings [44].
\nThorium and uranium (actinides [45],[46] The actinides occupy the second row of the f-block in the periodic table. The actinide group or actinoids (An) include 14 elements with atomic numbers from 90 (Th) to 103 (Lr) [43]. The elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (U) are termed as transuranes. The elements with atomic numbers greater than 100 are named as the super-heavy elements (SHE). There is also the concept of the periodic table developed by G.T. Seaborg predicting a new inner transition series of 32 elements (from 122 to 153 element), called the superactinite series [45],[46]. Only actinium, thorium, uranium and (in trace quantities) protactinium and plutonium are primordial, while the elements from neptunium onwards are present on Earth solely through artificial generation [46].
The structure of UFAP (a), ThFAP (b), UClAP (c), ThClAP (d), ThSrFAP (e) and ThSrClAP (f) [
The structure refinements of U-doped chlorapatites show that U is essentially distributed equally between the two Ca sites with UCa(2)/UCa(1) values, which range from 0.89 to 1.17. The results of Th-doped chlorapatites show that Th substitutes into both Ca(1) and Ca(2) sites with ThCa(2)/ThCa(1) values, which range from 0.61 to 0.67. In Th-doped strontium apatites with F and Cl end-members, Th is incorporated into both Ca(1) and Ca(2) sites. The range of ThCa(2)/ThCa(1) values is 0.56 to 1.00 for the F end-member and 0.39 to 0.94 for the Cl end-member. U-doped samples indicate that U in fluorapatite is tetravalent, whereas, in chlorapatite, it is heterovalent but dominantly hexavalent [47].
\nBased on the chemical analyses of U-, Th-doped fluor-, chlor- and strontiumapatite specimens in this study, local charge compensation may be maintained by the following coupled substitutions (M represents U or Th and [] represents the vacancy) [47]:
The incorporation of U and Th into fluorapatite results in a decrease of the size of both Ca polyhedra, but the incorporation of U and Th into chlorapatite gives rise to an increase in the volume of both Ca polyhedra. The decrease of both Ca polyhedral volumes in fluorapatite caused by the substitution of U and Th can be explained by the decrease of ionic radius from Ca to U and Th. However, the increase in the volume of both Ca polyhedra in chlorapatite is hard to understand. Because of the effect on Ca(2) polyhedron caused by the replacement of F− by Cl−, it can be explained by the structural distortion of Ca(2) polyhedron [47].
\nUranium-doped oxy-silicophosphates (britholites) of the composition of CaxLay(SiO4)6−u (PO4)uOt:U4+ were synthesized by Riadh et al [48] via the high-temperature solid-state reaction. The uranium solubility limit was found to be comprised between 4.6 and 4.8 mol.%. The investigation of uranium heated to 1200°C led to the uranium diffusion coefficient of 2.14·10−14 m2·s−1. The synthesis and the characterization of uranium- (Ca9Nd1−xUx(PO4)5−x(SiO4)1+xF2) and thorium-bearing britholites (Ca9Nd1−xThx(PO4)5−x(SiO4)1+xF2) were also reported by Terra et al [49],[50]:
or
where An4+ substitutes for tetravalent U4+ and Th4+.
\nThe incorporation of thorium in the structure is probably possible due to small differences of ionic radius between calcium (1.06 Å), neodymium (1.05 Å) and thorium (1.00 Å). In order to ensure the quantitative incorporation of thorium, it appeared necessary to consider the coupled substitution [50].
instead of the substitution scheme:
Indeed, in the first way, homogeneous and single-phase solid solutions were prepared from Ca9Nd(PO4)5(SiO4)F2 to Ca9Th(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 leading to full neodymium substitution. Associated small increase of the unit cell parameters results from the simultaneous replacement of phosphate groups by bigger silicate. It was accompanied by a significant change in the grain morphology. These results contrast with those obtained when the coupled substitution according to Eq. 19 was performed, which confirmed the limitation of about 10 wt.% in the Th substitution [50]. Good resistance of the materials to influence of aqueous solutions enables their utilization for the immobilization of tetravalent actinides in phosphate ceramics [49].
\nThe favorable biocompatibility of hydroxyapatite (HA) makes it a popular bone graft material as well as a coating layer on metallic implant. One common and accepted strategy to prevent the implant-related infections is to create antibacterial properties for the implant. Silver ions can be either incorporated into the apatite during the co-precipitation process (AgHAP-CP) or subjected to the ion exchange with calcium ions in apatite (AgHAP-IE). The incorporation of silver ions into apatite is based on the equation [51]:
where
The absorption of cadmium cations in apatites is relevant both from the medical standpoint of cadmium uptake by human bones, as well as since cadmium migration in nature involves the absorption and desorption equilibria with natural minerals, including apatites. Cadmium has a slight preference for Ca(I) site in fluorapatite and for Ca(II) site in hydroxyapatite [7],[52]. The interactions between these two ions (Cd and Ca) during absorption and ionic change processes in apatites present therefore considerable practical and theoretical interest. Cadmium is also a frequent heavy toxic pollutant element in water [7].
\nCalculated energy differences (
where
\nBadraoui et al [53] reported that the maximum amount of cadmium substitution for strontium in the system Sr10−xCdx(PO4)6Z2 (Z = OH and F) accounts for about 40 at% in HAP and for 60 at% in FAP. The increase of cadmium content induces stronger decrease of the c-axis with respect to the a-axis. The structure refinements evidence found a statistical distribution of Cd atoms in Sr10−xCdx(PO4)6(OH)2 and a light preference for M(1) site in Sr10−xCdx(PO4)6(F)2. The stability of the system M10−xM’x(PO4)6Z2 (M and M’ = Ca, Pb, Cd, Sr and Z = OH and F) is strongly affected by the polarizability. As a matter of fact, complete miscibility is possible even when the cations exhibit great size differences, provided they are not both soft acids. Otherwise, the presence of two cations with quite different radii and relevant polarizabilities induces important distortions of the apatite unit cell and PO4 tetrahedra and consequently limits the possibility of mutual substitution.
\nPentavalent arsenic, vanadium and chromium substitution can completely replace phosphorus in calcium, strontium and barium fluor- and chlorapatites. Calcium fluor-vanadate, -arsenate and -chromate structures were distorted compared to normal hexagonal apatite. Manganese completely replaced phosphorus only in barium apatites, while chromium and manganese could not be incorporated into lead apatites. Excluding these exceptions, continuous solid solutions were formed between the phosphate and/or vanadate and the chromate or manganese analogues for given divalent and halide ions [54]. The substitution of CO32− ions at X- (carbonate-apatite of A-type) and Z-site (carbonate-apatite of B-type) was already described in
The arsenate (As5+) substitution in the hydroxylapatite structure was examined by Lee et al [55]. The investigation with samples of hydroxylapatite, the As5+-substituted analogue (synthetic analogue of mineral johnbaumite, Vegard’s law, first pronounced in 1921, states that the lattice parameter of a solid solution of two phases with similar structures is a linear function of lattice parameters of the two end-members [57].
Complete PO43− ↔ AsO43− substitution was also recognized in experimental studies of apatite analogues, such as in the system Sr5(PO4)3OH-Sr5(AsO4)3OH [58]. The Rietveld refinement of Sr5(AsO4)3Cl (pentastrontium tris[arsenate(V)] chloride, 890.31 g·mol−1) from high-resolution synchrotron data was performed by Bell et al [59]. The hexagonal compound crystallizes in the same structure (Fig. 8) as other halogenoapatites in the space group P63/m with the cell parameters:
The structure of Sr5(AsO4)3Cl apatite (perspective view along the c-axis).
The synthesis of synthetic alkaline-earth vanadate hydroxylapatites from hydroxide fluxes was performed by Mugavero et al [60]. The hexagonal Sr5(VO4)3OH apatite (pentastrontium tris[vanadate(V)] hydroxide, Fig. 9(a)) possesses the P63/m space group with the cell parameters:
The structure of Sr5(VO4)3OH (a) and Ba5(VO4)3OH (b) apatite viewed along the c-axis.
The compounds (solid solution) of the composition of Pb5(PxV1−xO4)3Cl (0 ≤
Fragment of Pb5(VO4)3Cl crystal structure [
The variations of unit cell parameters as a function of composition respect Vegard’s law. These compounds are structurally built of discrete phosphate or vanadate tetrahedra linked to one another by lead polyhedra, which form joint layers (Fig. 10). Apatite-type structures offer typically two crystallographic positions for cations differing in the coordination number and local symmetry. Lead atoms occupying the first positions form polyhedra shaped as three-capped trigonal prisms of PbO9 having the symmetry C3, the columns of which run along the threefold axis. Distorted two-capped trigonal prisms of PbO6Cl2 residing in the second positions have local symmetry С1.
\nThe syntheses of chromium (Cr(V) [62]) analogues of apatite were described in literature including the following compounds [63],[64],[65],[66],[67],[67],[69],[70],[71],[72]:
Ca5(CrO4)3OH, which is isomorphous to hydroxyapatite (
Sr5(CrO4)3OH with predicted lattice constants
Ba5(CrO4)3OH.
Ca5(CrO4)3F with predicted lattice constants
Ca5(CrO4)3Cl with predicted lattice constants
Sr5(CrO4)3F with predicted lattice constants
Sr5(CrO4)3Cl with lattice constant
Sr5(CrO4)3Br with predicted lattice constants
These compounds are in general prepared by the ignition of mixture of alkaline-earth carbonates, hydroxides or oxides with Cr2O3 in the presence of water vapor. Ca3(CrO4)2 compound (orthochromate), which is isomorphous with Ca3(PO4)2, is formed as an intermediate by carrying out the synthesis in dry atmosphere; this compound is often identified as 9CaO·4CrO3·Cr2O3 [63],[73],[74],[75].
\nTheoretical compositions and formula weights of chromium apatite analogues are given in Table 5.
