Cognitive domains affected in NF1.
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Neurofibromatosis is a collection of three distinct autosomal dominant genetic disorders including neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1), neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2), and schwannomatosis. Each of these disorders has their own genetic variant, symptoms, and disease course [1]. These disorders are neurocutaneous syndromes, which represent a group of central nervous system (CNS) disorders with simultaneous lesions of other organs such as the skin or eye. One core common symptom among these conditions is that they cause tumors of nerve sheath [2].
\nIn this chapter, we discuss cognitive, academic, and adaptive effects of neurofibromatosis over the course of the lifespan. Through review and synthesis of the extant literature, we summarize what is currently known regarding cognitive sequelae associated with neurofibromatosis and discuss the functional impact with regard to learning, academics, and overall quality of life (QoL). Neurofibromatosis is a multisystem disorder that can cause multiple nerve sheath tumors throughout the body [1]. Each of the three conditions present with their own distinct as well as overlapping symptoms that can have a negative impact on QoL (e.g., chronic pain, bone abnormalities, skin disorders, hearing problems, and learning disabilities) [3, 4]. The presence of benign and malignant tumors, depending on their presentation and treatment regimen, can impact cognitive and developmental functioning [1]. Understanding the functional impact of this disorder is especially crucial in order to improve quality of life throughout the lifespan, as there is no known cure for neurofibromatosis [3]. NF1 is one of the most prevalent and researched genetic disorders. In contrast, prevalence rates of NF2 and Schwannomatosis are much lower, and related research is much more limited. As such, this chapter will focus on the most common of the genetic conditions, NF1.
\nNF1 is characterized by cutaneous symptoms, including café-au-lait spots, skin neurofibromas, bone abnormalities (e.g., scoliosis), and glial cell tumors (gliomas) [2]. It is associated with a range of developmental and cognitive issues that are present throughout the lifespan. Cognitive and learning problems are the most common complications associated with NF1 [5, 6, 7]. In contrast, we did not find any studies that directly investigate the cognitive impact and learning issues of NF2 or Schwannomatosis. This is likely in part because these conditions are less prevalent and believed not to be directly associated with learning issues or academic struggles. That said, these are multisystem conditions that can impact vision and hearing, which can have indirect impact on cognitive skills and learning. Thus, we will discuss the cognitive effects of NF2 and Schwannomatosis indirectly by looking at associated common symptoms of the disorders that can impact cognition. NF2 is defined by bilateral vestibular schwannomas (i.e., benign Schwann cell tumors on the vestibulocochlear nerve), which can cause hearing loss and balance issues [1]. Schwannomatosis is the newest recognized form of neurofibromatosis and is characterized by multiple schwannomas that typically occur in adulthood [1]. The degree of physical/medical phenotypical symptom presentation of each of these conditions is highly variable [1, 3]. Not surprisingly, the cognitive impact of these disorders has been found to be just as variable, which will be discussed more in detail below. At this time, the current literature does not demonstrate to what extent specific cognitive skills are related to each NF phenotype, and it is not yet known whether the presence of predisposing genetic factors for each variant of NF explain this heterogeneity of cognitive outcomes.
\nBecause the phenotypic expression of NF1 is so variable, some individuals living with NF1 are unaware they have the disorder while others are significantly impacted. Additionally, symptoms and signs of NF1 can be fluid and can change in presentation throughout a person’s life [8]. In more severe presentations, NF1 can cause physical disfigurement and can be accompanied by significant neurological problems, such as brain tumor and seizures [2]. As noted above, NF1 is a disorder that affects multiple systems in the body, including the brain.
\nThere have been many studies that have investigated the cognitive and learning issues associated with NF1 across age groups throughout the lifespan. One reason that the cognitive and learning struggles associated with NF1 have been well-researched is that NF1 is a single gene disorder (i.e., a mutation of the tumor suppressor gene on chromosome 17), and as such it presents an opportunity to investigate cognitive dysfunction at the molecular and cellular level [9]. The NF1 gene encodes the neurofibromin protein, which serves a vital role in regulating the development of the brain [10]. Brain abnormalities have been detected in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies of those with NF1, such as increased white matter volume, increased subcortical gray matter volume in the thalamus right caudate, decreased cortical gray matter density, T2 hyperintensities (T2H), macrocephaly, and reduced integrity of white matter microstructure [11, 12, 13]. Research has also indicated that thalamic T2H as well as volume abnormalities in the corpus callosum, putamen, and amygdala are specifically associated with cognitive deficits in NF1 [11, 14]. Of note, studies looking into the number of T2 spots and how this relates to cognitive impairment have been inconsistently documented [15].
\nMedical complications that can co-occur with NF1 may lead to or compound cognitive deficits. For example, children with oncological complications of NF1 (e.g., brain tumors) are at risk for long-term cognitive issues as a result of treatment with chemotherapy and/or cranial irradiation [16]. Optic gliomas, tumors that arise from the nerve sheath of the optic nerve, are fairly common in children with NF1 and are sometimes associated with visual impairment, which can impact cognitive skills. The presence of a brain tumor also increases the risk of seizures or additional tumors arising in other areas of the brain [17], which can lead to specific cognitive deficits dependent on the area of the brain it is impacting. NF1 has also been associated with increased rates of other rarer neurological conditions that have known cognitive effects, including cortical dysplasia and hemimegalencephaly, as well as cerebrovascular diseases such as Moyamoya syndrome [17, 18, 19].
\nJust as the severity of phenotypic expression and incidences of medical symptoms are quite variable within those with NF1, the impact on the CNS and subsequent cognitive and academic functioning are significantly heterogeneous. Cognitive and academic weaknesses are some of the most common symptoms in NF1 [5, 6, 7]. Cognitive weaknesses can present challenges for the individual, and this has been shown to occur across the lifespan [7]. Findings from studies with very young children have noted that developmental delays and subsequent academic struggles and learning disabilities are pervasive [12, 20]. With regard to investigations with adults and elderly adults, cognitive weaknesses have been noted to be fairly stable over time from childhood [6, 21, 22]. Overall, the level and type of functional impairment may vary depending on what period in life an individual is in (e.g., preschool, school aged, college, working adult, elderly). Across age groups, cognitive issues associated with NF1 have significant associated morbidities, including weaker adaptive skills [15]. Additional consequences of cognitive difficulties associated with NF1 include poorer academic achievement and overall reduced QoL [3].
