\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7710",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Quality Management and Quality Control - New Trends and Developments",title:"Quality Management and Quality Control",subtitle:"New Trends and Developments",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Quality management (QM) practices are the basis for the successful implementation and maintenance of any QM system. Quality control (QC) is identified as a QM component. Therefore, QM effectiveness is dependent on the QC strategy. QC practice is more or less complex depending on the type of production. The book is focused on new trends and developments in QM and QC in several types of industries from a worldwide perspective. Its content has been organized into two sections and seven chapters written by well-recognized researchers worldwide. Several approaches are debated based on sample traceability, analytical method validation, required parameters, class of exponential regression-type estimators of the population means, determination of impurities, viewpoints, and case studies.",isbn:"978-1-78923-878-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-877-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-119-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77523",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"quality-management-and-quality-control-new-trends-and-developments",numberOfPages:144,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"226e5d555cafed8a4d1b410959863661",bookSignature:"Paulo Pereira and Sandra Xavier",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7710.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10901,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:27,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 4th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 25th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 24th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 12th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 13th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"178637",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"paulo-pereira",fullName:"Paulo Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178637/images/system/178637.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Pereira received his Ph.D. in Biotechnology from the Catholic University of Portugal. He has been recruited as a quality and laboratory expert for seminars and professional laboratory meetings throughout Europe, Africa, and South America. He has more than twenty-five years of experience working in medical laboratories, having held key scientific leadership roles: 15+ years as a senior researcher; 10+ years as a consultant for a metrology laboratory based on ISO/IEC 17025 specifications and related standards; 20+ years as a consultant and auditor of quality management systems based on ISO 9001, ISO/IEC 17025, and ISO 15189 standards; 16+ years as the quality manager in the Portuguese Institute of Blood and Transplantation, including more than 6 years in national coordination; and 6+ years as a professor of Quality Assurance. Currently, he is the head of the R&D Department at the Portuguese Institute of Blood and Transplantation, Lisbon, Portugal. Dr. Pereira is the author of several peer-reviewed scientific articles and indexed books and chapters. He is an editor for several books. He serves as a member of several editorial boards. He is a member of the Clinical Laboratory and Standards Institute and Eurachem. Dr. Pereira is an expert on in vitro diagnostic medical devices at the European Commission / European Medicines Agency.",institutionString:"Portuguese Institute of Blood and Transplantation",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"264942",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Xavier",slug:"sandra-xavier",fullName:"Sandra Xavier",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZ6mQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T09:32:37.jpg",biography:"Dr. Xavier received her Ph.D. in Nursing from the University of Lisbon, Portugal. 26+ years professional experience in nursing 15+ years of teaching in a university 4+ years of professional practice as the Head of Nursing 9+ years as a researcher in the different Nursing Research Units , Since 2018 as research in Nursing Research Unit of South and Island (NURSE'IN - UIESA), Portugal. Dr. Xavier is the author of several books’ chapter and scientific articles in indexed journals. She serves as a reviewer of scientific and technical articles in indexed journals. She is also a recognized speaker at various national and international meetings. She is a member of juries for the attribution of academic degrees. She is a member of several Scientific Commissions of various meetings.",institutionString:"School of Nursing of Lisbon",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"78",title:"Quality Management",slug:"business-management-and-economics-quality-management"}],chapters:[{id:"65214",title:"Quality Management Practices in Indian SMEs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83550",slug:"quality-management-practices-in-indian-smes",totalDownloads:1045,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to provide an insight on the status of quality management practices in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) of South India. A survey-based approach was adopted to understand the established quality management practices in the SMEs. A short survey instrument was designed by reviewing the literature on quality management initiatives in SMEs. Sample of 270 manufacturing SMEs across Southern India was selected through stratified random sampling technique. Projects with small teams, management commitment and involvement, communication, and culture change have high influence as success factors in implementing quality initiatives. Overall equipment effectiveness, root cause analysis, bottleneck analysis, and PDCA are often used tools and techniques by the organizations. High cost of training and limited knowledge were the reasons cited for not implementing quality initiatives. The study is an attempt to understand the quality management practices application in SMEs from a specific geographic location. The strength lies in bringing a different perspective from the present studies, whereas specific context of the study limits its generalizability. The findings of this chapter will help the industry to identify current quality management practices in SMEs to focus on improving their performance.",signatures:"Ayon Chakraborty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65214",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65214",authors:[{id:"277471",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ayon",surname:"Chakrab",slug:"ayon-chakrab",fullName:"Ayon Chakrab"}],corrections:null},{id:"65275",title:"Total Quality Management in a Resource-Starved Nation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82759",slug:"total-quality-management-in-a-resource-starved-nation",totalDownloads:1006,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Total quality management (TQM) is defined as management approach, which empowers employees to adequately satisfy the customer needs. For efficient TQM, management is required to be fully committed, focused and goal-driven. The needs of employees such as tools and resources required for efficiency, self-improvement and corresponding recognition to reward for hard work are paramount in TQM; to achieve this in a resource starved nation such as Nigeria is a huge challenge. In 2016, the National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development (NIPRD) decided that it was adopting TQM in its research and development activities. The challenge, however, was lack of infrastructure and trained personnel in this highly specialized and sensitive area. Respite came when the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) through the United States Pharmacopoeia Convention Promotion of Quality Medicines (USP/PQM) agreed to provide support. Two years later (2018), NIPRD laboratory has been accredited by the American National Accreditation Board (ANAB) as the only academic institution and probably the only academic-based research institute in West Africa. We discuss herein TQM in a resource starved nation like Nigeria and propose that developing countries should collaborate in all areas of TQM with a view to upgrading institutions to international standards.",signatures:"Martins Emeje, Kokonne Ekere, Olubunmi Olayemi, Christianah Isimi\nand Karniyus Gamaniel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65275",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65275",authors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje"}],corrections:null},{id:"65978",title:"Sample Traceability in Toxicology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84866",slug:"sample-traceability-in-toxicology",totalDownloads:1104,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sampling is an instrument that allows having a portion that represents a whole, and, quantitatively, it allows to measure a specific analyte or several analytes, for diagnostic, clinical, and forensic exposure or control over time, based in a pre-established and validated study plan. In clinical and forensic samples from one individual, the toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic factors should be considered in order to choose the most adequate matrix to study. In case of deceased individuals, additional matrices should be considered to the usual matrix. Sampling should be representative as for quality and quantity and should be associated to a chain of custody. Transport, storage, and analysis of samples are related to the type of matrix and the analyte to identify/measure. All samples should be traceable in any stage of the analysis and should receive an internal codification on entry. Also, the analytical method should be validated and associated to a traceable