\nCompound | \nComposition [wt.%] | \nM | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | \nCr | \nO | \nZ | \nH | \n[g.mol−1] | \n|
Ca5(CrO4)3OH | \n35.44 | \n27.59 | \n36.79 | \n— | \n0.18 | \n565.39 | \n
Sr5(CrO4)3OH | \n54.55 | \n19.42 | \n25.90 | \n— | \n0.13 | \n803.09 | \n
Ba5(CrO4)3OH | \n65.29 | \n14.83 | \n19.78 | \n— | \n0.10 | \n1051.64 | \n
Ca5(CrO4)3F | \n35.32 | \n27.49 | \n33.84 | \n3.35 | \n— | \n567.38 | \n
Ca5(CrO4)3Cl | \n34.33 | \n26.72 | \n32.88 | \n6.07 | \n— | \n583.33 | \n
Sr5(CrO4)3F | \n54.42 | \n19.37 | \n23.85 | \n2.36 | \n— | \n805.08 | \n
Sr5(CrO4)3Cl | \n53.33 | \n18.99 | \n23.37 | \n4.31 | \n— | \n821.53 | \n
Sr5(CrO4)3Br | \n50.59 | \n18.01 | \n22.17 | \n9.23 | \n— | \n865.98 | \n
Theoretical compositions of chromium apatite analogues (M(CrO3)4Z).
Sr10(CrO4)6F2 possesses typical hexagonal structure of apatite with the space group P63/m, which was refined using the powder neutron diffraction (Fig. 11) for the first time by Baikie et al [71]. As other chromium analogues of apatite, the material contains chromium in +5 (pentavalent) oxidation state. The material shows the paramagnetic behavior.
\nStructural representation of Sr10(CrO4)6F2 apatite with SrO6 octahedra and CrO4 tetrahedra: larger and smaller spheres mark F and O atoms, respectively. The unit cell is indicated by black lines [
The crystal structure (Fig. 12) and the magnetic properties of strontium chromate phase (Sr5(CrO4)3(Cu0.586O)) with apatite-like structure were determined by Tyutyunnik and Bazuev [76]. The sample was prepared by solid-state synthesis via the thermal treatment of the mixture of stoichiometric amount of SrCO3, Cr2O3 and CuO at the temperature of 1200°C in air for 36 h.
\nCrystal structure of Sr5(CrO4)3(Cu0.586O): (a) projection along the c-axis and (b) side view showing the infinite [CuO]− chains and the coordination polyhedra of Cr and Sr atoms [
This phase crystallizes in the space group P63/m with hexagonal unit cell parameters:
Selenium oxyanion-substituted hydroxyapatite (SeHAP) was synthesized as a promising material for the treatment of bone cancer to reduce the probability of recurrence, because selenium plays an important role in protein functions and it has significant effect on the induction of cancer cell apoptosis [77]. Another study indicated that selenite (SeO42−) or selenite (SeO32−) oxyanions exert their cancer chemopreventive effects by direct oxidation of critical thiol-containing cellular substrates and that they are more efficacious anticarcinogenic agents than selenomethionine or selenomethylselenocysteine with a lack of oxidation capability [3],[78].
\nSelenium was incorporated into the hydroxyapatite lattice by replacing some of the phosphate groups with selenite groups. SeO42− (selenate) ion has tetrahedral structure like PO43− ion (Fig. 5 and Table 4 in
The SeHAP crystal lattice parameters increased slightly as the Se concentration increased when the Se/P ratios were less than 0.5 [80]. All samples prepared via the precipitation method from aqueous solution by Kolmas et al [79] contained significant amount of carbonates, especially of B-type. Thus, for these samples, the formula Ca10−x(PO4)6−x(SeOn)x(OH)2−x (Eq. 23) should be written as Ca10−x−y(PO4)6−x−y(SeOn)x(CO3)y(OH)2−x−y. Hydroxyapatites containing selenate ions are non-toxic, whereas hydroxyapatite with the highest concentration of selenites is toxic.
\nNitrogen was incorporated into hydroxyapatite by dry ammonia treatments at temperatures between 900 and 1200°C in the presence of graphite. The process of synthesis of cyanamidapatite (Ca10(PO4)6CN2, Ca10(PO4)6NCN) can be described by the following chemical equations [13]:
Ammonia reacts with graphite during the thermal treatment forming [CN2]2− ions (Eq. 24). These cyanamide ions interchange with moveable OH− ions situated on the sixfold screw axis of apatite to form cyanamidapatite (Eq. 25). A similar reaction is known for the synthesis of calcium cyamide from calcium oxide:
The treatments at temperatures above 1200°C or long-term treatments destroy the apatite lattice completely through the phosphate reduction. Cyanimide ions lose their sites in the apatite lattice and the nitrogen content decreases [13]. The synthesis of Ca10(PO4)6CN2 apatite provides the evidence that the hydroxylapatite structure is able to incorporate larger organic molecules [81].
\nDirect transformation of TCP (Ca3(PO4)2) into cyanamidapatite according to the reaction:
was also proposed by Habelitz et al [82].
\nAlthough “oxygenated” apatites were not much investigated compared to other substituted apatites, some past studies have, however, reported the possibility of apatitic channels to incorporate oxygenated species such as H2O2 or O2 or molecular ions including O22− (the peroxide ion) and superoxide O2−. They are single-phase nanocrystalline apatites, where part of apatitic OH− ions are replaced by oxygenated species. Typically by peroxide ions (quantified) and at least the traces of superoxide ions can be prepared by the precipitation from aqueous calcium and phosphate solutions in the presence of H2O2 under medium room temperature [83],[84].
\nThe local structure of hydroxyl-peroxy apatite was described by Yu et al [85]. Hydroxyl-peroxy apatite contains a small amount of partially dehydroxylated hydroxyapatite phase and calcium hydroxide. The incorporation of peroxide ions into the lattice of HAP causes the perturbations of hydrogen environments and slight changes in its crystal morphology. The distance between H in some structural OH- and adjacent O along the c-axis becomes longer instead of forming the hydrogen bond after the incorporation of peroxide ions.
\nAccording to the concentration of peroxide ions in hydroxyl-peroxy apatite and the theoretical value, the corresponding formula for the hydroxyl-peroxy apatite is proposed as follows [85]: Ca10(PO4)6(OH)1.34−2x(O2)0.33(O)x□0.33+x.
Possible configuration of hydroxyl ions, peroxide or oxide ions and vacancies in the channel along the crystallographic c-axis in hydroxyl-peroxy apatite. O, H atoms and vacancies are presented by large gray circles, small open circles and gray squares, respectively. Filled small circles represent H atoms perturbed by the incorporation of peroxide ions [
A scheme of possible configurations of hydroxyl ions, peroxide or oxide ions and vacancies in the channel along the crystallographic c-axis in hydroxyl-peroxy apatite is illustrated in Fig. 13. Peroxide ions incorporated into HAP are located in the channel of apatite structure through the substitution of a portion of OH− radicals, and the material is a solid solution of hydroxyl- and peroxide apatite.
\n\nZhao et al [86] reported that a new hydrogen bond was formed between peroxide ions and adjacent OH− radicals in hydroxyl-peroxy apatite. According to the literature [430,446], the formation of hydrogen bond would induce a downfield shift of corresponding proton resonance. Some authors reported a linear correlation of the isotopic proton chemical shift with the O-H…O distance, which was a measure of the hydrogen bond strength. Zhao et al [86] suggested the following mechanism for the incorporation of O22−:
where [] was the vacancy. O2− ion was active and could react with O2 to produce O22−.
Peroxide ions associated with the vacancies were situated placed in the channel of HA lattice along the c-axis through the substitution of a portion of OH radicals. The molecular ions constituted a symmetric vibrator with a stretching vibration active in Raman spectrometry. This vibration was recorded at 750 cm−1 in the Raman spectra of O22−-containing HA samples. The final product was a solid solution of hydroxyl- and peroxide-apatite. However, the existence of peroxide ions in the HA lattice caused the contraction of the unit-cell dimensions of HA materials. In addition, a new hydrogen bond was formed between peroxide ions and adjacent OH radicals, which was determined by using molecular spectroscopy analysis. During annealing treatment in air, peroxide ions decomposed and the substituted OH radicals re-entered the HA lattice, resulting in the elimination of the structural aberrations caused by the incorporation of peroxide ions. The concentration of peroxide ions present in HA samples was measured by chemical analysis [86].
\nThe synthesis and the structure of four new chalcogenide The elements from the chalcogenide group (or oxygen group family) belonging to Group 16 (VI A) of the periodic table: O, S, Se, Te and Po. Elements sulfur, selenium and tellurium are also termed as the elements from the sulfur subgroup [87].
Ca10(PO4)6S:
Sr10(PO4)6S:
Ba10(PO4)6S:
Ca10(PO4)6Se:
were reported by Henning et al [88].
\nThe structure of Ca(PO4)6S (a), Sr(PO4)6S (b), Ba(PO4)6S (c) and Ca(PO4)6Se (d) viewed along the c-axis.
These four apatites are isostructural and crystallize in the trigonal space group P3 over bar with the chalcogenide ion positioned at (001/2). Sulfoapatites show no ability to absorb H2S in the way that oxyapatite absorbs H2O at elevated temperatures. This can be attributed to the position of sulfide ion and the way it influences the crystal structure around vacant chalcogenide position at (000) [88].
\nStrontium borate-phosphate Sr10(PO4)5.5(BO4)0.5(BO2) See also
The strontium sites are found to be fully occupied, while [PO4]3ˉ tetrahedra are partially replaced by [BO4]5ˉ groups. The crystal structure contains Sr cations occupying the 6
Crystal structure of Sr10(PO4)5.5(BO4)0.5(BO2): projection along [001] showing the hexagonally shaped channels formed by Sr(1) around the threefold inversion axis (Z = (P0.95B0.05) (a) and side view emphasizing the linear [BO2]− groups and the corresponding trigonal antiprisma formed by Sr(1) (b) [
Crystalline solid solutions For the purposes of nomenclature, a complete solid-solution series without structural order of ions defining the end-members is arbitrarily divided at 50 mol.% (“50% rule”) to two portions with different names. Analogously, the 50% rule applied to members of ternary solid-solution series implies that the mineral names should be given only to the three end-members. Each name should be applied to the compositional range from the end-member to the nearest right bisector of the sides of the composition triangle. For example, the apatite series Ca5(PO4)3(F,OH,Cl) is represented by three compositional fields of fluorapatite (A), hydroxylapatite (B) and chlorapatite (C) [92].\n\n
\n\n
\n
The solid solution in hexagonal ternary apatite is achieved by a 0.4 Å shift along the c-axis of Cl atom relating to its position in end-member chlorapatite. This adjustment affects the Markovian sequence Statistical model where a random sequence (a) \n is referred to as the Markovian sequence or the Markovian chain.