\nBelow we will provide an in-depth discussion on the cognitive morbidities associated with NF1 as indicated by current research. Table 1 summarizes specific cognitive domains and findings related to the NF1 population, including overall intellectual ability as well as underlying cognitive functions including language, nonverbal skills, memory, attention, executive functions, academic skills, and adaptive skills.
\nDomain | \nDefinition | \nCommon findings | \n
---|---|---|
Intellectual ability (IQ) | \nSummary score of overall cognitive/reasoning ability | \nMultiple studies suggest IQ to be mildly reduced (IQ ~ 90) | \n
Language | \nHow well a person expresses (including speech) and understands language | \nStudies have varied. Weaknesses with expressive language and speech are more common than receptive language issues Limited studies in adults. | \n
Nonverbal skills | \nVisual spatial and fluid reasoning skills | \nWeaknesses are very common; however, recent studies suggest that findings are confounded by executive function demands inherent in nonverbal measures | \n
Memory | \nLearning and retention of information | \nStudies on explicit memory have been variable. Weakness with working memory (short term memory) are common | \n
Attention | \nAbility to focus, maintain focus on a task | \nMultiple studies have noted attention problems to be very common. Up to 70% of children demonstrate deficit(s) in one or more aspect of attention | \n
Executive functioning | \nA collection of higher order skills that assist with complex goal directed behavior | \nWeaknesses are common. Specific weaknesses with planning/organization and working memory | \n
Academic skills | \nSkills learned in school that include reading, writing, and mathematics | \nWeaknesses are very common. Studies vary in prevalence from 20 to 75%, which appears in part to how learning problems are defined | \n
Adaptive skills | \nBasic skills needed for independent living | \nMildly reduced, similar to IQ above | \n
Cognitive domains affected in NF1.
Studies investigating specific cognitive domains as they relate to NF1 have been wide ranging in their outcomes. Early on, it was believed that in childhood, NF1 was associated with a “nonverbal learning disability” (NLD) profile, a former term for what encompasses deficits in visual–spatial, fine motor, and handwriting abilities in the context of preserved verbal functioning [23]; however, later research challenged this notion with findings indicating that features of NLD are inconsistent among NF1 populations [24, 25]. Additionally, the comorbidity of learning difficulties with these deficits has been found to significantly vary [6, 24]. This is likely in part due to the heterogeneity of the clinical presentation of the condition as well as methodological issues used in research studies, including differences in approaches to cognitive measurement and how learning problems are operationally defined.
\nAdditional studies examining the cognitive outcomes associated with NF1 have led to mixed findings and indicate varying degrees of prevalence of cognitive and academic problems. Hyman et al. [6] noted that these issues were likely due to research design factors, such low sample sizes, lack of controls, subject and control selection, as well as how learning problems are operationally defined. Individual cognitive test sensitivity and measures with overlapping cognitive domains have also been identified as leading to variability [26]. For example, performance on a commonly used visuospatial task in the assessment of nonverbal skills in children, the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test [27], can be undermined by weaknesses in attention and executive functions, as well as motor demands on the measure. Studies have varied in findings related to the prevalence of cognitive issues associated with NF1, though most note that cognitive issues are quite prevalent. Hyman et al. [6] noted that 81% of their sample had moderate to severe cognitive issues in one or more cognitive domains.
\nIntellectual ability is a cognitive construct that is commonly measured by an Intelligence Quotient (IQ), which represents an individual’s performance on an intelligence test relative to similar-aged individuals and culminates performance across verbal and nonverbal problem-solving skills. [28] IQ represents what Charles Spearman (1904) proposed in the early 20th century as the
Numerous studies have investigated IQ in NF1 populations. One of the more consistent cognitive findings in NF1 in children is that overall IQ is slightly lower than the normal population. That is, studies investigating IQ have placed the mean overall IQ approximately 10 points lower than normative sample [6, 29, 30]. This finding has been documented when compared to siblings controlling for environmental influences [30]. Hyman et al. [6] compared cognitive performance of 81 children with NF1 to 49 sibling controls. They found that the NF1 group demonstrated mildly reduced FSIQ with a mean of 90.6 compared to sibling mean of 102.6. Interestingly, this study found no associations between IQ and clinical severity, familial history of NF1, gender or age. Socioeconomic status was the only significant predictor of IQ in NF1 in their sample. Mild delays in IQ have also been noted with very young children, and given that difficulties have been found to be stable across the lifetime, this pattern has been noted in adults as well [14, 31]. In a combined adult and pediatric sample of 103 patients with NF1, Ferner et al. [32] noted an overall mean IQ score of 88.6 [32]. This finding appears to be consistent across cultures. Descheemaeker et al. found the overall IQ to be 89.96 in a Dutch-speaking sample [21]. With regard to elderly adults, there is very limited research investigating NF1; however, one small study noted mild delays in overall intellectual ability [22]. Taken together, these studies provide further support for the lack of progressive decline in IQ over time in NF1. In summary, it appears that NF1 is associated with average but mildly reduced overall IQ , which appears stable over the course of a lifespan.
\nDespite overall average intelligence, NF1 is associated with greater prevalence of intellectual disability. Intellectual Disability (ID), formerly known as Mental Retardation, is defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-V) as an IQ approximately two standard deviations below the population mean with associated deficits in adaptive functioning [33]. Studies have varied on findings related to the actual prevalence of ID in NF1 populations. Early studies were believed to have significantly overestimated the prevalence of ID due to methodological issues as well as how ID was defined [5]. The rate of ID in NF1 is believed to be 6–7%, which is much less than what was previously believed, though still two to three times the normative expectation [6]. The prevalence of ID increases if neurological complications (brain tumor, seizures) are not excluded [34].
\nThe overall composite score of the Full-Scale IQ likely masks the underlying subtle cognitive profile of NF1. Nearly 80% of people with NF1 have some cognitive deficit [14]. Thus, recent studies have focused on more discrete cognitive domains which we will discuss more below.