quality management system. Lastly, biosafety should consider the international recommendations for classification of mixtures and the residue management, in order to ensure the operativity of the technical working group.",signatures:"Laura Börgel Aguilera and Melissa Schulthess",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65978",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65978",authors:[{id:"277601",title:"Prof.",name:"Laura",surname:"Börgel",slug:"laura-borgel",fullName:"Laura Börgel"},{id:"288979",title:"Ms.",name:"Melissa",surname:"Schulthess",slug:"melissa-schulthess",fullName:"Melissa Schulthess"}],corrections:null},{id:"65518",title:"Analytical Method Validation as the First Step in Drug Quality Control",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82826",slug:"analytical-method-validation-as-the-first-step-in-drug-quality-control",totalDownloads:1339,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The authors have developed and validated some chromatographic methods with the aim of quantifying drugs as drug substance and drug product, suitable for stability and quality control studies, as at original products as at its remainder doses. The stability of a pharmaceutical is defined by its resistance to different chemical, physical, and microbiological reactions that may change their original properties. The stability of a pharmaceutical product is closely related to its potency; therefore, whether the compounds are degraded, a decrease of the therapeutic effect or changes in their toxicological properties can be produced, affecting their efficacy and safety, which becomes important to maintain a stable pharmaceutical product and to have the analytical tools to demonstrate stability. Therefore, stability-indicating methods are required to the quality control of pharmaceuticals. Analytical methods presented here are useful stability-indicating methods to analyze drugs and have adequate linearity, precision, accuracy, selectivity, and LOD/LOQ values. The examples presented here are stability-indicating methods since they allow the determination of drugs in the presence of their degradation products, according to the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) guidelines.",signatures:"Sigrid Mennickent and Marta de Diego",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65518",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65518",authors:[{id:"52160",title:"MSc",name:"Sigrid",surname:"Mennickent",slug:"sigrid-mennickent",fullName:"Sigrid Mennickent"},{id:"53986",title:"MSc.",name:"Marta",surname:"De Diego",slug:"marta-de-diego",fullName:"Marta De Diego"}],corrections:null},{id:"65074",title:"Quality in Testing Laboratories: A Real Case in a Spanish Fuel Laboratory",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82995",slug:"quality-in-testing-laboratories-a-real-case-in-a-spanish-fuel-laboratory",totalDownloads:1041,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Quality management is the chosen option by those organizations that maintain a strong commitment to excellence in their products, services, and processes. The technical competence of a testing laboratory is essential to provide confidence in the results issued to its clients: administrations, companies, or individuals who request their services. The implementation of a quality system, with international recognition, facilitates and enables laboratory projection in national and international forums. The study shows the steps followed by a fuel laboratory (R + D + i), integrated in a Spanish university, to implement the quality standards established in ISO/IEC 17025 and ISO 9001. Despite its small size, the laboratory maintains high-quality standards. Obtaining ISO/IEC 17025 accreditation has allowed the laboratory to recognize its technical competence at a national and international level, greater visibility, and better positioning among laboratories that offer the same services, which has increased the number of customers and has achieved their loyalty.",signatures:"Ma Mercedes del Coro Fernández-Feal, Luis R. Sánchez-Fernández\nand Blanca Sánchez-Fernández",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65074",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65074",authors:[{id:"188987",title:"Dr.",name:"Mª Mercedes Del Coro",surname:"Fernández-Feal",slug:"ma-mercedes-del-coro-fernandez-feal",fullName:"Mª Mercedes Del Coro Fernández-Feal"},{id:"194816",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis R.",surname:"Sánchez-Fernández",slug:"luis-r.-sanchez-fernandez",fullName:"Luis R. Sánchez-Fernández"},{id:"194821",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanca",surname:"Sánchez-Fernández",slug:"blanca-sanchez-fernandez",fullName:"Blanca Sánchez-Fernández"}],corrections:null},{id:"65066",title:"Determination of Essential Parameters for Quality Control in Fabrication of Piezoelectric Micropumps",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82857",slug:"determination-of-essential-parameters-for-quality-control-in-fabrication-of-piezoelectric-micropumps",totalDownloads:884,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Quality control of piezoelectric micropumps is presented through design, fabrication process, operation, and characterization. The presented study resulted in the extraction of a minimal set of monitored parameters, which is a prerequisite for reliable and stable micropump operation. Micropump fabrication process steps, especially bonding process quality, in correlation with quality control of micropump constituent components (housing, elastomer, and piezoelectric actuator) provided an explanation for deterioration of common micropump characteristics, such as flow vs. backpressure, suction pressure, and excitation signal. These characteristics also manifested in deterioration of other important micropump properties, such as self-priming ability, bubble tolerance, long-term stability, heat dissipation, and temperature operating range. Besides air and DI water pumping, chemical compatibility of constituent materials was confirmed during successful long-term testing of micropumps by pumping media with different viscosity and aggressive media with low pH value. The extracted set of parameters defines input control for micropump fabrication process while at the same time establishes safe operating area of fabricated micropumps. The presented set of parameters provides quality control guidelines and enables a direct comparison from pump-to-pump or run-to-run variations and extraction of influencing design or fabrication parameters.",signatures:"Matej Možek, Borut Pečar, Drago Resnik and Danilo Vrtačnik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65066",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65066",authors:[{id:"18182",title:"Dr.",name:"Matej",surname:"Možek",slug:"matej-mozek",fullName:"Matej Možek"},{id:"22398",title:"Dr.",name:"Danilo",surname:"Vrtačnik",slug:"danilo-vrtacnik",fullName:"Danilo Vrtačnik"},{id:"22399",title:"Dr.",name:"Drago",surname:"Resnik",slug:"drago-resnik",fullName:"Drago Resnik"},{id:"22400",title:"Dr.",name:"Borut",surname:"Pečar",slug:"borut-pecar",fullName:"Borut Pečar"}],corrections:null},{id:"65419",title:"Determination of Impurities in Pharmaceuticals: Why and How?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83849",slug:"determination-of-impurities-in-pharmaceuticals-why-and-how-",totalDownloads:4482,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The presence of impurities, particularly the API-related impurities, i.e., degradation-related impurities (DRIs) and interaction-related impurities (IRIs), may affect the quality, safety, and efficacy of drug products. Since the regulatory requirements and management strategies are required to be established and complied, sources of impurities shall be carefully classified prior to take subsequent steps such as development of analytical methods and acceptance criteria. Current international regulatory requirements for the management of impurities in pharmaceuticals were reviewed. Procedures for the identification of DPIs in pharmaceuticals, i.e., ethyl cysteinate dimer, (R)-N-methyl-3-(2-bromophenoxy)-3-phenylpropanamine, sestamibi, etc., using high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) were studied. Scheme for the establishment of analytical methods and acceptance criteria of process-related impurities (PRIs) and DRIs in accordance with the requirements of International Council for Harmonization (ICH) and algorithm to perform the identification of DPIs by using LC-MS/MS has been proposed. Practice of kinetic study to distinguish PRIs and DRIs, determination of the potential core fragments coupled with a predicted list of relevant transformations for conducting MS/MS scans, applications of stable isotope distribution patterns or natural abundances, practice of mass balance, etc., have been well demonstrated to justify the reliabilities of identification results.",signatures:"Kung-Tien Liu and Chien-Hsin Chen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65419",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65419",authors:[{id:"36122",title:"PhD.",name:"Kung-Tien",surname:"Liu",slug:"kung-tien-liu",fullName:"Kung-Tien Liu"},{id:"153497",title:"Dr.",name:"Chien-Hsin",surname:"Chen",slug:"chien-hsin-chen",fullName:"Chien-Hsin Chen"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Actually, around two-thirds of the Earth is covered by water (~ 71%), but more than 7% of this water cannot be used because they are in the form of ocean, ice caps, glaciers, ground, and aquifers [1]. Therefore, the freshwater that is available to use by the people is only around 1% all over the globe. So, the need for desalinated freshwater arises day by day [2]. In addition, the applications of freshwater such as cooking, drinking, and farming make it in a difficult situation. As a result, providing safe drinking water is a major challenge all over the world [3, 4]. The predicted freshwater shortage problem in 2030 is illustrated in Figure 1.