Reduction of symmetry in monoclinic ternary apatite results from the ordering of Cl and OH within the anion columns. The atomic positions of Cl and OH in the anion column are equivalent to those in hexagonal ternary apatite, but each is ordered into only one of the two hexagonal symmetry-equivalent sites [93].
\nThe apatite supergroup minerals of the solid solution [95]:
where The name is also often used for synthetic phase of the same composition (dicalcium silicate, Ca2SiO4, C2S), which is the main component of belite in Portland cement [99],[100],[101]. Since sanidinite facies are formed under conditions of intensive contact metamorphosis at high temperatures and low pressure, volatiles such as carbon dioxide and water are removed from the rock. The components characteristic for the sanidinite facies are sanidine (feldspar, KAlSi3O8 [109]), corundum (oxide, Al2O3 [110]), cordierite (cyclosilicate, Mg2Al4Si5O18 [111]), sillimanite (nesosilicate, Al2OSiO4 [112]) and glass formed as the product of partial fusion.
The minerals of the apatite supergroup often form elongated cracked hexagonal or pseudo-hexagonal crystals up to 250 μm in size as well as grain aggregates. A new solid-solution series was found between ellestadite and svabite-johnbaumite (±apatite) with the ellestadite type isomorphic substitution according the following scheme [95]:
where The abbreviation for per formula unit (pfu), see also
Svabite:
Ca5[(AsO4)2.01(PO4)0.33(SiO4)0.33(SO4)0.33]3[F0.58(OH)0.30Cl0.12]Ʃ1;
As-bearing fluorapatite:
Ca5[(PO4)1.56(AsO4)1.06(SiO4)0.19(SO4)0.19]3[F0.59(OH)0.35Cl0.06]Ʃ1;
As-bearing hydroxylellestadite:
Ca5[(SiO4)1.25(SO4)1.25(AsO4)0.43(PO4)0.07]3[(OH)0.70Cl0.20F0.10]Ʃ1;
Si, S-bearing hydroxylapatite:
Ca5[(PO4)0.95(SO4)0.93(SiO4)0.93(AsO4)0.19]3[(OH)0.67Cl0.18F0.15]Ʃ1;
Hydroxylellestadite:
Ca5[(SO4)1.49(SiO4)1.49(PO4)0.02]3[(OH)0.74F0.13Cl0.13]Ʃ1.
The crystals of As-bearing phases belonging to the investigated solid solution are heterogeneous and small in size. Therefore, X-ray single-crystal data were obtained for only Si, S, As-bearing hydroxylapatite (see the formula above): P63/m,
The hydrothermal synthesis of vanadate/phosphate hydroxyapatite solid solutions of the composition of Ca10(VO4)x(PO4)6−x(OH)2, where x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, was firstly reported by Onda et al [118]. The lattice parameters increased linearly with increasing content of vanadium according to Vegard’s law. The apatite crystals were precipitated in the form of column crystals with the length of about 40 – 100 nm and the width of about 25 – 40 nm. The sizes of the nanoparticle solid solutions increased with increasing vanadium content, whereas the morphology was independent of the vanadate/phosphate ratio. Calcium hydroxyapatites substituted with vanadate were also prepared by Sugiyama et al [119] and used as catalysts in oxidative dehydrogenation of propane. The catalytic activity The utilization of apatites as catalysts is described in
The crystal structure of 11 samples of synthetic Na-Ca-sulfate apatite systems of the composition of Na6.45Ca3.55(SO4)6(FxCl1−x)1.55, where
Lead apatites form a family of isomorphous compounds, and well-known members of the group are mimetite (Pb5(AsO4)3Cl,
A number of compounds of the mimetite Pb5(AsO4)3Cl-pyromorphite Pb5(PO4)3Cl solid-solution series were synthesized at room temperature by Bajda et al [121] and investigated with Raman and infrared spectroscopy. The peak positions of the dominant antisymmetric stretching (
Solid solutions of Pb8M2(XO4)6 lead alkali apatites were studied by Mayer et al [122]. The Pb8Na2−xKx(PO4)6, Pb8Na2−xKx(AsO4)6, Pb8Na2−xRbx(PO4)6 and Pb8K2−xRbx(PO4)6 compounds crystallize at all compositions in the P63/m hexagonal apatite structure and form true solid solutions.
\nSome other examples of apatite solid solutions are listed below [2]:
Ca2Y8(SiO4)6O2 – Ca8Y2(PO4)6O2;
Ca2La8(SiO4)6O2 – Ca8La2(PO4)6O2;
Ca2Y8(SiO4)6O2 –Y10(SiO4)4(BO4)2O2;
Mg2Y8(SiO4)6O2 – Y10(SiO4)4(BO4)2O2;
Pb4+\n3Pb2+\n5Y2(SiO4)6O2 – Pb2+\n2Y8(SiO4)6O2;
Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 – Ca4Y6(SiO4)6(OH)2;
M10(PO4)6F2 – M10(PO4)6F2 (M = Sr, Ba, Pb);
M10(PO4)6F2 – M10(MnO4)6F2 (M = Sr, Ba, Pb).
Since apatite is an important accessory mineral in most common rock types, it is often used in trace element and isotope investigations of igneous and metamorphic rocks [123]. Stable isotope compositions of biologically precipitated apatite in bone, teeth and scales are widely used to obtain the information on the diet, behavior and physiology of extinct organisms and to reconstruct past climate in terrestrial and marine conditions [124].
\nBroad spectrum of substitutions in the apatite lattice allows the incorporation of various isotopes, which offer a number of instruments for the interpretation of paleoenvironment and diagenesis. The relative stability of francolite compared to other sedimentary minerals led to an enormous number of studies and applications. Various isotopes occupy the Ca2+ and PO43− sites in the lattice of apatite (Fig. 16).
\nPossible isotopic substitutions in the structure of francolite [
Since the earliest application in deep-time study of Late Cretaceous paleotemperatures in 1950, the oxygen isotope paleothermometry is based on the temperature dependence of oxygen isotope fractionation between authigenic minerals The minerals of sedimentary rocks are subdivided into two main groups [126]: authigenic (formed on their present position) and allogenic (transported to its current position from elsewhere). Both groups will be further described in
Carbon, oxygen and sulfur isotopes are used to reconstruct the oxygenation stages of the sediments during organic matter degradation and precipitation of apatite. The application of this method gives good results for modern and Neogene deposits. In older occurrences, the signature of carbon and oxygen composition is commonly overprinted by diagenetic and burial diagenesis [125],[129]. The carbon isotope ratios of apatite can be used to interpret the source of carbon in magmas and metamorphic fluids using the assumption that the carbon isotope fractionations between phases are small in igneous and metamorphic systems [123].
\nThe carbon isotope analysis of bioapatites was first applied to terrestrial mammals in early 1980s [130],[131],[132]. While it is now known that some bones do undergo the C-isotope exchange extremely readily, collagen, bone and enamel record different periods of time during the life of a single individual, and the diet may change. That means, there is a fundamental ambiguity (preservation vs. normal intraindividual differences) in interpreting the isotopic differences among different tissues. Unfortunately, early results were taken to imply that all bioapatites are unreliable, and it was not until the 1990s that it became accepted that the tooth enamel, at least, is a robust recorder of diet. Thus, the early work of Lee-Thorp and van der Merwe [133],[134] was a struggle against the tide of misplaced opinions [129].
\nFossil biogenic apatites display the trace element compositions that can record environmental and biological signals, give insights into past water compositions or be used for dating paleontological and archeological bones and teeth. The mechanisms of the process of trace element and their isotopes incorporation into apatites of skeletal phosphatic tissues are described by Reynard and Balter [135]:
Partitioning between aqueous fluids and crystals;
Surface adsorption, complexation and chelation;
Diffusion processes.
Partitioning of divalent cations is defined by the chemical equilibrium expressing the divalent cation (Me2+) exchange between apatite and aqueous solutions [135]:
where (
where The Margules equation expresses the Gibbs free energy ( \n\n \n\n The Margules expressions for activity coefficients are based on the Lewis-Randall standard state (pure substance in the same phase and the same temperature and pressure as the mixture); therefore, they must obey the pure-component limit (\n \n\n
where
At low concentrations (XMe−apatite << 1) like those of trace elements in biogenic apatites, Eq. 32 is reduced to the relationships [135]:
where the term
For heterovalent substitutions, the equilibrium reaction becomes complex since complementary substitutions are necessary to maintain the charge balance in the crystal. Typically, the substitution of trivalent elements of important rare-earth series requires the compensation by Na+ for Ca2+ at an adjacent site or even more complex substitution scheme involving carbonate groups or fluorine. In that case, most thermodynamic data required for the calculation of the equilibrium constant are not available. Among the series of elements with the same charge and substitution scheme, the pattern of equilibrium constants, or of distribution coefficients, can be approximated by combining Eqs. 33 and 34 [135]:
where
The complexation of metal cations in aqueous fluids involves binding with a broad range of molecules from simple inorganic ones (e.g. carbonates, phosphates and sulfates) to complex organic ones (humic acids, amino acids, proteins, enzymes, etc.). For molecules with several bonding sites and structural flexibility (e.g. multidentate or chelator), the complexation is thermodynamically favored with respect to the complexation with several monodentates having one bonding site; the process is named chelation. Chelators can be adsorbed on mineral surfaces while remaining complexed to metallic cations. The pattern of the partition coefficients associated with this process was measured for rare-earth elements complexed with humic acids and manganese oxides. It shows null fractionation along the whole series; the effect of chelation is therefore to screen the trace element in the crystal or ligand field and to suppress the fractionation associated with ionic radius variations and tetrad effects, and most of the anomalies associated with redox of Ce [140]. Similar effects might occur for the adsorption of chelated metals on other mineral surfaces and in particular phosphates. In addition to chelators, the transition metals also form complexes with proteins and enzymes that interact with bones and teeth in living organisms and may influence their incorporation in bioapatite [135].