\nVerbal skills are a collection of cognitive processes that involves language. Language is commonly divided into expressive and receptive language, which is how well a person uses language to relay their thoughts and ideas (including use of speech) and how a person understands language, respectively.
\nWeaknesses with aspects of language have been found in populations with NF1. Delays in early language development have been noted children as young as 10 months, which appear to persist [20, 35, 36]. NF1 has been associated with weaknesses with nearly all aspects of language; however, studies have not been consistent [37, 38]. Expressive language problems, especially with speech/articulation, have been more consistently found than deficits with receptive language. Additional speech issues include problems with prosody, overall voice qualify, and aspects of speech sounds [37]. Hyman et al. [6] found that 44% of children with NF1 in their sample received speech-language therapy. Batista et al. [36] assessed central auditory temporal function in children with NF1 and correlated it with the results of language testing. They compared 25 NF1 patients to 22 healthy controls on audiometric and language tasks. They found no problems with peripheral acoustic hearing; however, the NF1 group performed more poorly on the temporal auditory processing task. Weaknesses with phonological skills in children have also been documented in several studies [38, 39, 40]. Phonological skills are not only associated with language delays but are also a core component of reading disability, which will be discussed further below. Studies on children have documented further weaknesses with verbal concept formation and comparisons as measured by the Similarities subtest from the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC). These findings were consistent compared to normal population and sibling control group [37, 41]. However, studies with childhood populations have not been consistent, as some studies noted that the differences in language disappear when IQ is controlled for [6, 38]. Verbal fluency has been found to be a relatively preserved cognitive function in children [42, 43]. Available literature on language in adult and elderly adult populations is relatively scarce as most studies in NF1 have been with pediatric populations.
\nNonverbal skills are a collection of visual perceptual, visual spatial, or visual-motor skills. They include visual perception, understanding spatial relations, and ability to integrate information from visual stimulus. Visuospatial (also referred to as visuoperceptual) skills have been found to be impaired in most studies involving children [5, 6, 12, 24, 26, 29, 34]. These studies have noted specific deficits in angulation, visual organization, and object recognition. The findings have been consistent when comparing children to normative sample or sibling control.
\nEarly studies on children with NF1 noted a significant discrepancy between verbal and nonverbal reasoning abilities. Weaknesses were noted with nonverbal reasoning skills, while verbal skills were believed to be preserved [25, 44]. However, several follow-up studies did not find the same discrepancy between verbal IQ and perceptual (nonverbal) IQ [6, 25]. Hyman et al. [6] actually noted a pattern opposite of what was expected, with males with NF1 having weaker verbal than nonverbal reasoning compared to females with NF1. It is now clear that NF1 is condition that can impact a range of cognitive functions not limited to nonverbal reasoning.
\nIn addition to nonverbal reasoning, studies with children and adults suggest weaknesses with many aspects of nonverbal skills including visual perception, visual-motor integration, form discrimination, visual organization [6, 21, 41, 42]. Indeed, weaknesses with aspects of visual spatial skills are common in NF1. However, several studies have not found significant differences between NF1 and controls regarding aspects of nonverbal skills [38, 45, 46]. Van Eylen et al. reviewed studies that directly assessed visuoperceptual and visual spatial functioning of children with NF1 [26]. They argue that the measures used to assess nonverbal skills are likely confounding findings. That is, many tasks that are purported to assess nonverbal skills also require other cognitive domains, most notably executive functions. In their sample, they found that when controlling for executive functions and IQ , performance on nonverbal tasks was not impaired. A similar pattern of weaknesses on nonverbal tasks has been documented in adults [21]. Overall, it appears that NF1 is associated with weaker visual/nonverbal skills; however, there are many confounds to previous studies which temper this conclusion.
\nMemory is our ability to encode, store, and retrieve previously learned information. Neuroscientists have identified many forms of memory, which at a basic level is divided into explicit and implicit memory. Cognitive tests of memory often only assess a small portion of memory functions. Cognitive tests typically focus on working memory and explicit memory. Working memory is our ability to actively hold information in mind for a short duration. It is commonly conceptualized as part of a collection of higher order executive functions.
\nCognitive tests assess explicit memory with verbal and visual tests. Studies in both children and adults identifying memory weaknesses in NF1 have been variable, and several studies have not found a significant difference in memory performance than controls [6, 21, 37, 41]. Hyman et al. [6] did not find a significant difference in performance on verbal and visual explicit memory tests in children with NF1 compared to sibling controls. Similarly, Krab et al. [41] did not find a significant difference in NF1 children’s performance on verbal or visual memory tasks when compared to children with no learning disabilities, children with specific learning disabilities, and children with general learning disabilities. In contrast, several studies have documented explicit memory weakness in children with NF1 [10, 14, 44, 47]. Bulgheroni et al. [47] assessed visual memory with the Rey Complex Figure Test (RCFT) [48]. They compared 18 children with NF1 to 17 siblings and 18 typically developing children. They found that the children with NF1 performed worse on recall memory, with no difference found regarding recognition memory. This pattern suggests that the NF1 had more difficulty with efficient retrieval rather coding and storing of the information, which is often due how the information was initially organized (an executive function). Overall, studies on explicit memory are mixed.
\nAttention involves of collection of processes that allows a person to engage in certain cognitive processing while ignoring others [51]. Attention is a complex system that has many subcomponents that includes focused attention, sustained attention, divided attention, and selective attention.
\nCognitive weakness with attention is very common to children, adolescents, and adults with NF1 [7, 37]. Children with NF1 have frequently been reported to exhibit impaired performance on tasks measuring the ability to sustain and switch attention [6, 52]. These findings appear to be consistent across measures of both visual and auditory sustained attention, as well as divided auditory attention and response inhibition [53]. In a large cohort study of 199 children with NF1, approximately 54% were at risk for inattentive behavior based on parent and teacher ratings [43].