Estimated global water scarcity in 2030 [
The simplest well-known cycle for the water is the hydrological cycle, which had sequentially the steps of water surface evaporation, condensation, cloud creation, runoff, and rain. So, the water controls the ecosystem of any society [6, 7]. This is because the potable water shortage is a problem of both the remote and urban communities [8].
The thermal desalination processes follow the same principles of the natural hydrological cycle, but they use huge energy amounts. Distillation is accomplished by introducing saltwater into the process, which produces two output streams: one of freshwater and the other of brine water. Distillation of seawater produces freshwater [9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
Distillation becomes a key source of freshwater for most of the world’s regions. Because of the ample water, the distillation procedure is mostly considered in coastal places. The most significant feature of this procedure is that it is completely safe for everyone involved—in other words, it has no negative consequences for the environment [14]. According to a survey conducted in the preceding decade, roughly 75 million people around the world rely on distillation for their everyday requirements. Distillation is the only source of freshwater for many countries. Saudi Arabia, the United States, the United Arab Emirates, Spain, and Kuwait are the top five countries in terms of desalination plant capacity, with 17.4, 16.2, 14.7, 6.4, and 5.8%, respectively [15]. The capacity of distillation processes for various countries is depicted in Figure 2; for (a) the globe, (b) USA, and (c) Middle East countries in 2002.
Capacity of distillation processes for (a) the globe, (b) USA, an (c) Middle East countries in 2002 [
Till 2015, the total capacity of desalinated freshwater is 86.55 million cubic meter a day, which were obtained from around 18,000 plants for desalination around the globe. The Middle East and North Africa account for almost 44% of the above total capacity. Over the last 20 years, 80% of the energy utilized for freshwater producing has been lowered because of contemporary advancements in distillation technologies [16].
Desalination of brackish/saline water can be done in a variety of ways. Among the distillation methods, multistage flash desalination (MSFD), multi-effect distillation (MED), and reverse osmosis (RO) are considered the most commercial and economic viable technologies for distillation. These techniques are the most effective, and they will continue in the future [17]. Desalination can be done in several ways, as listed below.
MSFD is based on flashing of evaporation. Evaporation of saltwater occurs as a result of a decrease in pressure rather than a rise in temperature. Broadly speaking, regenerative heating is used to achieve a maximal production and best MSFD’s economics. The seawater flashing in the flashing chamber regenerates and transfers its thermal energy to the saltwater passing
Multistage evaporators, with roughly 19–28 stages, are utilized in recent MSFD plants [20]. The MSFD operating temperatures are between 90 and 120°C. The more the operating temperature of unit, the higher the efficiency of the system. Also, the pressure should be controlled under the water saturation temperature.
In the unit (see Figure 3), various devices or accessories such as demisters, decarbonators, and vacuum deaerators are employed for various reasons. Demisters are used to prevent the carryover of saline water into condensed distillate. Removing the dissolved gases in brine is the function of decarbonator and vacuum deaerator [22].
Illustration of processes of MSFD [
MED method is the earliest of all distillation techniques. Thermodynamically, it is the most constitutional technique among all other distillation methods. The term “effect” of the MED name refers to how many evaporators’ series. Then, the main fundamental of MED is the decrease in ambient pressure through various effects. In this process, no additional heat is required after the first effect. This is due to that MED automatically makes the saline water to be boiled many times through the corresponding pressure.
In this process, the saline water temperature is increased to its boiling value at the first effect through the heat exchanger tubes. The entering saline water is sprayed over the evaporator surface for better vapor generation. The created vapor is condensed on the other side of tubes. On the second hand, the condensation process is utilized on the same time to heat up the saline feedwater. Figure 4 illustrates the desalination with solar energy.
Desalination by solar energy [
MED economy relies on its effects number regarding its chained processes [8]. So, the first effect has some generated vapor from the seawater entering the effect. After that, the remaining water is fed to the next effect. The amid tubes are warmed up using the first-effect created vapor. Also, that vapor is condensated to produce potable water. Besides, the generated vapor heats up the remaining saline water of the next effect. This action is repeated from one effect to another under low pressure and temperature till the end of process with around 4–21 effects [23].
As it is known, raising the pressure of steam vapor leads to increase its temperature, and hence, the heat released from this vapor is increased. This concept is utilized in the VCD method, where the vapor-increased heat is utilized to evaporate the incoming saline water. So, the main key of VCD is reducing the medium pressure, which leads to decrease the boiling temperature of water [24]. This process can be achieved by either steam jet technique (thermo-compressor technique) or mechanical compressor device (electrically driven technique), and these techniques are utilized to condense vapor content into distillate and use the corresponding latent heat as a heat source for evaporating the incoming saline water.
In the technique of thermo-compressor, a venturi orifice is used in the stream of steam jet to create low pressure. After that, the vapor content is compressed
In addition, there is another kind of VCD, which depends on lowering the temperature inside the VCD, and hence, this kind needs only power to run. This technique of VCD is useful for small desalination units due to its simple construction, better efficiency, and process reliability [25]. As a result, VCD is applicable in resorts, industries, and drilling sites.
It is known that the water flows naturally from the freshwater direction to saltwater direction. RO depends mainly on a critical parameter called osmotic pressure, which should force the saltwater to flow in the opposite direction of natural flow. As a result, we need an external source of pressure to overcome the osmotic pressure. That external pressure must be more than the osmotic pressure. Hence, the name of this method (reverse osmosis) refers to the process meaning reversing the direction of normal water flow through the membrane. By applying this process, the salts in the saline water are left behind and not allowed to cross the membranes [26]. This process produces potable water (permeate) and brine water (concentrate) as illustrated in Figure 5. Also, Figure 5 illustrates the main components of RO unit such as the pretreatment, membranes, high-pressure pumps, and post-treatment.