\nSolid-state diffusion in crystals is a thermally activated process governed by the enthalpy of formation and of migration of defects and usually well described by the Arrhenius relation [135]:
where
The differing initial and boundary conditions imposed in three sets of diffusion experiments:
Ion implantation;
In-diffusion with powder sources experiment;
Out-diffusion.
consequently resulting in different solutions to the diffusion equation. However, in all cases, the process can be described as one-dimensional, concentration-independent diffusion [141].
\nThe summary of data diffusion for cations and anions in apatite (a) [
A plot of diffusivities of various cations and anions in apatite is shown in Fig. 17(a). The diffusivities of Mn are similar to those of Sr and about an order of magnitude slower than those of Pb. On the other hand, the diffusion of Mn2+ in apatite is about two orders of magnitude faster than the diffusion of (trivalent) REE when coupled substitutions according to Eqs. 4 and 5 are involved [141],[142]. The diffusion coefficients of Nd and Sm in various minerals and related oxides are plotted in Fig. 17(b). The diffusion of REE in apatite is relatively fast; when only simple REE exchange is involved, it is among the fastest in rock-forming minerals for which the data exist. Even when the chemical diffusion involving coupled exchange is considered, REE transport in apatite is considerably faster than the REE diffusion in other accessory minerals [141].
\nSeeking and taking advantages of emerging entrepreneurial opportunities in a socio-economic environment that is saddled with volatility, shock, turbulence, munificence and disruption could be an arduous task for entrepreneurship to evolve, thrive, and grow the economy at a space and speed that are desirable for fast economic growth and development. The fact that entrepreneurship is both formal and informal makes such opportunity-seeking and advantage-taking to be diverse, complex and highly competitive.
Unarguably in the extant literature, entrepreneurship is considered an engine and a key driver of growth [1, 2]. However, this notion of entrepreneurship-driven growth is often downplayed in most of the developing economies [3], because the substantial part of their economies is largely informal [4]. This informality engenders entrepreneurship to be significantly influenced by the economic policies and institutional forces to the extent that emerging and localised innovative ideas and financing of such opportunities have become a critical interplay of the economic activities [5].
This paper aims at discussing gaps that were observed in the extant literature and empirical evidence relating to the entrepreneurial financing of the informal sector, and explores how the domain of accounting knowledge, specifically the management accounting field, could play a key role in advancing the frontier of informal entrepreneurship financing in the twenty-first century.
In this chapter, the key issues surrounding informal sector entrepreneurship are problematized while the emerging financial technology (FINTECH) and new outlets for funding existing and new business ventures, innovative products and technology are discussed alongside the potential impacts on informal entrepreneurship.
To navigate how the theoretical gaps could be closed, theoretical framework that demonstrates the linkages among different variables of the entrepreneurial phenomenon and charts the pathways to which the suggested contributions mitigate the financing bottlenecks of the informal entrepreneurship is conceptualised.
In conclusion, this paper has implications on accounting research both theoretically and in practice. First, it highlights core areas of management accounting that are relevant to the knowledge exposure of the entrepreneurial financing where fragmentation of theory and pragmatism have tended to limit the impacts of academic research on practitioners and impedes clarity of communication between theory and practice [6].
Second, where accounting profession can be more appreciated and be seen as co-pilots that drive standardisation and innovativeness of information management and tools that are relevant to entrepreneurial ventures in the informal sector, particularly in the developing or emerging economies.
The informal sector of an economy depicts a channel through which unregulated but organised business endeavours take place among different stakeholders, particularly the people at the bottom of the pyramid in an environment that is characterised by poverty and inequality. The business activities within the sector are mostly transacted outside the boundary of government regulations but firmly reside within the confines of informal structures that are encapsulated in culture, norms, convention and rules [7].
The understanding of informal entrepreneurship is ambiguous and has diverse conceptualisation in the literature. This is because the insight into informality as an economic unit, varies across scholars [8]. While some scholars see informality in the sense of legality, which denotes those informal businesses are compulsorily brought into being as a result of rigid and strict regulations, others see it under the lens of structuralists, as a “safe-haven” for those who could not find jobs in a formal structure of the economy.
Informality is also perceived under the purview of voluntarists as a “necessity-driven” avenue for seeking entrepreneurial opportunities when there is no hope in the formal sector. By whatever way we perceive the informality phenomenon, there is evidence that the informal entrepreneurship sector contributes positively to the growth and wealth of the economy, although in some cases, it also dilutes economic growth [4, 9].
Scholars continue to debate the extent to which numerous firms and individual actors in the informal economic environment impact growth of the economy, despite having a larger population of the economy engaged in trading, street vendors, public markets, subsistence farming and self-employment among other informal economic activities [9]. In this paper, informal entrepreneurship is viewed under the lens of opportunity discovery and innovativeness dimensions of entrepreneurial orientation.
An entrepreneurial opportunity was succinctly put as “situations
The dimension of innovativeness, on the other hand, is characterised by a new product, new technology, new channel and new market that are unique and create differentiation advantage over the existing products, channels or markets [11].
Considering that there is a linkage between formal and informal entrepreneurship, it is apparent that such interconnectedness is an avenue for informal entrepreneurs to discover entrepreneurial opportunities to create new products, services or technologies. Moreover, the limitation of opportunities in the formal sector arising from over-regulation or excessive legal constraints can also become a source for entrepreneurial opportunities for the informal sector to explore and exploit [11].
Similarly, when a section of formal sector products or services is transitioned or outsourced to informal markets, this could inspire an entrepreneurial opportunity for informal entrepreneurs to exploit. However, it is argued that, rather than gaining from collaborative and mutual benefits of the formal-informal sector linkage, the informal sector is cannibalised by the formal sector which preys on the innovativeness of informality through free-riding and risk-shifting. Hence, the frugality of innovation tending towards a reconfiguration of informal sector opportunities and innovativeness to further the growth of the formal sector [12].
Notwithstanding the above, the question as to whether informality helps entrepreneurs to achieve firm growth still lingers, and if it does, how does the firm growth translate to economic growth? The main issue is that the informal sector has been seen in the shadow of the formal sector because of its lower productivity, less technology-driven, poor access to qualified or competent human capital, poor access to financial credit and out of formal institutional coverage [4, 13]. With these characteristics, the informal sector in the developing countries has not been growing in tandem with the growth of the overall economy. It rather shrinks and gives ways to further development of the formal sector.
This position is supported by IMF Regional Economic Outlook (REO, 2017) which suggests that the productivity levels of informal firms are strictly lower than that of formal firms based on the real output per worker (
In contrast to the widely held notion of the lower economic performance of informal sectors, some scholars have argued that informality did contribute positively to economic growth and has become a destination for the development of a country rather than continues as a journey. For instance, there was a finding that a strong positive correlation exists between informality and firm growth, and the probability of informal entrepreneurs achieving their set objectives is higher than the formal entrepreneurs achieving theirs [14].
The other positive areas of informality to economic growth in developing nations can be traced to trade and self-employment. Trade liberalisation has the consequence of spillovers of workers from the formal sector to the informal sector as a result of the drop in demand and supply of goods and services. This unabsorbed labour may then take a new opportunity or be self-employed [15, 16]. This situation plays crucial roles in the reallocation of resources to the informal sector, thus reducing apparent unemployment in the economy. Given the above, it can be concluded that informality has some positive correlations to the growth of the economy, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa which has the largest settlement of informal economic activities in the world.
To illustrate this with data, IMF Regional Economic Outlook shows that the informal economy in sub-Saharan Africa contributed between 25% and 65% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the region. The regional informality also accounts for 30–90% of the total employment in the non-agricultural sector, while the unweighted average share of the informal sector as a percentage of GDP between 2010 and 2014 was 38%, despite that informality is shrinking both in the region and globally [17].
The regulatory environment, economic policies and informal institutional forces of norms, conventions, etc., have significant influences on the choice, prevalence and performance of both informal and formal entrepreneurship. An empirical finding reveals that a unit (standard-deviation) increase in the quality of political and economic institutional roles could halve the rates of informal entrepreneurship, but double the rates of formal entrepreneurship [18].
This means that the degree to which the informal sector is impacted by the vagaries of government regulations and policies is much more than that of the formal sector. It is these economic and political-institutional forces that confer advantages of legitimacy to firms in the formal sector which in turns skew the allocation of entrepreneurial efforts and resources towards formality. This is understandable since informal firms and individual actors within the sector operate outside the confines of formal business laws, rules and property rights protection. The caveat is that some of these formal legitimacies carry the implications of disincentives to capital accumulation and investment in the informal sector.
However, informal firms leverage on the social legitimacy confers on them by their stakeholders including government authority. Social legitimacy is governed by norms, values, conventions and beliefs that are prevalent in the environment and make informal firms and individual actors within the environment to be legitimate in dealings with their customers, suppliers and other stakeholders [7, 14].
In most developing nations, the drives and quests for revenue mobilisation have made some relevant government authorities extend the hand of regulation to the informal sector in some spheres of informal trade activities. For instance, in Nigeria, state and local government have mandates of local taxes, operational licences, environmental pollution controls for organised informal markets, which are enforced through umbrella associations and leaders of the market communities.
Regardless of the issue of legitimacy and regulation, what matters most in the institutional framework of the informal sector is the interconnectedness of formal and informal entrepreneurship, and how well or otherwise does the regulatory and policy environment support or impede the progress of informality in terms of opportunity discovery and innovativeness. First, the quality and efficiency of government regulations and policy, determine the choice, size and prevalence of formal or informal entrepreneurship.
Most important are the tax regimes, credit policies and property rights protection. Many undifferentiated government policies and actions between the two sectors in form of taxes, revenue mobilisation, environmental pollution, financial credits, property rights and labour laws are hostile to informal entrepreneurial firms and are gradually used to exiting them from the economy, although informal firms also define structural and political clout of the economy.
Second, the perception of ‘all-inclusive’ or ‘frugal’ innovation in the linkage between formal and informal economies, particularly in developing countries has been argued by some scholars that rather than promoting and rewarding informal entrepreneurs for their innovative and collaborative endeavours, the relationship of formal and informal firms tends to suppress and cannibalise the informal sector for the profit motives and institutional gains of the formal sector. Meaning that firms in the formal sector simply take the existing routine innovation in the informal markets and scale it up, thus formalising what is already informal through free riding, by-passing and risk-shifting [12].