\nUp to 50% of individuals with NF1 meet diagnostic criteria for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), [37, 54] and research has indicated that incidence rates of ADHD are much more common in children with NF1 than in immediate family members [55]. Neurocognitive deficits associated with NF1 have been found to be more severe in individuals with comorbid ADHD. While both groups have been found to demonstrate deficits in sustained attention, individuals with NF1 and comorbid ADHD have been indicated to be at higher risk [10]. Reduced attention skills in children with NF1 and ADHD have also been found to negatively impact the ability to process and respond to verbal instructions of increasing complexity, suggesting that receptive language skill development may also be vulnerable in this group as a result of attentional difficulties [10].
\nThe behavioral phenotype of ADHD in NF1 also appears to differ from ADHD in the general population. In a large cohort study by Hyman et al. [6], ADHD co-occurrence in children with NF1 occurred equally in frequency among males and females, which differs from the 3:1 ratio of males to females in the general population [43]. Research suggests that ADHD in NF1 also differs from typical ADHD in that the combined subtype appears to occur at the highest frequency followed by the inattentive subtype, while the hyperactive/impulsive subtype is typically found at the highest rates in children with ADHD alone [56]. Additionally, while clinical symptoms of ADHD in children with NF1 and those diagnosed with ADHD are comparable, differences lie in performance deficits specific to each group such that response inhibition processes have been found to be compromised in ADHD, but not in NF1 when compared to healthy controls, suggesting that response inhibition deficits may be less strong compared to those occurring in ADHD [57]. It has also been suggested that NF1/ADHD is not associated with increased frequency of executive deficits related to behavioral inhibition as it is in the general ADHD population [6]. A study comparing individuals with NF1/ADHD with a group of participants with ADHD and no NF1 found that ADHD symptomatology in NF1 did not exacerbate attention deficits and suggested that ADHD cannot account for all attention impairments in NF1 [57].
\nVarious brain-based characteristics associated with NF1 have been presumed to contribute to the neurocognitive deficits in NF1. For example, increased brain volume due to increased white matter and an enlarged corpus callosum appear to be characteristic of children with NF1 and may interfere with integration and processing of information [56]. Regarding attentional processes specifically, an fMRI study investigating ventral attention networks in the brain found that children with NF1 demonstrated hypoactivation in the temporoparietal junction and the anterior cingulate cortex when compared to typically developing children, which was associated with poorer selective attention and attentional control [58].
\nThe presence of attentional deficits in children with NF1 is associated with even greater risk for poorer performance in other cognitive functions, learning, social skills, and academic achievement [12, 56]. Social outcomes in particular appear to be worse in this group than in children with NF1 only [56]. A study examining face perception in children with NF1 found that sustained attention to faces in a social context is reduced in this population, which may inhibit the processing of socially relevant information needed for successful reciprocal social interactions [59]. Research also suggests that the risk of developing a specific learning disorder is higher in children with NF1 who have a diagnosis of ADHD [6]. As with other domains, it is suggested that while the literature on attentional problems primarily investigates these issues in childhood, these difficulties likely persist into adulthood without treatment.
\nExecutive functions include a wide range of higher-order cognitive processes that serve goal-directed behaviors, including working memory, planning, organization, inhibition, flexibility. Because executive functioning encompasses a wide range of processes, studies investigating executive functioning in individuals with NF1 vary greatly in terms of the areas of focus and measures used [37]. Of note, many neuropsychological measures of executive function have been found to lack correlation with functional/behavioral ratings of the same constructs when evaluating individuals with NF1, and it has been suggested that Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) rating scale items are more predictive of performance in real-world tasks outside of the structured testing environment [43]. Children with NF1 demonstrate significant impairments across all composite scores on the BRIEF [43, 52]. Differences remained even after controlling for VIQ [43].
\nDespite this, executive dysfunction has been noted on performance measures as well. Beaussart et al. [50] conducted a meta-analysis of executive functioning in children with NF1. They included 19 studies in their analysis, with a total of 805 children with NF1 and 667 control subjects. They found a moderate effect with executive functions, indicating that children with NF1 had greater overall executive functioning impairments than controls. However, they noted variability in sub-domains of executive functions including cognitive flexibility, planning and problem solving, inhibitory control, and working memory. They found significant effect sizes for each sub-domain, with moderate effect sizes for working memory and planning/organization and small effect sizes for cognitive flexibility and inhibition. Significance remained even after controlling for moderating variables of executive functioning measures, control group composition, IQ , and ADHD.
\nWeaknesses with working memory in NF1 populations are much more consistent and prevalent than with explicit memory. Several studies have documented verbal and visual working memory weaknesses [10, 14, 49]. Beaussart et al. [50] found a moderate to large effect size for working memory problems. The effect size for verbal working memory was larger than nonverbal working memory. They note that differences in effect size may be due to the psychometric properties of the working memory tasks [50].
\nExecutive function deficits have also been distinguished in NF1 adult populations. In particular, weaknesses in working memory and cognitive flexibility have been noted [21]. Very limited information is known with regard to executive functions in the elderly. Costa de et al. [22] noted working memory weaknesses in this population; however, this study was limited by a very small NF1 group.
\nAcademic learning entails the use of basic educational skills to be successful in the classroom. This includes reading, writing, and mathematics. Academic learning struggles are one of the most common concerns of parents of children with NF1 [54]. Estimates of learning disabilities have significantly varied between studies. Research has found prevalence rates of learning difficulties to be 20–70% [5, 6, 41]. The variability is in part due to how each study operationalized the definition of “learning disability,” as the definition of learning disability has changed over the years. Previously an IQ-academic discrepancy model in which an individual performing much more poorly in an academic skill as compared to his or her overall intelligence level was used to define learning disability; however, this limited definition of a specific learning disability has received increased scrutiny and is rarely used today [60]. Hyman et al. [6] found that 20% of their child sample met the strict definition (discrepancy model) of specific learning disability (SLD), which is double the rate found in the normal population. In contrast, Krab et al. [41] used a different definition that examined “learning efficacy” and found that 75% percent of their sample had learning difficulties based on this definition. This study also noted a connection between disease severity and increase in learning struggles; however, this pattern has not been consistent in other studies. They argue that this is due to the fact that other studies do not systematically measure severity and other methodological issues.
\nDespite the disagreement in overall prevalence rates of learning struggles, studies have been consistent in that NF1 is associated with significantly higher rate of learning disabilities in children when compared to normative sample and sibling controls [5, 6, 38, 41].