Schematic of RO desalination technique [
The pretreatment process is important for eliminating the undesirable materials that damage the membrane [27]. It relies on the membrane kind and configuration, properties of feedwater, recovery ratio, and required permeate quantity and quality. According to those parameters, the pretreatment process has different techniques to be applied such as chlorination, coagulation, acid addition, micron cartridge filtration, multimedia filtration, and dechlorination. Moreover, to overcome the osmotic pressure, high-pressure pumping system such as the centrifugal pump is utilized. Additionally, the different membrane configurations such as the spiral wound and hollow fine fiber (HFF) strongly affect the performance of the RO unit [28]. Besides, adjusting the pH and adding H2S and CO2 are performed in the post-treatment process [29].
Another type of desalination processes is nominated freezing, which is simple to conduct and operate. This process depends mainly on the fact that the dissolved salts are removed while forming the ice crystals from the saline water. First, we clean and wash the saline water mixture to leave the salt in the left water behind before freezing the whole water. Then, we can get the freshwater
Freezing units have the merits of low power consumed, few corrosions, and eliminated scaling factors. But it has the demerits of handling water and ice mixtures because it is mechanically hard to treat. Unfortunately, this method still needs numerous improvements to be applied on the commercial level. Limited freezing stations exist all over the globe such as that was built in Saudi Arabia [31].
Here, the sun energy is the driving force for such solar desalination systems, which actually are alike the natural hydrological cycle. The natural hydrological cycle takes every day in the form of heating the seawater using the solar radiation to produce vapor, and this vapor content is condensated due to the low temperature in the heights. An application on the solar distillation systems is the greenhouse solar distiller [25, 32].
This process is almost linked to MSFD systems. This is because MSFD produces distillate with small impurities amounts, and then, the potabilization is utilized to eliminate these impurities [33]. The potabilization process can be conducted
The economics of any system determine its success. In desalination stations, the parameters of fixed cost, running costs, station location, maintenance cost, and energy consumption are the controlling factors of the station economics. There are two opposite directions for determining the economics of the desalination systems. First is the improvements in desalination systems, which leads to reduce the cost of the system as a whole. Second is the pollution and contamination of water, which raises the cost of the desalination system.
The economics and technical properties of the desalination method with the targeted quantity of freshwater are the factors based on which we select the distillation technique. The technical properties include the energy-driving source, consumed energy, freshwater specifications, land space of unit, station reliability, operational aspects, plant size, and the maintenance of spare parts, while the economic parameters include the fixed costs of the station, operating costs, interest rate, life cycle of station, and maintenance costs …etc. [37]. The cost of distilled freshwater is described by $/m3. The cost of desalinated water is determined using the following equation.
As explained before, solar distillation is one of the desalination techniques. Solar distiller is one of the solar distillation devices’ family. It is a simple in construction, cheap, and easy to maintain device [38]. But it has the demerit of few freshwater production. As a result, the scientists do their best to improve the yield of solar distillers [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45]. The solar distiller has the parts of glazing cover, basin, collecting trough, and some instruments as shown in Figures 6 and 7. The basin is fed by saline water to be heated and vaporized inside the distiller. Then, the vapor is condensed on the inner glazing surface. After that, the condensated droplets are taken out using a hose into the calibrated flasks. The surfaces of the solar distiller are painted with black for maximizing the absorbed solar radiations. Also, the device body is insulated by saw dust or fiberglass for avoiding the thermal losses. Moreover, the measuring instruments are utilized to be able to evaluate the solar distiller performance.
Single-basin distiller [
Solar still with simple basin [
One of the biggest problems of the twenty-first century is the global freshwater scarcity, which has numerous side effects on the mankind [47, 48]. The widespread of the water problem on a global level has made more impacts on the lives of people who live far from urbanization and remote areas, and more and more on the lives of the poor who do not have the costs of using high technology to produce water. As a result, the science developed various high and low water desalination technologies to be used at the level of industrial and commercial production and at the level of individuals and families [49]. The water desalination technologies can be categorized by membranes or thermal processes. Nevertheless, the high technologies demand building complex and large central installations, which causes them to be infeasible for developing regions such as distributed, poor, and remote areas. In addition, the rural, arid, and remote areas need desalination methods with no or minimum maintenance, supervising, and operating requirements [41, 45]. Consequently, the solar-powered desalination units such as solar distillers meet all these conditions, which make them as an efficient candidate to provide drinkable water in these regions [42, 43].
Nevertheless, the solar distillers have low output productivity (1.5–2.5 L/m2 day) and low thermal efficiency (≈ 30%), which are the main bottlenecks of this distillation technique [50, 51, 52]. As a result, numerous investigations focused on improving the performance of solar distillers. Consequently, the solar stills such as stepped type [53, 54, 55] (the absorber of the basin takes the steps shape), disk type [56] (the main effective absorber is a rotating disk), vertical type [57] (the distiller horizontal width is very small compared to its vertical height), tubular type [58, 59, 60] (the outer shape of the distiller is tubular/cylindrical), drum type [61, 62] (the absorber is a rotating drum inside the basin still), PV/T active type [63, 64] (distiller powered by PV panels), finned type [65] (the absorber of the distiller is a collection of fins), trays type [66, 67, 68, 69] (the main effective absorber has trays to enlarge the surface area), inclined type [70] (the absorber is inclined), wick type [10, 71, 72] (the wick material is spread over the absorber of distiller), corrugated type [73, 74] (the absorber of the distiller is a collection of corrugated shapes), spherical type [75] (the distiller takes the shape of sphere), double-effect type [76, 77, 78] (the distiller has two stages of water basins), multistage type [79] (the distiller has multistages of water basins), inverted absorber type [80] (the distiller has inverted absorber inside it), hemispherical type [81] (the distiller takes the shape of sphere), convex type [82, 83] (the absorber has a convex shape), and pyramid type [84, 85, 86] (the distiller takes the form of pyramid) are found in the literature. In addition, numerous modifications were performed to improve the distiller performance. These modifications included the use of condensation unit [87, 88, 89], nanofluids [90, 91], heat exchanger [92], floating aluminum sheet [93], desiccant [94], solar ponds [95], glass cooling [44], volcanic rocks [96], wick materials [71], rotating parts [97, 98, 99], coated absorbers [100, 101], phase change materials (PCM) [102, 103, 104], fins [105], half barrel and corrugated absorbers [106], solar collectors [107], sun-tracking systems [108], multiple-effect basins [109], reflectors [110], vapor extraction [111, 112, 113], and reusing latent heat of evaporation [114].
The solar distillers can be classified into single-effect and multi-effect distillers (according to the number of effects of distiller) with a subcategory of active and passive distillers (according to the vaporization heat source) inside every classification [2]. In the passive distillers, the vaporization occurs directly without external sources of heat, while using external heat sources such as collectors and concentrators are used in the active solar distillers.