Third, the institutional linkage that binds informal and formal entrepreneurship also implies information asymmetry and networking. Informal firms leverage occupational and social networking when seeking an opportunity for innovative ideas, new products, technology advancement, and when regulating the behaviours of the individual actors within the sector [19]. On the other hand, formal firms substantially rely on changes in laws, regulations, policies and a few open-channel information to guide their legitimate economic activities. The resulting information asymmetry and superior social networking on the part of informal firms often create unfair competition for the firms operating in the same market.
Lastly, contentious issues of product counterfeiting and passing-off on the part of informal entrepreneurs tend to further the illegitimacy concerns of the informal sector. However, in some cases, counterfeit products are socially acceptable in the informal market as a result of exorbitant prices on similar products, or simply to fill the gaps in the market [7]. Nonetheless, in the institutional relationship between the two sectors, criminal and illegitimate activities of some of the informal firms should be viewed separately within the linkage and do not make informality illegal in the entire economy.
The traditional roles of financial intermediary in nurturing and promoting new business creation and innovation are fast changing in the modern entrepreneurial economy. Consequent to this changing dynamic is that venture capitalist, angel investor, commercial and investment banking are confronted with globalisation and technological disruption. Similar to this situation is the increasing trend of local venture capitalist and entrepreneurship philanthropist as a modern-day angel investor who is financially promoting local business ideas through their foundation platforms. Hence, the need for greater focus on the evolving roles of financial intermediaries and their linkage to the financial and ownership structure of the entrepreneurs, as major determinants for innovation and firm growth [20].
It is, therefore, no gainsaying that emerging entrepreneurs from either formal or informal sector are becoming viable sources for new business and job creation, new product and technology that will lead to productivity growth. However, the major constraint in fostering these economic growth-enhancing activities is the difficulty in accessing appropriate financial resources for innovative endeavours.
The focal area in this paper centres on the sourcing and process of financing informal sector entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation, since the actors in this sector are largely unregulated within the ambit of formal sector financial institutions. Their ownership and financial structure are also non-conforming with the formal contractual obligations and property rights framework. These then pose some questions regarding; (i) the ideal financial outlets to raise funds for innovative products, services and technology, (ii) effectiveness of financial intermediation to support informal firms within the financial industry to raise funds critical to financing a new business, products, and (iii) the conditionalities for accessing funds in terms of financial and ownership structure.
These questions and more, deserve scholastic attention to expand the frontier of informal sector financing [21]. Nevertheless, there has been some coverage of this issue in the literature, albeit not specific to informal entrepreneurship [22, 23].
The process of raising funds by informal entrepreneurs to finance novel ideas, create new business, new product, innovate or renovate technology and process, has not only been complex but also difficult. Stemming from inadequate or lack of internal cash flows and prominently, lack of adequate collaterals, asymmetric information, agency problems, most of the entrepreneurial projects in the informal entrepreneurship sector usually die on arrival.
Notwithstanding, informal entrepreneurs have the privilege of accessing financial resources from traditional channels either internally or externally. Internal traditional sources such as accumulated savings, retained reserves, business assistance or inheritance from families, and loans from friends. On the external traditional sources, bank loans, microfinancing, and cooperative loans are options. In most cases, internalised funding options are unarguably inadequate for funding serious innovation, hence there are needs for alternative sources [24, 25].
In recent times, new channels and platforms of entrepreneurial financing have emerged. These new avenues are necessitated by the inadequacy of supply side market for funding entrepreneurship, and are expected to mitigate funding barriers and fill the gaps of the dwindling financial intermediation [21].
The shortcomings of informal borrowing and bank lending to the entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation, have culminated in investors turning to angel investor network and venture capital for equity capital contributions. However, due to some limitations leading to adverse selection and credit rationing, new channels of entrepreneurial financing such as crowdfunding, accelerator and incubators, specialised seed funding and government venture funding have emerged in the financial industry [21, 25, 26, 27].
Angel investors are rich individuals who take interest to fund innovation projects with their personal wealth and expertise. They usually focus on the start-up and early-stage innovation and remain passive in the entrepreneurship structure. This source of fund is seen as a second call, when bank loans and other traditional financing fail. On the other hand, venture capital is an intermediated source of capital that is raised from set of limited investors for an early-stage or seed phase innovation projects of young entrepreneurs. It is equity finance capital with the objective of earning returns on the investment for the investors. Venture capitalists are active in the in the entrepreneurial innovation to add value, but with temporary ownership structure.
As a result of funding gaps that continue to exist regardless of robust angel investor and venture capital financing, crowdfunding platform has emerged as a big disruptor in the venture financing market. Crowdfunding allows for direct on-line mobilisation of funds for entrepreneurial and innovation projects, particularly the ones at the early-stage, from clusters of small investors (equity crowdfunding) or from group of potential consumers of the project (reward-based crowdfunding). This channel is a disintermediated finance source of small investors with no standard financial intermediaries. What makes crowdfunding successful are strong network of personal investors, underlying quality of the entrepreneurial projects and geography of the entrepreneurship [28].
There are also accelerators and incubators funding channels which focus on gathering network and mentors for the entrepreneurship innovation. These channels are cohort-based funding supports that also provide financing in exchange for equity [25]. Although, the aforementioned financing options are induced by supply-push factors, however, with some shortcomings in the financial industry, government intervention in funding entrepreneurship innovation has become a response to a demand-pull factor of technology transfer [27]. Some countries are coming out to support new business creation, innovation and corporate venturing by direct intervention of venture funding through relevant agencies, while others are supporting the financial industry with tax and other public investment policies to mitigate prevalent bottlenecks between the investors and the entrepreneurs.
Conversely, the challenge is how the informal sector could explore these new alternative sources of funds to support its emerging inventions, innovations, and other entrepreneurial opportunity discovery in the sector. The issue of legitimacy, informal ownership and financial structure do not position informal entrepreneurship appropriately to benefit from venture capitalist. However, crowdfunding and angel investor network can be of immense benefits to the potential entrepreneurs in the informal sector.
In the extant literature of entrepreneurial financing, no significant work has yet been done on the peculiarity of informal sector entrepreneurship funding. This apparent gap could be attributed to the afore-mentioned agency problems of information asymmetry and moral hazard, lack of formal financial contract agreement, ambiguous ownership and financial structure, and the issue of legitimacy. It follows that the informal sector entrepreneurship has long been stigmatised with these problems. However, the terrain of financing entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation is not so different for formal and informal entrepreneurs, particularly for new business creation, opaque firms, and young entrepreneurship. Therefore, the streams of funds emanating from the traditional bank loans and trade credits, informal loan from friends and families, coupled with the emergence of alternative sources such as angel investor network, venture capital, crowdfunding, accelerator financing and specialised venture capital, can no longer be overemphasised in the emerging financial markets and technologies [21, 26].
In this regard, scholars are expected to position the phenomenon of entrepreneurial financing in the literature as an important link between entrepreneurial opportunity and economic growth of which the informal sector is paramount. Unfortunately, the literature of finance, strategic management and accounting are yet to fully extend the informality perspective into the theory of finance. Hence, the necessity to integrate into the theory of financing, those gaps associated with the informal entrepreneurship sector in order to bridge the theoretical laxity.
First and foremost, the issue of information asymmetry as a principal-agent problem between two related parties has largely been stressed in some literature [29, 30, 31, 32]. However, little has been done to extend this notion of agency theory to the relationship between entrepreneurial firms and potential investors [21], particularly in the area of informal entrepreneurship-investor nexus. This issue which is profound in the informal market suggests that the entrepreneurs are likely to hold or hide vital information from the knowledge of potential investors when seeking for external funds [33]. This attitude is usually as a result of fear that competitors or rivals might take undue advantages of the innovative ideas or products, hence the reluctance of the entrepreneurs to divulge the core information of such innovation to the potential investors [34].
Aside the withholding or divulging of vital information by the entrepreneurs, the other dark side of informational asymmetry that create gaps in the financing of informal entrepreneurial opportunities is the failure to provide good track of business records and the commitment to business acumen and demonstration of credit worthiness. In this situation, the cost of screening or ascertaining credible information on the history of business endeavours in the informal sector which is considered opaque by investors, is usually prohibitive [24]. Moreover, the opacity of the informal firms dictates the financing strategy and tactics that may be employed by the potential investors [25]. This is because some of the new and young firms, particularly the informal ones have no track records, either with suppliers, customers, lending institutions and other stakeholders.
The second agency related issue that contributes to the financing gap of informal entrepreneurship is the moral hazard conflict. In this instance, informal entrepreneurs might misallocate funds raised from investors and utilise same for their benefits rather than for mutual benefits which was the original purpose of financing [23]. In the extant literature, moral hazard is simply referred to as ‘shirking’ of responsibility by an agent in a principal-agent relationship [32], meaning that the agent has not effectively render his efforts as agreed in the relationship. It has also been argued that moral hazard conflict stems from the fact that investors often lack the ability to fully incentivise the information asymmetries of the entrepreneurs [35]. For instance, dispersed investors like crowdfunding providers or angel investor network might not have the capacity to monitor or coordinate the activities of the investors to identify manifestations of moral hazard. Thus, goal-congruence is lacking between the potential investor and informal entrepreneurs where the entrepreneurs may disregard the interests of the potential investors [21].
Although, assumptions of self-interest, bounded rationality, risk aversion and information asymmetry play key roles as precursors to agency problems in the relationship between the agent and his principal, the fact that the two parties have different and divergent interests often leads to goal incongruency and once this issue manifests, necessary governance mechanisms and incentives need to be put in place to mitigate the problems [36].
The other fundamental issues facing the informal entrepreneurship sector in raising adequate funding is the lack of formalised financial contract agreement and the high probability of enforcement failure. Contractual relationship between the informal entrepreneurs and potential investors are substantially informal and relational, meaning that the variability by the third party such as court or arbitration, is absent, often lacks rigours, ambiguous, and such contract agreement suffers from incompleteness or holding-up which could result in ‘arm-twisting’ between the entrepreneurs and the investors [20, 37, 38].
Although, many informal firms and individual actors are organised to some extent, as some of them belong to umbrella associations or recognised professions, nonetheless, the financial contract existing in this environment is largely relational and as such, does not guarantee establishing an appropriate financial contract and agreement within the sector. Moreover, the transactional costs and enforcement are prominent issues surrounding informal contracts. It is costly to establish and enforce informal contract agreements because of the failure to provide adequate and convincing evidences of the breach of contract before the courts or arbitration [37].