\nSpecific learning disability in the area of reading has been noted in childhood NF1 populations. Weaknesses have been found regarding phonological awareness, word decoding, fluency, and reading comprehension [5, 38, 39, 54]. Cutting and Levine [38] compared four groups that included children without reading difficulties, a reading disability group, an NF1 group without reading disability, and an NF1 group with reading disability. They found that children with NF1 with reading struggles performed similarly as the reading disability group.
\nLearning struggles in mathematics and written expression in children with NF1 have also been noted. Math difficulties have been noted with computation and application of math concepts [6, 41, 49, 54]. Krab et al. [41] found that 23% of their NF1 sample met the criteria for a specific learning disability in mathematics and 77% demonstrated learning efficiency struggles with mathematics. However, another study did not find learning disability in mathematics [46]. Problems with writing including graphomotor control (penmanship) and spelling have noted as well [49, 61].
\nAdaptive skills are a collection of functional behaviors needed to effectively meet the demands of our environment. Adaptive functions are often divided into Conceptual skills, Practical skills, and Social skills. The DSM-V notes that adaptive deficits result in the failure to meet developmental and social standard for independent living without support.
\nSeveral studies have noted adaptive deficits in children with NF1 [15, 62]. In a cross sectional study of 104 children with NF1, Eby et al. [15] found that 46.5 percent of their sample demonstrated adaptive functioning impairment. They found mild reductions across Conceptual, Social and Practical skill domains. Less is known about the specific adaptive domains that are impacted in adults and elderly adults. While adaptive demands change as individuals develop across the lifespan, it is likely that because cognitive difficulties remain stable with age, adaptive deficits are associated with adults with NF1 as well.
\nWe were unable to locate any studies that directly investigate cognitive weaknesses in NF2 or Schwannomatosis populations. It is likely that this has not been investigated, as these disorders are rarer and typically have less brain involvement. As such, we will discuss the cognitive effects of NF2 and Schwannomatosis with regard to common symptoms associated with these disorders and how these symptoms may impact cognitive functions.
\nNF2 is defined in part by bilateral vestibular schwannomas [63]. Vestibular schwannomas are nonmalignant tumors that arise from eighth cranial nerve. The vestibular schwannomas can impact hearing, balance, at times vision, and facial weakness [65]. Hearing loss is progressive due to the presence of schwannomas and treatment, and it has been found in 60% of adults and 30% of children with NF2 [65]. Hearing loss can lead to decreased QoL [66] and can impact language development. Hearing loss has also been associated with decreased performance on intellectual and academic skills [67, 68]. Olivier et al. [69] investigated sensorineural hearing loss associated with intellectual and learning struggles in children with brain tumors. They found that children with severe hearing loss demonstrated greater difficulty with reading with weaker phonological skills, processing speed, and reading [69].
\nSchwannomatosis is clinically distinguished from NF2 by the lack of bilateral vestibular schwannomas and ependymomas [64]. All neurofibromatoses, including NF1, NF2, and schwannomatosis, have schwannomas. Depending on the size and location, schwannomas can also be associated with pain [3]. Chronic pain has been associated with cognitive weaknesses with memory, attention, processing speed, and executive functions [70]. More research is needed to determine the possible cognitive sequalae associated with NF2 and Schwannomatosis. Further research is also warranted to distinguish whether differences in these sequelae exist depending on the age of the individual.
\nNeurofibromatosis is associated with effects on cognitive domains that impact learning, adaptive functioning, and quality of life across the lifespan of individuals affected by these disorders. The three distinct genetic disorders that encompass neurofibromatosis have their own genetic variant, symptoms, and disease course that result in differences in phenotypic expression as well as impact on the brain. While patterns of neurocognitive outcomes vary among and within each disorder, relatively less research has been conducted on those with NF2 and Schwannomatosis as compared to NF1. In particular, more research is needed investigating cognitive sequalae associated with NF2 and Schwannomatosis as these conditions at least indirectly are associated with cognitive weaknesses which can impact overall quality of life, likely from diagnosis through late adulthood.
\nWithin NF1, cognitive deficits are much more common yet highly variable within and between individuals. The heterogeneity of the cognitive outcomes is likely due to a combination of reasons, including genetic factors that have not been adequately elucidated yet, as well as methodological issues. Current research does not yet indicate to what extent differences among each NF phenotype are related to differences in typical cognitive deficits associated with each genetic variant. Common methodological issues in the literature include composition of control groups, evolving/varying definitions of cognitive domains and learning disorders, and limitations inherent in specific cognitive tests. Nonetheless, the current literature indicates that IQ , expressive language, visual spatial and fluid reasoning, and working memory are commonly impacted to some extent. Attention and executive functions appear to also be compromised in individuals with NF1, which are a factor in difficulties in receptive language, memory, academic skills, and adaptive skills. Most studies are focused on children, though existing adult studies suggest that cognitive deficits are present and similar to child studies, likely due to the stability of difficulties over time. Overall, evaluation of cognitive skills in those with neurofibromatosis is important in order to determine the functional impact that potential deficits may have on an individual, especially with regard to academic performance and adaptive functioning. This is especially significant due to the fact that neurofibromatosis is not a curable condition, which necessitates treatment that directly targets cognitive, academic, and adaptive problems directly. Regular monitoring of these individuals with respect to cognitive skills can aid in necessary intervention planning and should occur as early as possible to detect and treat issues that can arise early in development.
\nThe authors have no conflict of interest.
Soybean is one of the most valuable oil seed, food, forage, biodiesel, feed, and leguminous nitrogen fixer crop which improves soil structure through nodule formation, nitrogen fixation and enhances farmer income along with multiple other benefits [1, 2, 3, 4]. Soybean is the second most important broad acre agricultural crop in the US providing high cash benefits to farmers [5]. Soybean was first introduced in the US for agricultural usage as a forage crop in 1804 [6], probably as part of an interchange of seeds between France and US. However, there is some evidence from Georgia which documents soybean cultivation in 1765. Since 1940, the area under soybean cultivation increased so much that it is now mainly used as an oil seed crop. The expansion of soybean cultivation increased from about 2.7 billion bushels in 2000 to 4.39 billion bushels in 2017 in the US [7]. Brazil, US, and Argentina dominate soybean production around the world [8]. Soybean production has doubled during the last decade because of the increased income benefits to farmers and also because of the availability and diffusion of transgenic soybeans which are glyphosate resistant (first developed in 1998) [9, 10].