This is the traditional solar distiller (or conventional distiller) without any modifications [115]. Also, it is used as a reference for the other modified distillers’ performances. Here, in this type of distillers, there is just one glass cover over the basin water. Also, the thermal losses in this type of distiller are large due to the single glass cover, which hence decreases its performance. Therefore, the efficacy of this distiller is low around 30–40% [2]. As a result, numerous experimental and empirical investigations were performed to augment the distiller performance. This type of distillers (single-effect solar distillers) is categorized into active and passive distillers.
The word “active” means that the solar distiller is integrated with somewhat external source of heat such as the solar concentrators and collectors [2]. Then, the active distillers include the following items:
Regenerative distillers
Air bubbled distillers
Waste heat recovery distillers
Distiller with heat exchangers
Distiller integrated with concentrators
Distiller incorporated with hybrid units
Distiller incorporated with heaters
Figure 8 shows the active distiller integrated with evacuated collector.
Active distiller integrated with evacuated collector [
Here, the heat source for basin water vaporization is only from inside of distiller [2]. Then, the passive solar distillers include the following kinds.
Basin distiller (conventional distiller).
Wick distiller.
Weir-type distiller.
Spherical distiller.
Tubular distiller.
Pyramid distiller.
Diffusion distiller.
Greenhouse combination distiller.
Stepped distiller.
For example, Figure 9 obtains a passive distiller incorporated with condenser, and Figure 10 reveals a passive distiller incorporated with internal and external mirrors.
Passive distiller integrated to condenser [
Passive distiller integrated with mirrors: Schematic and photo diagrams [
Multi-effect solar distillers are different in design from the single-basin distillers. Also, the modified design of multi-effect distillers helped enhancing the performance of the distillers. Here, in these types of distillers, the condensation latent heat is utilized as a recovery source of heat to obtain more vaporization through the effect of the distillers, and hence, the freshwater production is augmented [119]. Now, multi-effect solar distillers are categorized into two main sections: active and passive distillers as the following.
It is the same concept of the single-effect distiller. The word “active” means that the solar distiller is integrated with somewhat external source of heat such as the solar concentrators and collectors. Various distiller kinds can be found in the literature under the category of active distiller-based multi-effect distillers.
Multistage evacuated active distiller.
Multi-basin inverted absorber active distiller.
Waste heat recovery active distiller.
Multi-effect condensation–evaporation desalination unit.
Distiller integrated with collectors such as flat plate and tube collector.
A multi-effect active distiller with collector is illustrated in Figure 11. Also, Figure 12 shows a condensation-evaporation active distiller.
Double-effect single-slope active still: a coupled with solar collector in thermosiphon mode and b coupled with solar collector in forced circulation mode [
Condensation–evaporation active distiller [
Here, the passive multi-effect distillers include the following designs of distillers.
Wick distillers.
Conventional distillers.
Weir-type distillers.
Diffusion distillers.
Figure 13 illustrates a passive wick distiller, and Figure 14 shows a double-basin double-effect passive distiller.
Wick-passive distiller [
Double-effect double-basin passive distiller [
Artificial intelligence (AI) is quickly progressing every day. Computers can easily perform the difficult tasks for the humans to do. AI is first contrived in 1950. AI passed with steps and stages; some failed and others succeeded. Deep learning with powerful computers is the main keys of the success of AI. With time, AI can solve numerous industrial problems including the image processing, recognition of speech, language processing, optimization, prediction, robotic automation, categorization, self-driving cars …etc. AI is of numerous branches, and we will focus, in this chapter, on the neural networks (NNs). NNs help the computers to teach themselves from observing the data to predict the system performances. Preparing data for neural network processing is typically the most difficult and time-consuming task you will encounter when working with neural networks. In addition to the enormous volume of data that could easily reach millions and even billions of records, the main difficulty is in preparing the data in the correct format for the task in question.
Contemporary experience indicates that artificial neural networks (ANN’s) may be specifically appropriate to offer tools to assist desalination plant operators in day-to-day operations. Prediction of the productivity of the desalination units is an essential consequence to evaluate its potentiality to provide potable water with involving in conducting more experiments. AI-based methods are stated as robust tools to obtain the correlation between the process parameters and responses [123, 124, 125, 126, 127]. This chapter suggests that ANNs are particularly appropriate as the basis for the development of tools to aid in the various phases of operating a desalination plant. In solar energy applications, different kinds of ANNs predicted and optimized the performance of collectors, cells, distillers, etc. [128]. The most application of ANNs is solving the issues of designing and procedures in electric power systems. Due to the similarities between power plants and desalination plants, the methods of ANNs can be used to predict the performance of desalination plants [129]. The merits of applying ANN included that it handles large amounts of datasets, can discover complex nonlinear relationships among all parameters (dependent and independent), and can find all interactions among all tested parameters.
Zarei and Behyad [130] introduced an ANN to test the effective parameters of the greenhouse on water productivity such as width, length, height of evaporator, and roof transparency. The method obtained an acceptable agreement with the experimental results. Tayyebi and Alishiri [131] used a nonlinear inverse model control strategy based on neural network for predicting the performance of MSF desalination plant. The proposed NNs consisted of three layers identified from input–output data and trained with a descent gradient algorithm. The set point tracking performance of the proposed method was studied when the disturbance is present in MSF unit. Three controllers were provided for checking the saline temperature, last stage level, and salinity. The results obtained that a neural network inverse model control strategy is robust and highly promising to be implemented in such nonlinear systems. An ANN model based on field data was built to investigate the vacuum membrane distillation (VMD) performance at various factors [132]. The introduced model could accurately predict the unseen data of VMD. The correlation coefficient of the overall agreement between ANN predictions and experimental data was found to be more than 0.994. Aish et al. [133] utilized ANN to forecast reverse osmosis performance in Gaza Strip through predicting the next week values of total dissolved solids (TDS) and permeate flow rate of the product water. Multilayer perceptron (MLP) and radial basis function (RBF) neural networks were trained and developed with reference to feedwater parameters including the pressure, pH, and conductivity to predict permeate next week values of flow rate. MLP and RBF neural networks were used for predicting the next week TDS concentrations. Both networks are trained and developed with reference to product water quality variables including the water temperature, pH, conductivity, and pressure. The prediction results showed that both types of neural networks are highly satisfactory for predicting TDS level in the product water quality and satisfactory for predicting permeate flow rate.