In most of the literature on entrepreneurial financing and particularly, the financial contracting between investors and entrepreneurs, the issues that stand out are, the finding of equilibrium in the shared risks among the contracting parties, incentives to mitigate incongruency at the early stage of entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation, and enforcement of financial contractual agreement. Therefore, the quest for investors’ robustness on financing decisions, either in the anticipation or against the potential information asymmetry, inexperience or moral hazard conflict of the entrepreneurs has become very important element in the financial contract agreement and transactional costs for informal entrepreneurial opportunities [39].
Most importantly is the enforcement of the contractual agreement. The dichotomy between weak and strong enforcement is significant in determining the default rate of entrepreneurial finance made available by investors. Thus, the supply of funds by investors and the ability to repay by the entrepreneurs are determinants to the enforcement resources available to the investors [40].
Similarly, the nature of ownership structure of most informal firms is either family-oriented or sole actors which do not necessarily have formal organisational structure, standardised financial bookkeeping and financial disclosure, robust financial planning and controls. The absence of these structures can lead to ‘cognitive bias’ in making financing decisions from both the entrepreneurs and the investors [26]. To illustrate, informal entrepreneurs depend much more on cognitive bias to appeal to investors to fund their entrepreneurial opportunities, regardless of their structure, the amount and accuracy of information they disclose.
In fact, the cognitive bias carries different levels of persuasion and risk mitigation towards entrepreneurial financing. In the literature, cognitive bias is conceptualised in the context of ‘perception and reasoning’ errors that could influence judgement and decision-making to deviate from the normative rationality [41]. Unlike in the formal sector, informal entrepreneurial intents, opportunity discovery and innovation are shrouded in cognitive bias than in organisational structure and standardised financial disclosure.
Equally, it is very important to note that ‘mental accounting’ bias also play prominent roles on how informal entrepreneurs keep and present their financial records for the purpose of seeking funds from investor or for any other requirements [42]. This follows that the entrepreneurs organise, process, keep, and report their accounting records based on variety of criteria that are mostly subjective.
Finally, the policy and regulatory environment that informal entrepreneurship sector resides and share with the formal sector is also one of the determining factors that constrain easy funding accessibility to informal entrepreneurs and often pose some disincentives for the entrepreneurial firms and the investors to take calculative risks. Although, it is argued that non-conformity with the institutionalised policies and regulations of taxes, financial credit facility, compliance, etc., deprive informal entrepreneurship sector of some of the privileges of legitimacy accorded to the formal sector, however the same environment has helped informal entrepreneurs with the emergence of various financing outlets and technology that are specific to informal debt financing [43].
In the developing economies, microfinancing, cooperative societies, ‘esusu’ group contributions and lending and on-line loan facility are the new financing opportunities that are reshaping the informal sector entrepreneurship. This attests to the fact that the traditions, rules and conventions that govern the financing of informal entrepreneurship opportunity could be moderated by the formal institutional policy and regulation [44]. Nevertheless, regulative and policy incentives are also part of the environmental variables that can influence the opportunity and innovation of informal entrepreneurship, create a favourable climate for enhancing productive relationship between investors and the entrepreneurs and also create avenues to ease information asymmetry and incongruency of interests in the informal sector [45].
Having discussed and problematised the phenomena of informality and entrepreneurial financing in the developing economy, this paper further attempts to expand the domains of entrepreneurship and accounting by developing a theoretical model that conceptualises the interconnectedness among informal entrepreneurship, institutional environment that constrain the legitimacy of informal entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial financing together with bottlenecks arising from informality and the potential contributions to the conceptual and theoretical framework of financing (Figure 1).
Conceptual model of informal entrepreneurship financing. Source: Author’s adaptation, 2021.
This model has implications for the theoretical underpinning of strategic management, finance and accounting disciplines and exposes agency theory, resource-based theory, transaction cost theory, financial contracting theory and new institutional theory as relevant underlying theories. However, the context of this paper delimits elucidation and amplification of these theories.
The potential theoretical contributions to the literature are limited to the discipline of accounting, and specifically to the management accounting research which is perceived as an applied and quantitative study of strategic management, and belongs to ‘method theory’ rather than ‘domain theory’ [27]. In essence, management accounting research is regarded as an interventionist research area that could be explored to demonstrate the practicability of some theoretical postulations of entrepreneurial financing in the informal sector of an economy.
This thought process has two consequences. First, the bridging of entrepreneurship and finance domains in the context of informal entrepreneurial financing. Consequently, the underlying but diverse theories would also be unified into a single and augmented scholastic platform. Second, accounting practitioners, knowledgeable entrepreneurs, and policy makers can leverage on the knowledge enhancement in form of management accounting information and tools to further the practice that will develop the accounting profession and also inform appropriate policies for enhancing informal entrepreneurship in the developing economies.
Informal entrepreneurship is conceptualised into two-fold; the entrepreneurial opportunity and innovativeness emerging from informal sector of the economy. Entrepreneurial opportunity is expressed in terms of recognition and motivation of intents and can be geared towards search or alertness, meaning that potential informal entrepreneur can desire (i.e., to create) or notice (i.e., to discover) opportunity to innovate product, process or service in the informal market. In this context, opportunity can be operationalised in terms of (i) percentage of the unemployed population that recognises start-up of new business, and (ii) percentage informal business activity initiated because of opportunity start-up motive.
Innovativeness refers to innovative ideas and projects that culminate in the newness of product, process, technology amidst competitive brands and varieties in both the formal and informal markets. Innovation can be radical (i.e., completely new) or can be incremental (i.e., renovated). Operationalisation of innovativeness can take the form of (i) number of new products in the market, (ii) number of renovated products in the market, (iii) new technology in the market and (iii) new informal market in the economy.
Both the opportunity discovery and innovativeness exist in the informal environment which is influenced or moderated by institutional policies, regulations and informal rules, conventions and shared values. Although, informality as an environment may be difficult and ambiguous to measure because it is largely seen as a shadow economic unit with the prevalence of numerous informal activities such as small firms trading including street-trading, subsistence farming and agricultural occupation, self-employment, it nevertheless comprises of organised sectors of artisans, technicians, professionals, transporters of goods and persons that are grouped into household businesses and non-wage workers.
It follows that the informal environment has a relationship with the entrepreneurial opportunity and innovativeness respectively. This linkage could therefore establish whether informal firms drive the discovery of entrepreneurial opportunities and innovativeness in the informal markets amidst the disruption in the entire economy.
The interlinkage between the environment and the informal entrepreneurship leads to the emergence on how the new products, technology and process are being financed and brought into the market. Entrepreneurial financing in the context of the informal sector is conceptualised as the process of seeking for and raising appropriate financing for business start-up, renovating new products or technological process and the expansion of capacity that is driven by product and technological innovation. This process runs through informal lending outlets such as borrowing from family, friends, savings, or through financial intermediary such as banks, cooperative societies, microfinance institutions or through the emerging new investment platforms such as crowdfunding, corporate venture, angel investor, accelerators and government specialist financing.
The next phase of the model shows that the paths to seek for fund providers and source appropriate finance for informal entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation are clogged with bottlenecks. Unlike formal entrepreneurial firms, in formal entrepreneurs are faced with informality-specific bottlenecks which are; information asymmetry, moral hazard conflict, ambiguous and unformalized financial contract agreement that is laden with enforcement problems, informal ownership structure and unstandardised financial structure, and mental accounting bias.
In the last phase of the conceptual model, redress propositions in form of contributions to the theory, are made to address the financing bottlenecks in the informal entrepreneurship sector. These contributions are contingent on the frontiers of management accounting research, considering similar theoretical propositions from other disciplines such as finance, economics, strategic management. The contributions to the theory and practice are linked to the relevant bottlenecks that should be addressed in the flow accordingly. For instance, the theoretical expansion envisaged on goal congruence is focused on the agency problems of moral hazard conflict and information asymmetry. Similarly, information management and controls, search and match model are also expected to hinge on the issue of information asymmetry.
The problems of ownership structure would be addressed by the enhancement of management accounting literature in the areas of financial contract agreement and policy and regulative incentives, while the issue of the informal financial structure would be addressed via the expanded theory of the financial contract agreement, search and match model and policy and regulative incentives.
Management accounting is considered a purely applied discipline of strategic management. Hence, it is believed that its relevance and intervention in the issues of entrepreneurial orientation and entrepreneurial financing in the informal sector of the economy is prominent.
In the views of some scholars, management accounting research carries a dichotomy of roles in theory While some scholars are of the view that management accounting being a pure applied field, can only adapt or import theories from other disciplines to use in its research, others believe that the field is distinct, and has its own sets of theories [46]. In my view, these two roles are indistinguishable.
Further, management accounting has often been challenged for not doing enough in providing practical solutions to some theoretical or conceptual issues which are fundamental in expanding the knowledge of the field [6, 28]. Thus, it is important to know how accounting research situates in the realms of knowledge and examine how it intervenes in the research theories of other domains.
In the context of management accounting research, this paper contributes in multiple fold to the literature and theories that underly the phenomenon of entrepreneurial financing by identifying how the bottlenecks of information asymmetry, moral hazard conflict, ownership and financial structure hampering informal entrepreneurship could be bridged.
First, the issue of moral hazard conflict is an agency problem, and could be further theorised using the concept of Goal Congruence. This means that the extant theory of agency should be extended to ‘goals model’ which emphasises the congruency of goals between two or more contrasting parties. In other word, the theory of agency should be expanded to harness the nexus of informal entrepreneurship and financing. Normally, incentives management are employed in resolving goal congruency issues between agent and his principal, but in the context of entrepreneur and investor relationship, resolution should start with modelling of the interests and goals of informal entrepreneurs and investors, after which the two goals are harnessed to anticipate reduction in monitoring cost, reduce bad investment decisions and mitigate impacts of individual opportunism.
The goal congruency modelling should be able to differentiate ostensible and actual goal congruence, whilst proffering different views of congruency that can harmonise common goals and mutual benefits regarding the funding of entrepreneurial opportunities and innovativeness in the informal sector of the economy. In designing the goal model, cooperative behaviours, consensus and control mechanism should all be embedded in order to derive economic benefits of the goal congruency [47].