Soybean is affected by a plethora of diseases caused by bacteria, fungi and viruses as well as by pests such as insects and mites [11, 12]. The effect of diseases and pests on plants results in the reduction in soybean yield. For example, during 2014, the estimated loss due to diseases was 113 million bushels in 28 states in the US. Of this, losses caused by viruses were 11.6 million bushel [13, 14]. Forty-six viruses are known to infect soybeans [14], and among them eight are economically important viz., alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV), bean pod mottle virus (BPMV), peanut mottle virus (PeMoV), peanut stunt virus (PSV), soybean dwarf virus (SbDV), soybean mosaic virus (SMV), soybean vein necrosis virus (SVNV) and tobacco ringspot virus (TRSV) [13, 15].
In 2008, soybean vein necrosis orthotospovirus (SVNV) was first reported in Tennessee (US). To date, 22 US states have reported the virus presence [16, 17, 18, 19, 20], and the incidence of soybean vein necrosis disease in some states has been very high. For instance, in a 3-year survey conducted in the mid-west and mid-south US, it was reported that SVNV was present in 49/50 fields [21]. While this survey highlighted one of the most extreme cases of SVNV presence, in the United States the percent incidence ranged between 10 and 80 depending upon the plant stage and geographic areas. In 2012, the virus was also reported in Canada [22]. The genetic diversity of SVNV was studied from samples taken from different states and showed low variability. In 2013, a comparison of the nucleocapsid protein (NP) coding sequence of SVNV isolates collected from different states was done and it was found that it had 98–100% similarity [16]. At that time, it was proposed that the virus was new and might have been introduced into the US or recently might have been moved to soybeans from other plant hosts [16]. The spread of SVNV is not limited to North America, in fact in 2017, it was reported in Egypt (Middle East) [23] where its incidence was about 67%.
Interestingly, SVNV can spread through seed, an unusual feature for a tospovirus [24], and the US is one of the largest soybean exporters, making seed transmission a concern to importing countries. Until now it is speculated that due to transmission by seed and global soybean trade, seed may be a major source of virus transmission to the entire world [24]. This is because
World map showing thrips species distribution and soybean vein necrosis virus (SVNV) presence in different countries [
Infection by SVNV in soybean is characterized by necrosis of the veins as well as interveinal necrosis, followed by chlorosis of nearby leaf parenchyma [16, 35] (Figure 2). In 2013, a clear link between symptomology and virus association was described in soybean, which was confirmed later in various studies [16, 35], but some authors also found non-symptomatic SVNV positive soybeans plants [24], as well as an Asteraceae member,
Symptoms related to infection. a) Uninfected plant leaf. b) Symptomatic plant inoculated with SVNV through mechanical inoculation performed with a syringe. c) SVNV symptomatic plants infected via thrips
SVNV infection in soybean significantly reduces the oil content and may reduce the germination percentage, 100 seed weight (g), protein content percentage, and fiber content percentage [17]. An experiment was conducted to determine the seed transmission in discolored and damaged seeds, It showed that the virus was seed transmitted [24]. Another study conducted on mixed infection of SVNV and BPMV showed that both viruses can be present together as a mixed infection [25]. The seeds of BPMV infected soybean plants were also discolored. Interestingly BPMV is also seed transmitted [36]. It may be possible that both viruses used the same path to invade the seeds either through the developing embryo or any other route; however, research is needed in this context.
However, other studies conducted on the effect of SVNV on soybean yield determined that SVNV does not decrease the yield, but seed quality was affected [37]. Oil concentration was decreased by 0.1% with SVNV infection and linolenic acid, linoleic acid and stearic acid were increased [37]. This means that SVNV infection may result in lower marketability of soybean in high premium markets. In the oil market, a higher price is paid for seed which has lower linolenic acid and higher oleic acid. Bad quality seeds receive lower prices [17].
Weeds provide a valuable natural means of virus survival when the soybean is not present. Alternative host plant studies of SVNV showed that the virus can infect chrysanthemum
Seed transmission of viruses is a very complex phenomenon and is dependent upon the ability of a virus to penetrate the developing embryo as well as various factors including the type of host plant, time of infection of virus, amount of virus and mixed infection (compatibility of two viruses to propagate in the host plant cells at the same time) [39, 40, 41, 42, 43]. More than one hundred plant viruses are transmitted through seed [39, 44, 45]. Viruses often become difficult to control when they are transmitted through seed as well [39]. Virus transfer to the seed embryo can take place through different routes such as direct transfer, transfer through pollen, and indirect embryo invasion [39, 46]. Losses due to seed borne viruses increase when a stock of seed harboring virus is planted in a field [47].
There are contrary reports on the transmission of SVNV through seeds. One study conducted by Hajimurad [35] reported that like other orthotopsoviruses SVNV cannot be transmitted through seed but later in a study by Groves [24] found seed transmission and confirmed it through nested PCR and RNAseq. Hajimurad [35] did not find seed transmissibility and found only 1/1955 seeds were positive via ELISA. Hajimurad [35] considered that this observation was an anomaly and that SVNV is not seed transmitted. Another observation in the study by Hajimurad [35] was that all the seeds from the infected mother plants were non-symptomatic (not discolored or mottled, instead the seeds looked normal). However, Groves [24] used mottled and discolored seeds. Recently, a Zhou and Tzanetakis [25] study pointed that the mixed infection of SVNV and BPMV may lead to systemic infection of SVNV in the soybean seedlings. It may be that mixed infection of SVNV with BPMV results in the ability of SVNV to be seed transmitted. This is because it is hypothesized that SVNV uses the movement protein of the BPMV for systemic infection [25]. Although Zhou and Tzanetakis [48] also documented non-seed transmissibility of SVNV in 600 seedlings of field grown SVNV, most of the hybrid soybean seeds commercially available are not seed borne disease free. In SVNV, the seed transmission rate reported by Groves [24] is 6% which is considerable [24]. Until now, no virus belonging to Bunyavirales and Tosopoviridae has been regarded as a seed transmitted virus except SVNV, which gives SVNV a unique position among Tospoviridae [24, 49]. If the seed-transmission of SVNV is real, it would create a big challenge in the commercialization of soybean seeds for planting, especially in countries where SVNV is not present yet.