Santos et al. [134] simulated the distiller yield based on local weather data such as the solar irradiance, air temperature, glass temperature, and air speed and direction by ANNs. Essa et al. [51] introduced an enhanced ANNs incorporated to Harris Hawks optimizer to anticipate the distiller yield. The optimizer was utilized to get the optimal structure and network factors. Nevertheless, traditional artificial neural networks suffer from trapping in local optima problem during learning process. To overcome this problem, RVFL is proposed as it determines the output weights without involving in time-consuming learning process. Besides, RVFL has a direct connection among the input and output nodes, which is of a substantial impact on the network performance. This aids in avoiding the overfitting issue occurring in other ANNs. Using these merits, the conventional RVFL networks has some restrictions like that there are various conformations can be utilized, and this can affect the quality of water productivity final prediction. Then, Ensemble Random Vector Functional Link Networks (EnsRVFL) [135], which relies on RVFL as a basic modeling, were utilized to eliminate these restrictions of RVFL. A random vector functional link (RVFL) network integrated with artificial ecosystem-based optimization (AEO) algorithm was introduced to predict the seawater greenhouse (SWGH) performance [52]. Power consumption and yield of SWGH were predicted
Based on the above explained sections, the following points can be concluded. The most economic and efficient method to get freshwater is desalination. Demisters are the main component of MSFD technique to prevent mixing the distillate by brine. The thermal performance of MED is better than that of MSFD. For example, GOR is 10 and 15 for MSFD and MED, respectively. RO is considered as the most commercial, economic, and efficient techniques of distillation. The economics and technical properties of the desalination method with the targeted quantity of freshwater are the factors based on which we select the distillation technique. Solar distillers are the simplest and easiest way to get potable water, but they suffer from the few yields. The solar distillers can be classified into single-effect and multi-effect distillers (according to the number of effects of distiller) with a subcategory of active and passive distillers (according to the vaporization heat source) inside every classification.
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\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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2022",editors:[{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11308",title:"Selected Topics on Infant Feeding",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"213c3e403327a2919eca1dc5e82a0ec3",slug:"selected-topics-on-infant-feeding",bookSignature:"Isam Jaber AL-Zwaini and Haider Hadi AL-Musawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11308.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"August 17th 2022",editors:[{id:"30993",title:"Prof.",name:"Isam Jaber",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Zwaini",slug:"isam-jaber-al-zwaini",fullName:"Isam Jaber Al-Zwaini"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental 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Raja",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11331.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"August 17th 2022",editors:[{id:"176044",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Vijayakumar",slug:"ramasamy-vijayakumar",fullName:"Ramasamy Vijayakumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10820",title:"Data Clustering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"086d299ffd05aacd2311c3ca4ebf0d3a",slug:"data-clustering",bookSignature:"Niansheng Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"August 17th 2022",editors:[{id:"221831",title:"Prof.",name:"Niansheng",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"niansheng-tang",fullName:"Niansheng Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care",subtitle:"An Important Issue of the Modern Society",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a0ceb9ced4598aea3f3723f6dc4ea04",slug:"oral-health-care-an-important-issue-of-the-modern-society",bookSignature:"Lavinia Cosmina Ardelean and Laura Cristina Rusu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"August 17th 2022",editors:[{id:"180569",title:"Dr.",name:"Lavinia",middleName:null,surname:"Ardelean",slug:"lavinia-ardelean",fullName:"Lavinia Ardelean"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11139",title:"Geochemistry and Mineral Resources",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"928cebbdce21d9b3f081267b24f12dfb",slug:"geochemistry-and-mineral-resources",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"August 17th 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"993",title:"Pre-Hospital Emergency Medicine",slug:"critical-care-medicine-pre-hospital-emergency-medicine",parent:{id:"173",title:"Critical Care Medicine",slug:"critical-care-medicine"},numberOfBooks:3,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:69,numberOfWosCitations:18,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfDimensionsCitations:22,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"993",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5970",title:"Bedside Procedures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ba56d3036ac823a7155f40e4a02c030d",slug:"bedside-procedures",bookSignature:"Gabriel Cismaru",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5970.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5756",title:"Intensive Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c15f872f6c0158a19bf64f081fe1e854",slug:"intensive-care",bookSignature:"Nissar Shaikh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5756.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107703",title:"Dr.",name:"Nissar",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"nissar-shaikh",fullName:"Nissar Shaikh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5220",title:"Oncology Critical Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ca48669ac7afaf59398a958335eff65",slug:"oncology-critical-care",bookSignature:"Jeffrey B. Hoag",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5220.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91738",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Hoag",slug:"jeffrey-hoag",fullName:"Jeffrey Hoag"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"52089",doi:"10.5772/64372",title:"Infections in Cancer Patients",slug:"infections-in-cancer-patients",totalDownloads:2569,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Cancer therapy is a dynamically evolving field. Chemotherapy and biologic agents impact the magnitude and duration of immunosuppression in the already-immunocompromised cancer hosts who are then susceptible to a broad spectrum of infectious complications ranging from mild opportunistic infections to severe, fatal neutropenic sepsis. Numerous bacterial, fungal, and viral organisms have been implicated dictating varied preventative approaches. Rapid assessment and risk stratification of febrile patients identify individuals requiring hospital admission. Timely delivery of antimicrobials reduces the risk of complications and death. Herein, we summarize the current “state of art” in the management of infection in the cancer patient. We detail the advances in antibacterial and antifungal therapy.",book:{id:"5220",slug:"oncology-critical-care",title:"Oncology Critical Care",fullTitle:"Oncology Critical Care"},signatures:"Deepjot Singh and Robert A. Bonomo",authors:[{id:"181936",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepjot",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"deepjot-singh",fullName:"Deepjot Singh"},{id:"187145",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Bonomo",slug:"robert-bonomo",fullName:"Robert Bonomo"}]},{id:"55443",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68630",title:"Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage",slug:"aneurysmal-subarachnoid-hemorrhage",totalDownloads:2940,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a devastating neurological syndrome, which occurs at a rate of 3–25 per 100,000 population. Smoking and hypertension are the most important risk factors of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Rupture