Second, the problem of information asymmetry could be theoretically salvaged through accounting information management and control, search and match model, and goal congruence. In the nexus of entrepreneurship and financing, information asymmetry occurs when the relevant oversight by investors who normally finance informal entrepreneurial opportunities and innovation is mostly lacking [48]. For instance, angel investors, crowdfunding investors, traditional fund providers like banks, etc. are mostly passive in the management of the entrepreneurship projects, coupled with lack of standardised information systems in the informal sector.
Likewise, the possibility of informal firms concealing vital information to his advantage which is hidden to the potential investor, or the same behaviour posed by investor [23]. These two issues are common in the informal entrepreneurship and financing nexus and contribute to information asymmetry in the financial industry.
Management accounting research will add value to the theory of organisation when it focuses on the design of ‘combined control mechanism’ that encompasses both behavioural and information systems management and control [49], and to the theory of contingency, when the contingent nature of accounting and management information in the constantly changing environment of financing is explored and included as an additive package to the combined information system mechanism [50]. Management accounting research needs to adapt the model of contingency to the disruptive environment of financial industry, focusing on the prevalence of funding outlets, platforms and providers which are dynamic, to help informal entrepreneurs and investors share and match relevant information which enable both parties to derive economic benefits of standardised accounting and management information.
Similarly, feedback control should also be embedded in the overall management information mechanism to give prominence to ‘cognitive dissonance’ in the relationship between informal entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial financing. The feedback control should be designed to guard against either of the party hiding information for selfish tendency and to achieve goal congruence, since there is inherent control weakness in the human interaction system between the informal entrepreneurs who are likely to be dominant in information retention and the potential investors who exploit such information are also passive in the relationship.
Cognitive dissonance implies that a party in the relationship agree with and accommodate information, data and reports that is favourable to his position while discerning the ones at variance with his position. In the process, factual information that is vital to make decisions that could be of mutual benefits to the contractual parties are withheld or grossly be absent. Thus, the antecedents and consequence of cognitive biases in an informal setting of entrepreneurial financing in the twenty-first century, should provide both the informal entrepreneurs and investors with adequate and open information that reflects the symmetry of information that is persuasive of good decision making.
On the other hand, accounting scholars can also theoretically bridge the gap of information asymmetry in the relationship between informal entrepreneur-investor relationship, by leveraging on the extant theoretical work on the search cost model and extend it to the ‘
With the advent of Fintech and a variety of new financing instruments, the cost of searching and accessing investors for promising entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation in the informal sector of the economy are fast becoming a concern for informal firms and individual actors within the sector. It follows that search and match model is a valuation tool used in calibrating and matching of demand and supply forces of labour market [52]. Normatively, search and match tool is designed to exploit wealth of information between two contrasting parties (i.e., employer and employee groups) in response to a change in environmental variable and market friction (i.e., job opening requirements or policy changes). Further, it is an estimating tool designed to provide behavioural responses to the employment issues confronting the labour market [53].
In the context of search and matching model, management accounting research needs to extend the model to bridge the gaps of information asymmetry and financial structure in the relationship of informal entrepreneurship and financing. Quantitative calibration, using empirical data appropriate to the relationship such as background data of informal entrepreneurs and investors, parameters for choice of funds, geographical consideration in terms of financing outlets and providers, cost of search, intermediation cost, cost of fund, forecast data on innovation projects, etc., should be factored in the model calibration.
The third implication centres on the inadequacy of financial contracting in the informal entrepreneurship sector, and its consequential effects on the financial and ownership structures. The underlying theory is the transaction cost and contract. Unlike the formal sectors where contractual agreement, financial and ownership structure are formalised and registered in line with some institutionalised directions, informal firms and individual actors within the informal sector are naturally outside such coverage of legality and formal institutional environment. However, the illegitimacy arising from this externality to informal entrepreneurship could be addressed with two accounting tools.
First, the melding of financial models that aim to put informality around the boundary of formality. In this instance, the financial modelling should encompass financial lending, a structure-oriented funding sources and investor-compliance ownership structure. Second, informal incentive contract model should be explored in quantitative terms to evaluate and analyse the standardised setting of the entrepreneur-investor relationship in the context of informal sector. In this instance, the incentive model should be designed to induce the entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation towards acceptability by potential investors based on predetermined criteria that include unhindered flow of information, remediation, and arbitration process amidst other consideration.
Overall financing contract model should reflect a valid intermediation role and also have the capability to serve as a robust check on the internal logic of decision making and controls for the informal sector entrepreneurship which consequently should assist in standardising bookkeeping, accounting records, budgetary controls and management information system.
One of the implications of this paper is the dematerialisation of the impacts that some regulatory policy has on the informality of entrepreneurship and financing. Management accounting research should expand its frontier to accommodate studies on economic incentives of regulatory policy that is peculiar to informal markets. In this respect, management accounting research should explore the designs and qualitative analysis for tailor-made economic incentive model that brings informal markets closer to the border of formalities and regulatory framework and which can also avail informal entrepreneurs with some of the benefits that formal firms do enjoy, particularly in the areas of taxes, registration and compliance. Such an incentive model should provide governance authority with constructive directions for taking policy decisions, enhance entrepreneurship blueprint and good advocacy for standardised information system for informal entrepreneurship rather than an accounting model.
In this paper, the focus is mainly on the domains of observation and their relationships. That means, the domains of entrepreneurship, finance and accounting. The underlying theories of agency, new institutions, financial contract, transaction costs are not explored, but are justified as the basis for theoretical expansion.
In the same way, the proposed focus for expanding the frontiers of entrepreneurial financing is hinged on the management accounting research instead of multiple disciplines such as finance, economics and strategic management. This intentional focus is to explore the interventionist research agenda of management accounting, being the perceived applied strategic management study. It is also to re-awaken accounting practitioners of their vital roles in the knowledge building of entrepreneurship studies, using accounting information controls and tools.
Informality in the setting of the entrepreneurial economy in developing countries connotes that, informal firms and individual actors within the informal sector do not add significant values to the economy as much as formal firms add, irrespective of the fact that the informal sector employs large numbers of workers and also harness much bigger resources in the value chain of the economy.
Notwithstanding, entrepreneurship opportunity and innovativeness dimensions of entrepreneurial orientation have relevance in the informal sector entrepreneurship, but with the constraints of sourcing and accessing adequate financial resources to fund innovative products, services and new localised technology in the informal markets.
The apparent emergence of financial technology platforms (FINTECH) and new sources of funding, such as crowdfunding, accelerators and incubators are alternative complements to the traditional and informal financing outlets of bank loans, family and friends, as well as angel investor network, venture capital and government venture fund. The new alternative sources are also filling the gaps for considering small firms and start-ups financing, albeit with no visible informal projects in the envelopes. Nevertheless, the on-line provision of capital funds for entrepreneurship has been enormous.
In the informal sector, an opportunity to take advantage of such new sources to close funding gaps are usually marred by the lack of collaterals, poor accounting records, illegitimacy concerns of no formal registration, tax avoidance, no formal contracting and non-coverage of institutionalised policies. These concerns also extend to the issues of information asymmetry, moral hazard, financial and ownership structure.
In an attempt to reposition the understanding of informality in the context of entrepreneurship and financing, and to expand the frontiers of strategic management and accounting literature, this paper suggests that management accounting research could play vital roles in further exploring the problematised issues of entrepreneurial informality and financing by bridging the domains of accounting, finance and entrepreneurship. In this arena, five areas for theoretical contributions were highlighted as, goal congruence, accounting and management information controls, financing contract modelling, regulative policy incentives and search and matching model.
Theoretical model that conceptualises interrelationship among different variables with their underlying theories was proposed. The model demonstrates that informal entrepreneurship has opportunity discovery and innovativeness as antecedents of entrepreneurial orientation. The informal entrepreneurs operate in an institutionalised environment where regulation, policies, culture, traditions and shared values play prominent roles. In this institutionalised environment, it is contingent for the informal entrepreneurs to seek for funds to finance their innovative products, process or technology. There are diverse sources and platforms in the financial industry for the choice either direct or through financial intermediation. However, there many bottlenecks confronting informal entrepreneurship innovation in accessing appropriate and adequate funding.
In this paper, management accounting research is focused to explore various management information systems, models and tools to bridge the theoretical gaps, while also focuses on economic incentives for regulative policy to address gap in policy making concerning informal entrepreneurship sector. The justification for the choice of management accounting research is to position the literature to contribute and expand the frontiers of agency theory, contingency theory, organisational theory, transaction cost theory, financial contracting theory and the model of search and match, all of which underly the highlighted bottlenecks of the informal sector financing.
The other cogent reason is that, management accounting is positioned in between the paradigms of positivism and interpretivism, however, the focus is more on the ontology, epistemology and methodology of interpretivist paradigm, simply because of the social science nature of the discipline rather than considering it as a pure natural science which confers positivist paradigm [54]. While positivism is a scientific paradigm and focus on a realistic natural phenomenon that is independent of the researcher, the interpretivist paradigm is subjective, it focuses on relativism where meanings to objects are discovered and constructed through interaction between researcher conscience and the real world [55].
The knowledge realm of management accounting research is also informed by inductive reasoning for analysing and evaluating qualitative data that will produce reliability and validity of findings [56]. It therefore follows that the perspectives of management accounting research are dynamic and has metamorphosed from just number analysis to qualitative and quantitative decision making and human interaction facilitator [57]. There are instances where management accounting has influenced entrepreneurship studies adopting inductive and qualitative approach such as case studies, interviews, focus groups, etc. Moreover, management accounting has also been found as an important resource and capability for international entrepreneurship and assumes effectuation and causality logic [58]. In these instances, this paper suggests that the theoretical contributions highlighted can be taken through qualitative or quantitative methodology as each case may warrant.