The avenue of seed transmission opens points for discussion. For example, if SVNV cannot be transmitted through seeds then how did the virus reach to the Middle East? It must be either human movement or thrips long distance migration. Further research is needed to confirm the seed transmissibility or the migration routes.
SVNV can be diagnosed with commercially available ELISA kits (for instance, Agdia, USA; & Life Technologies India). A Commercially available ELISA kits use synthesized antibodies. SVNV can also be diagnosed using PCR. Various authors have published PCR primers to amplify the different regions of the SVNV genome [16, 21, 50]. The variation in whole genome of SVNV can be measured through sequencing [21].
SVNV is a spherical virus with a tri-segmented, negative-sense and ambisense, single-stranded RNA genome, containing 5 open reading frames [21, 51]. A schematic model of the SVNV virion based upon the literature [21, 24] is described in Figure 3. The diameter of the SVNV particles ranges between 80 and 100 nm [24]. The 3 genomic segments encode for putative proteins involved in virus replication, in plant defense evasion, virus movement in the plant, virus coating, and vector attachment [21]. The large segment (9010 nt) encodes for the putative RNA-dependent RNA polymerase which is necessary for virus replication [21, 52]. The method of replication has been described in detail for tomato spotted wilt orthotospovirus (TSWV), the type species of this genus [52]. The middle segment (M) is 4955 nt long, ambisense and has two ORFs. ORF 1 encodes for a putative non-structural movement protein (NSm). In TSWV infections, it is assumed that NSm makes tubular structures and is associated with plasmodesmata [53]. ORF 2 encodes for two putative glycoproteins, Gn and Gc, and their role in vector attachment has been well documented for TSWV [54]. Gn-Gc’s role in the
Model of soybean vein necrosis virus particles showing different RNA segments (small, medium and large) coated by N proteins. Glycoprotein (Gn, Gc) spikes decorating the lipid bilayer. Molecules of RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) are enclosed in the virus particles.
The small segment (S) is ambisense, 2603 nt long, and contains two ORFs in opposite orientation [21]. ORF 1 encodes for the nonstructural silencing suppressor protein (NSs) [21]. This protein in TSWV binds dsRNA including miRNAs and siRNAs [52]. The role of NSs in SVNV and vector interaction still needs to be determined. ORF 2 encodes for the structural nucleocapsid protein (N) (31 kda) [21].
Viruses belonging to Orthotospoviridae are persistent and propagative, which means that after entry into the vector insect, the virus multiplies in the insects and insects remain viruliferous for their entire life [54]. Studies conducted on the virus-vector relationship confirmed that
Shazly [23] reported
The host plant has a role in virus transmission. Shazly [23] stated that
There are complex theories regarding the thrips arrival, migration pattern, oviposition, hibernation and dispersion in the soybean fields (Figures 1–4) [21, 37]. According to Mueller, Higley [58] soybean thrips overwinter in southern states and annually migrate to northern US States (Figure 4). However, Anderson, Irizarry [17], and Zhou and Tzanetakis [48] postulated that due to the high number of thrips in soybean growing season in northern US states, soybean thrips may overwinter on perennial weeds and then during the early summer propagate on cover crops. Cover crops such as buckwheat and vegetables such as melon and winter pea can sustain SVNV and its vectors so they can act as reservoir to maintain inoculum from the overwintered insects and increase their number on the soybean crop [37, 59]. Irizarry, Elmore [59] proposed that alfalfa and other cover crops may act as the host of vectors before soybean planting in Wisconsin and Iowa. Zhou, Aboughanem-Sabanadzovic [38] suspected that Kudzu is a natural reservoir of SVNV and may be a natural shelter for the thrips during south to north movement every year because Kudzu is extensively present in the soybean growing region and interstate regions in the south.
Migration, dispersal and winter diapause of soybean theories, hypothesis and results. Here the yellow colored states are north eastern states. Light blue states = southern US states, purple = mid-west states, green = western states. This schematic diagram is based upon the Mueller, Higley [
Soybean is not thought to be the original host of SVNV because SVNV isolates collected in various locations on soybeans had more than 98% similarity [16]. However, comparison of the various isolates was done on the basis of the NP gene [16]. It would be interesting to look at the similarity of SVNV isolates in other genomic segments.
The SVNV transmission is complex because different vector species feed on different wild plants, weeds, cover crops and then eventually transfer the virus to the target crop. Furthermore, the virus can also be transferred to other regions along with infected seeds (Table 1) [24].