of cerebral aneurysm leads to rapid spread of blood into cerebrospinal fluid and subsequently leads to sudden increase of intracranial pressure and severe headache. Subarachnoid hemorrhage is associated with neurological (such as re‐bleeding and vasospasm) and systemic (such as myocardial injury and hyponatremia) complications that are causes of high mortality and morbidity. Although patients with poor‐grade subarachnoid hemorrhage are at higher risk of neurological and systemic complications, the early and aggressive management of this group of patient has decreased overall mortality by 17% in last 40 years. Early aneurysm repair, close monitoring in dedicated neurological intensive care unit, prevention, and aggressive management of medical and neurological complications are the most important strategies to improve outcome.",book:{id:"5756",slug:"intensive-care",title:"Intensive Care",fullTitle:"Intensive Care"},signatures:"Adel E. Ahmed Ganaw, Abdulgafoor M. Tharayil, Ali O. Mohamed\nBel Khair, Saher Tahseen, Jazib Hassan, Mohammad Faisal Abdullah\nMalmstrom and Sohel Mohamed Gamal Ahmed",authors:[{id:"198979",title:"Dr.",name:"Saher",middleName:null,surname:"Tahseen",slug:"saher-tahseen",fullName:"Saher Tahseen"},{id:"199923",title:"Dr.",name:"Adel. E. Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Ganaw",slug:"adel.-e.-ahmad-ganaw",fullName:"Adel. E. Ahmad Ganaw"},{id:"200584",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulgafoor",middleName:null,surname:"Tharayil",slug:"abdulgafoor-tharayil",fullName:"Abdulgafoor Tharayil"},{id:"205193",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"O Mohamed",surname:"Bel Khair",slug:"ali-bel-khair",fullName:"Ali Bel Khair"},{id:"205194",title:"Dr.",name:"Jazib",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",slug:"jazib-hassan",fullName:"Jazib Hassan"},{id:"205195",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Faisal",middleName:null,surname:"Malmstrom",slug:"m.-faisal-malmstrom",fullName:"M. Faisal Malmstrom"},{id:"205787",title:"Dr.",name:"Sohel Mohamed Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"sohel-mohamed-gamal-ahmed",fullName:"Sohel Mohamed Gamal Ahmed"}]},{id:"56878",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70498",title:"Lumbar Puncture of the Newborn",slug:"lumbar-puncture-of-the-newborn",totalDownloads:1462,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Heinrich Irenäus Quincke was the first person in medical history to perform lumbar puncture (LP). Indications of lumbar puncture include suspected meningitis, suspected subarachnoid hemorrhage, administration of chemotherapeutic agents, instillation of contrast media for imaging of the spinal cord, and the evaluation of various neurologic conditions including normal pressure hydrocephalus and Guillain-Barré syndrome, and the treatment of idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Contraindications of lumbar puncture include findings of increased intracranial pressure, bleeding diathesis, cardiopulmonary instability, soft tissue infection at the puncture site, shock, respiratory insufficiency, and suspected meningococcal septicemia with extensive or spreading purpura. Altered mental status, focal neurologic signs, papilledema, focal seizure, and risk for brain abscess are indications for cranial imaging before performing LP. Lack of local anesthetic use and advancement of the spinal needle with the stylet in place were most prominent risk factors for a traumatic LP. Ultrasound may minimize the number of LP attempts and decrease patient and parent anxiety by easily identifying an insertion site. Infection, spinal hematoma, epidermoid tumor, and cerebral herniation are the main complications of LP. When LP is traumatic, the wisest approach is to assume the patient is having meningitis and start empirical therapy.",book:{id:"5970",slug:"bedside-procedures",title:"Bedside Procedures",fullTitle:"Bedside Procedures"},signatures:"Selim Öncel",authors:[{id:"200133",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Öncel",slug:"selim-oncel",fullName:"Selim Öncel"}]},{id:"54793",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68308",title:"Intensive Care Unit Workforce: Occupational Health and Safety",slug:"intensive-care-unit-workforce-occupational-health-and-safety",totalDownloads:2221,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"There are many different work tasks and workplace hazards related to the ICU setting. The workplace hazards include the physical environment of the ICU, working conditions, psychosocial factors, ergonomic factors, biological factors and chemical factors that cause ICU workers to have health problems. The occurrence of occupational health problems in ICU workers not only leads to decreased job satisfaction and productivity but also increases absenteeism and burnout. Moreover, this situation adversely affects patient care and increases the cost of treatment. Recognising occupational hazards and risks arising from the work environment will assist in planning strategies to protect and promote health programmes for ICU workers. Understanding the importance of occupational health and safety practices by all institutions is a key factor to improve quality of life, work efficiency and work satisfaction of ICU workers.",book:{id:"5756",slug:"intensive-care",title:"Intensive Care",fullTitle:"Intensive Care"},signatures:"Melek Nihal Esin and Duygu Sezgin",authors:[{id:"183522",title:"Prof.",name:"Melek Nihal",middleName:null,surname:"Esin",slug:"melek-nihal-esin",fullName:"Melek Nihal Esin"},{id:"197030",title:"Dr.",name:"Duygu",middleName:null,surname:"Sezgin",slug:"duygu-sezgin",fullName:"Duygu Sezgin"}]},{id:"54955",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68348",title:"Acute Kidney Injury in the Intensive Care Unit",slug:"acute-kidney-injury-in-the-intensive-care-unit",totalDownloads:2452,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Acute kidney injury (AKI) is defined as an abrupt decrease in glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Incidence varies from 20% to as high as 70% in critically ill patients. Classically, AKI has been divided into three broad pathophysiologic categories: prerenal AKI, intrinsic AKI, and postrenal (obstructive) AKI. The clinical manifestations of AKI vary among a wide range of symptoms and metabolic abnormalities. A sudden decrease in GFR will result in rising concentrations of solutes in the blood, which are normally excreted by the kidneys. Recently, new urinary and serum biomarkers have gained a place in the diagnosis, classification, and prognosis prediction of AKI. The best treatment for AKI is prevention. Patients with prerenal azotemia should have intravascular volume deficits corrected and cardiac function optimized. Obstructive (postrenal) kidney disease is treated by mechanical relief of the block. The primary management of acute interstitial nephritis is discontinuation of the inciting agent. Renal replacement therapy (RRT) has emerged as a supportive mechanism rather than just as a lifesaving measure. Continuous techniques are preferable in treating critically ill patients, although every modality has its benefits, indications, and contraindications.",book:{id:"5756",slug:"intensive-care",title:"Intensive Care",fullTitle:"Intensive Care"},signatures:"Jose J. Zaragoza and Faustino J. Renteria",authors:[{id:"181646",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:"Jesus",surname:"Zaragoza",slug:"jose-zaragoza",fullName:"Jose Zaragoza"},{id:"200843",title:"Dr.",name:"Faustino",middleName:null,surname:"Renteria",slug:"faustino-renteria",fullName:"Faustino Renteria"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55736",title:"Haemodynamic Monitoring in the Intensive Care Unit",slug:"haemodynamic-monitoring-in-the-intensive-care-unit",totalDownloads:3370,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Monitoring is a cognitive aid that allows clinicians to detect the nature and extent of pathology and helps assessment of response to therapy. The cardiovascular system is the most commonly monitored organ system in the critical care setting. It helps identify the presence and nature of shock and guides response to resuscitation by detection of cardiac rate and rhythm, evaluation of volume state, cardiac contractility and systemic vascular resistance. Newer technologies allow greater assessment of oxygen delivery to vulnerable tissues. We discuss the