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Usually, the voice is not the main focus of the speech-language pathology therapy with individuals with hearing loss, but its deviations can represent such a negative impact on this population that it can interfere on speech intelligibility and crucially compromise the social integration of the individual. The literature vastly explores acoustic and perceptual characteristics of children and adults with hearing loss. Voice problems in individuals with this impairment are directly related to its type and severity, age, gender, and type of hearing device used. While individuals with mild and moderate hearing loss can only present problems with resonance, severely impaired individuals may lack intensity and frequency control, among other alterations. The commonly found vocal deviations include strain, breathiness, roughness, monotone, absence of rhythm, unpleasant quality, hoarseness, vocal fatigue, high pitch, reduced volume, loudness with excessive variation, unbalanced resonance, altered breathing pattern, brusque vocal attack, and imprecise articulation. These characteristics are justified by the incapability of the deaf to control their vocal performance due to the lack of auditory monitoring of their own voice, caused by the hearing loss. Hence, the development of an intelligible speech with a good quality of voice on the hearing impaired is a challenge, despite the sophisticated technological advances of hearing aids, cochlear implants and other implantable devices. The purpose of this chapter is therefore to present an extensive review of the literature and describe our experience regarding the evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of voice disorders in individuals with hearing loss.",book:{id:"4654",slug:"update-on-hearing-loss",title:"Update On Hearing Loss",fullTitle:"Update On Hearing Loss"},signatures:"Ana Cristina Coelho, Daniela Malta Medved and Alcione Ghedini\nBrasolotto",authors:[{id:"174260",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Coelho",slug:"ana-cristina-coelho",fullName:"Ana Cristina Coelho"},{id:"174643",title:"Dr.",name:"Alcione",middleName:null,surname:"Brasolotto",slug:"alcione-brasolotto",fullName:"Alcione Brasolotto"},{id:"174644",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Medved",slug:"daniela-medved",fullName:"Daniela Medved"}]},{id:"49005",doi:"10.5772/60836",title:"Endoscopic Criteria in Assessing Severity of Swallowing Disorders",slug:"endoscopic-criteria-in-assessing-severity-of-swallowing-disorders",totalDownloads:2016,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"4545",slug:"seminars-in-dysphagia",title:"Seminars in Dysphagia",fullTitle:"Seminars in Dysphagia"},signatures:"Farneti Daniele and Genovese Elisabetta",authors:[{id:"172879",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniele",middleName:null,surname:"Farneti",slug:"daniele-farneti",fullName:"Daniele Farneti"},{id:"175419",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabetta",middleName:null,surname:"Genovese",slug:"elisabetta-genovese",fullName:"Elisabetta Genovese"}]},{id:"33864",doi:"10.5772/33569",title:"The Mongolian Gerbil as a Model for the Analysis of Peripheral and Central Age-Dependent Hearing Loss",slug:"the-mongolian-gerbil-as-a-model-for-the-analysis-of-peripheral-and-central-age-dependent-hearing-los",totalDownloads:2355,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1393",slug:"hearing-loss",title:"Hearing Loss",fullTitle:"Hearing Loss"},signatures:"Gleich Otto and Strutz Jürgen",authors:[{id:"96191",title:"Dr.",name:"Otto",middleName:null,surname:"Gleich",slug:"otto-gleich",fullName:"Otto Gleich"},{id:"96195",title:"Prof.",name:"Jürgen",middleName:null,surname:"Strutz",slug:"jurgen-strutz",fullName:"Jürgen Strutz"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63699",title:"Management of the Complications of Maxillary Sinus Augmentation",slug:"management-of-the-complications-of-maxillary-sinus-augmentation",totalDownloads:7784,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Dental implant rehabilitation of the posterior maxillary region has always been a challenging issue due to both alveolar ridge atrophy and sinus pneumatization. Maxillary sinus augmentation is a well-known and predictable procedure in vertical deficiencies of the posterior maxilla. To date, various techniques have been described based on the physiology of intrasinus bone repair to obtain better outcomes. Nevertheless, these procedures could also be associated with several intra- and postoperative complications such as perforation of the sinus membrane, hemorrhage, infection, graft resorption, and loss of the graft or implants. The aim of this chapter is to review the contemporary methods for maxillary sinus augmentation and to present both recommendations for prevention and management of the associated complications.",book:{id:"7245",slug:"challenging-issues-on-paranasal-sinuses",title:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses",fullTitle:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses"},signatures:"Alper Sindel, Mehmet Mustafa Özarslan and Öznur Özalp",authors:[{id:"244837",title:"Dr.",name:"Alper",middleName:null,surname:"Sindel",slug:"alper-sindel",fullName:"Alper Sindel"},{id:"244918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Özarslan",slug:"mehmet-mustafa-ozarslan",fullName:"Mehmet Mustafa Özarslan"},{id:"244919",title:"Ms.",name:"Öznur",middleName:null,surname:"Özalp",slug:"oznur-ozalp",fullName:"Öznur Özalp"}]},{id:"55472",title:"Paranasal Sinus Anatomy: What the Surgeon Needs to Know",slug:"paranasal-sinus-anatomy-what-the-surgeon-needs-to-know",totalDownloads:5644,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Performing a smooth and clean sinus surgery goes hand in hand with a perfect understanding of the nasal and paranasal anatomy. Within this chapter, the paranasal and related structures surgical anatomy will be extensively reviewed, with emphasis on the anatomical landmarks and the normal anatomical variations, which have a significant impact on the function, pathology, and surgical procedures of the paranasal sinuses.",book:{id:"5911",slug:"paranasal-sinuses",title:"Paranasal Sinuses",fullTitle:"Paranasal Sinuses"},signatures:"Abdulmalik S. Alsaied",authors:[{id:"199716",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulmalik",middleName:"Saad",surname:"Alsaied",slug:"abdulmalik-alsaied",fullName:"Abdulmalik Alsaied"}]},{id:"69430",title:"Concurrent Rhinoplasty and Endoscopic Sinus Surgery",slug:"concurrent-rhinoplasty-and-endoscopic-sinus-surgery",totalDownloads:1180,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Combining rhinoplasty and endoscopic sinus surgery (ESS) was first reported in 1991 by Sheman and Matarasso. Since then, many authors have documented a large series showing the overall efficacy of combining the two procedures. The focus of this manuscript is to document the author’s recent experience with combining rhinoplasty and endoscopic sinus surgery and highlight the changes that have occurred during the author’s 2-years experience. A retrospective data review was performed on 53 (31 females and 22 men, age range 16–55 years) patients who underwent combined rhinoplasty and ESS between January 2016 and December 2018 at Pantai Hospital Kuala Lumpur by the same surgeon. The mean age was 31.8 years. All patients had severe nasal obstruction with chronic rhinosinusitis and were followed up for a minimum of 6 months post-surgery and underwent ENT workup, which included history, office rigid endoscopy, CT scans of paranasal sinuses and preoperative photography. Initially, the ESS was performed followed by the open rhinoplasty with or without osteotomy. The ESS consisted of middle turbinate reduction [15/53 (28.3%)], maxillary antrostomy [36/53 (67.9%)], ethmoidectomy [38/53 (71.6%)], frontal sinusotomy [7/53 (13.2%)], and sphenoidotomy [9/53 (16.9%)]. Most of the sinus symptoms resolved postoperatively with 47 (88.6%) of 53 patients describing their improvement as significant. Fifty (94.3%) of 53 patients stated that they would recommend the concurrent procedure. The benefits of these advances are illustrated by a review of the literature with good results (functional and cosmetic) and minimal complications.",book:{id:"7062",slug:"rhinosinusitis",title:"Rhinosinusitis",fullTitle:"Rhinosinusitis"},signatures:"Balwant Singh Gendeh",authors:[{id:"67669",title:null,name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}]},{id:"49574",title:"Classification of Hearing Loss",slug:"classification-of-hearing-loss",totalDownloads:5347,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Hearing loss is the partial or total inability to hear sound in one or both ears. People with hearing loss make up a significant 5.3% of the world’s population. The audiogram is an important tool used to determine the degree and type of hearing loss. This chapter presents hearing loss classification, which can aid in clinical diagnosis and help in finding appropriate therapeutic management. Hearing loss is classified based on ear anatomy, type of hearing loss, degree of the disease, and configuration of the audiogram. When the hearing loss is fully characterized, appropriate medical intervention can be assigned.",book:{id:"4654",slug:"update-on-hearing-loss",title:"Update On Hearing Loss",fullTitle:"Update On Hearing Loss"},signatures:"Waleed B. Alshuaib, Jasem M. Al-Kandari and Sonia M. Hasan",authors:[{id:"174550",title:"Prof.",name:"Waleed",middleName:null,surname:"Alshuaib",slug:"waleed-alshuaib",fullName:"Waleed Alshuaib"},{id:"174551",title:"MSc.",name:"Jasim",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Kandari",slug:"jasim-al-kandari",fullName:"Jasim Al-Kandari"},{id:"174552",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Hasan",slug:"sonia-hasan",fullName:"Sonia Hasan"}]},{id:"56237",title:"Caffeine and Meniere’s Disease",slug:"caffeine-and-meniere-s-disease",totalDownloads:1746,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Meniere’s disease is characterized by recurrent vertigo, fluctuating hearing loss, and persistent tinnitus. Caffeine consumption in modern society is a widespread and culturally accepted habit; however, there is no consensus about its mechanism of action in various organs and systems, including the auditory and vestibular. The few clinical studies have shown that abstention from caffeine has little effect in patients with Meniere’s disease, both in relation to vertigo, tinnitus and hearing loss.",book:{id:"5454",slug:"up-to-date-on-meniere-s-disease",title:"Up to Date on Meniere's Disease",fullTitle:"Up to Date on Meniere's Disease"},signatures:"Alleluia Lima Losno Ledesma, Monique Antunes de Souza\nChelminski Barreto and Carlos Augusto Costa Pires de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"68849",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos Augusto C. P.",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"carlos-augusto-c.-p.-oliveira",fullName:"Carlos Augusto C. P. Oliveira"},{id:"175482",title:"Dr.",name:"Monique",middleName:null,surname:"Barreto",slug:"monique-barreto",fullName:"Monique Barreto"},{id:"194400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alleluia",middleName:"Lima",surname:"Losno Ledesma",slug:"alleluia-losno-ledesma",fullName:"Alleluia Losno Ledesma"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"192",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. 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Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. 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He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"90",type:"subseries",title:"Human Development",keywords:"Neuroscientific research, Brain functions, Human development, UN’s human development index, Self-awareness, Self-development",scope:"