nature, history, modalities and interpretation of the most commonly available haemodynamic monitoring methods in clinical use currently.",book:{id:"5756",slug:"intensive-care",title:"Intensive Care",fullTitle:"Intensive Care"},signatures:"Mainak Majumdar",authors:[{id:"86678",title:"Dr.",name:"Mainak",middleName:null,surname:"Majumdar",slug:"mainak-majumdar",fullName:"Mainak Majumdar"}]},{id:"56744",title:"Endotracheal Intubation in Children: Practice Recommendations, Insights, and Future Directions",slug:"endotracheal-intubation-in-children-practice-recommendations-insights-and-future-directions",totalDownloads:2450,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Management of airway is mandatory in a critically ill child with severe trauma or any other situation that threatens his or her life. It is important, that clinicians who attend critically ill pediatric patients requiring airway management know the rapid sequence intubation (RSI) procedure, identify a patient with difficult airway, know the devices and techniques for the management of difficult airway, and look for receiving a formal training in endotracheal intubation (ETI). Future strategies for teaching and/or training clinicians in pediatric and neonatal ETI should be evaluated through conducting controlled clinical trials to identify which type will be the most effective by considering the less number of attempts and complications.",book:{id:"5970",slug:"bedside-procedures",title:"Bedside Procedures",fullTitle:"Bedside Procedures"},signatures:"Maribel Ibarra-Sarlat, Eduardo Terrones-Vargas, Lizett Romero-\nEspinoza, Graciela Castañeda-Muciño, Alejandro Herrera-Landero\nand Juan Carlos Núñez-Enríquez",authors:[{id:"166303",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:"Carlos",surname:"Nuñez-Enriquez",slug:"juan-nunez-enriquez",fullName:"Juan Nuñez-Enriquez"},{id:"206296",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Terrones-Vargas",slug:"eduardo-terrones-vargas",fullName:"Eduardo Terrones-Vargas"},{id:"206297",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Ibarra-Sarlat",slug:"maribel-ibarra-sarlat",fullName:"Maribel Ibarra-Sarlat"},{id:"206298",title:"Dr.",name:"Lizett",middleName:null,surname:"Romero-Espinoza",slug:"lizett-romero-espinoza",fullName:"Lizett Romero-Espinoza"},{id:"206299",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Herrera-Landero",slug:"alejandro-herrera-landero",fullName:"Alejandro Herrera-Landero"},{id:"213723",title:"Dr.",name:"Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Castañeda-Muciño",slug:"graciela-castaneda-mucino",fullName:"Graciela Castañeda-Muciño"}]},{id:"55848",title:"Airway Management in ICU Settings",slug:"airway-management-in-icu-settings",totalDownloads:2864,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Maintenance of patent airway, adequate ventilation, and pulmonary gas exchange is very important in critically ill patients. Airway management in intensive care patients differs significantly from routine surgical procedures in the operating room. The airway competence in intensive care unit (ICU) should be coping with the rapidly evolving advances in airway management. Therefore, efforts should be focused on the three pillars of airway master: airway providers as intensivists or critical care physicians, equipment, and operational plans. Not all institutions can afford all airway equipment in the market; however, they should make sure that critical care providers have a full access to the available tools and they are comfortable using it. Educational sessions and refresher courses should be tailored to meet the competence level of the ICU providers and equipment availability. Operational plan includes developing institutional airway protocols and implementing difficult airway guidelines. The protocols should consider different staffing models of ICU and make sure all the time at least one member of the team with the highest experience in airway should be always available. The aim of writing this chapter is to enable the intensivist to optimize their use of airway equipment and managing high‐risk patients in ICU.",book:{id:"5756",slug:"intensive-care",title:"Intensive Care",fullTitle:"Intensive Care"},signatures:"Nabil Abdelhamid Shallik, Mamdouh Almustafa, Ahmed Zaghw\nand Abbas Moustafa",authors:[{id:"202782",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil A.",middleName:null,surname:"Shallik",slug:"nabil-a.-shallik",fullName:"Nabil A. Shallik"},{id:"206965",title:"Dr.",name:"Mamdouh",middleName:null,surname:"Almustafa",slug:"mamdouh-almustafa",fullName:"Mamdouh Almustafa"},{id:"206966",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Zaghw",slug:"ahmed-zaghw",fullName:"Ahmed Zaghw"},{id:"206967",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa"}]},{id:"56878",title:"Lumbar Puncture of the Newborn",slug:"lumbar-puncture-of-the-newborn",totalDownloads:1461,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Heinrich Irenäus Quincke was the first person in medical history to perform lumbar puncture (LP). Indications of lumbar puncture include suspected meningitis, suspected subarachnoid hemorrhage, administration of chemotherapeutic agents, instillation of contrast media for imaging of the spinal cord, and the evaluation of various neurologic conditions including normal pressure hydrocephalus and Guillain-Barré syndrome, and the treatment of idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Contraindications of lumbar puncture include findings of increased intracranial pressure, bleeding diathesis, cardiopulmonary instability, soft tissue infection at the puncture site, shock, respiratory insufficiency, and suspected meningococcal septicemia with extensive or spreading purpura. Altered mental status, focal neurologic signs, papilledema, focal seizure, and risk for brain abscess are indications for cranial imaging before performing LP. Lack of local anesthetic use and advancement of the spinal needle with the stylet in place were most prominent risk factors for a traumatic LP. Ultrasound may minimize the number of LP attempts and decrease patient and parent anxiety by easily identifying an insertion site. Infection, spinal hematoma, epidermoid tumor, and cerebral herniation are the main complications of LP. When LP is traumatic, the wisest approach is to assume the patient is having meningitis and start empirical therapy.",book:{id:"5970",slug:"bedside-procedures",title:"Bedside Procedures",fullTitle:"Bedside Procedures"},signatures:"Selim Öncel",authors:[{id:"200133",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Öncel",slug:"selim-oncel",fullName:"Selim Öncel"}]},{id:"55443",title:"Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage",slug:"aneurysmal-subarachnoid-hemorrhage",totalDownloads:2938,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a devastating neurological syndrome, which occurs at a rate of 3–25 per 100,000 population. Smoking and hypertension are the most important risk factors of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Rupture of cerebral aneurysm leads to rapid spread of blood into cerebrospinal fluid and subsequently leads to sudden increase of intracranial pressure and severe headache. Subarachnoid hemorrhage is associated with neurological (such as re‐bleeding and vasospasm) and systemic (such as myocardial injury and hyponatremia) complications that are causes of high mortality and morbidity. Although patients with poor‐grade subarachnoid hemorrhage are at higher risk of neurological and systemic complications, the early and aggressive management of this group of patient has decreased overall mortality by 17% in last 40 years. Early aneurysm repair, close monitoring in dedicated neurological intensive care unit, prevention, and aggressive management of medical and neurological complications are the most important strategies to improve outcome.",book:{id:"5756",slug:"intensive-care",title:"Intensive Care",fullTitle:"Intensive Care"},signatures:"Adel E. Ahmed Ganaw, Abdulgafoor M. Tharayil, Ali O. Mohamed\nBel Khair, Saher Tahseen, Jazib Hassan, Mohammad Faisal Abdullah\nMalmstrom and Sohel Mohamed Gamal Ahmed",authors:[{id:"198979",title:"Dr.",name:"Saher",middleName:null,surname:"Tahseen",slug:"saher-tahseen",fullName:"Saher Tahseen"},{id:"199923",title:"Dr.",name:"Adel. E. Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Ganaw",slug:"adel.-e.-ahmad-ganaw",fullName:"Adel. E. 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