Country | Crop | Productive region/state | Species | Experimental conditions (Field or greenhouse experiment) | Identification technique | Plant hosts | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
USA | Alfalfa, buckwheat, and crimson clover, red clover | Iowa | Greenhouse | Insects were slide mounted and identified to the level of species on the plants. Progeny formation was also observed. | Alfalfa, buckwheat, crimson clover and red clover are intermediate host of vector but buckwheat is inoculum reservoir as well. Buckwheat is open end host. | Zhou and Tzanetakis [16] | |
USA | Smart weed, cucumber, Crab apple, Viburnum, Willow, and Jackson | Iowa, Illinois, Maryland, Virginia | Field collections | Field Collection from the plant hosts and then taxonomic identification after slide mounting until the species level. | Dead end host alternate hosts of vector but virus cannot replicate. | Hood [61] | |
USA | Hackberry, Elm and clover | Iowa | Field conditions | Taxonomic identification | Presence of virus in these host plants have not been studied yet. | Beach (1896) [62] | |
USA | Cotton | Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisinia, Missisippi, Tennsesse | Field conditions | Field capture, slide mounting and identification until the species level. | Dead end host, thrips can feed but the virus can not replicate in cotton. | Cook, Allen [63] | |
USA | Lima beans and Snap beans | Arkansas | Field sampling | Field capture of thrips from the spring planted crop and slide preparation for identification of thrips species | Replication of virus in Lima beans and snap beans has not been studied so far. | Sweeden and McLeod [64] | |
USA | Horse radish | Illinois | Field sampling | Field capture of thrips from the spring planted crop and slide preparation for identification of thrips species | Replication of virus in horse radish has not been studied so far. | Gerdes [65] | |
USA | Tomato | Virginia | Field sampling | Population sampling | Virus can not replicate and thrips feed on it. | Nault, Speese Iii [66] | |
USA | Cotton, Peanut and Soybeans | Virginia | Yellow sticky cards | Yellow sticky cards were placed in the fields and thrips were counted after one-week interval. Insects were identified to the level of species. | Soybean is target crop. Whereas the virus cannot replicate in peanut and cotton. Peanut and cotton are dead end host. | Samler [67] | |
USA | Peach orchards | Georgia | Field collection | Fields were sprayed with insecticide and killing thrips fell down in big sheets of aluminuim and were preserved in ethanol 70%. | Replication of SVNV in peach has not been studied yet. | Yonce, Payne [68] | |
Hungary (Europe) | Soybeans | Monitoring | Slide preparation | Target crop. | Ábrahám [69] | ||
Egypt | Groundnut, soybeans, cowpea, mung beans, | Cairo | Monitoring | Slide preparation and identification of species. | Virus can replicate in cowpea, mung beans, and ivy morning glory. The other plants are dead end host, thrips can replicate but virus presence has either not been studied or virus do not replicate | Shazly [23] | |
USA | Mist flower | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Flowering dog wood | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Daisy fleabane | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Dog fennel | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Ivy morning glory | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Dwarf dandelion | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Lantana | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Hedgeprivet | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Blue toadflax | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Japanese Honeysuckle | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Water primrose | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Crab apple | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Creeping wood sorrel | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Yellow wood sorrel | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Parthenium weed | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Chickasaw pulum | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Wild cherry | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | False dandelion | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Wild radish | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Rose | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Sand black berry | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Sassafras | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Arrow leaf sida | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Large hop clover | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Crimson clover | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Venus looking glass | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Moss verbena | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Brazilian verbena | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Common vetch | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Chinese wisteria | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] |
Alternative host plants of vector species in different parts of the world.
Seasonally, many plants can support the thrips vector species and virus in various parts of the world until the principal crop is planted. A detailed study is needed in the spring and winter to examine the alternative host plants of vector and virus reservoirs. The detailed list of possible alternative host plants of the vector and their confirmation as the virus reservoir in different parts of the world is described in Table 1.
Soybean thrips lay eggs inside the leaf parenchymatous tissues near the leaf vein using a barbed ovipositor (Figure 5). A female lays about 70–90 eggs in her lifetime. Eggs hatch into first instar larvae having red eyes. These first instar larvae are transparent and feed on the leaf. The second instar larvae are pale yellow. The first instar duration is 3–4 days. Second and third instar duration is 2–3 days each. Fourth 4th instar duration is 2–4 days. Total adult male duration is 17–19 days and female duration is 20–23 days. Virus infection increased female survival [62]. Males are haploid. The mode of asexual reproduction is Arrehenotoky unlike
Life cycle of
The importance of SVNV seems to be increasing. Several years ago, it was largely unknown, but recent studies have raised concerns about its severity. Management of seed and vector borne viruses requires complex knowledge of vector ecology, type of virus transmission (circulative, semi persistent, persistent), mode of virus introduction in the field (primary or secondary spread), the method of perception of the volatile compounds by insect sensillae, insect response to the plant released stressed volatile compounds, complex interaction between herbivores occupying same niche and threshold level of disease and vector as well [71]. Management considerations include:
The first step is always to start with clean seed. Planting damaged and discolored seeds may increase the chance of virus. Planting with mycorrhizae will increase plant vigor, canopy establishment, plant height, number and weight of nodules, number and weight of pods, total grain yield [72] and plant would be able to combat viruses and vector [72].
Monitoring can provide an estimate of thrips types present on soybean and nearby crops. Monitoring can be done using the beating sheet method or counting the number of adult thrips on the upper most leaves and preserving the specimens in 70% ethanol. Irwin, Yeargan [73] demonstrated that
Irizarry [37], Shazly [23] and Zhou and Tzanetakis [16] found that soybean vein necrosis virus can propagate in crimson clover, tobacco, mung beans, alfalfa, chrysanthemum, ivy morning glory, squash, black eyed pea, blind weed, peas, cheese weed, common purslane and melon. Plantation of soybeans near weeds and alternative host of soybean vein necrosis virus may increase the inoculum of SVNV in soybean plants. Control of weeds may decrease the virus prevalence. Planting of glyphosate resistant seeds may suppress the weeds and hence can increase the yield through reduction in competition between soybean and weeds. However, weeds or host plants during the overwintering season should be rogued. Culling and removal of the infected reservoir plants and weeds may suppress the SVNV inoculum.
Moreover, the winter pea, red clover and ivy morning glory can sustain adults of thrips and immature. Since winter pea, red clover and ivy morning glory can sustain the virus and vector, avoiding plantation of these crops near soybean at least 15 m apart may help to reduce pest numbers.
Nature is rich with biocontrol agents which suppress the thrips population.
Unlike other plant pathogens, orthotospoviruses are not spread by shearing or pruning. Hence pruning or cutting the infected parts of plants would not help to reduce inoculum.
Pesticides can be used against vectors for management of the vector population. However, increased application of insecticides may lead to insecticide resistance, as it has been already reported in
In the case of
For thrips control insecticide treated seeds, provide protection for about 40 days. Also, in northern US states thrips arrive in the month of July and hence symptoms appear in August. But in southern states thrips colonized soybean in May and symptoms were observed in June. This may point to the movement of the vector from South to North [77]. Losses are higher in southern states as compared to Northern US states, however research is still needed to understand comparative losses in southern and northern states. Irizarry [37] estimated losses in between soybean growing states but their studies did not compare infected and uninfected plants, but only compared less symptomatic and higher symptomatic plants due to lack of control plants. Still more studies are needed in field conditions to determine the impact of virus on yield and quality. Application of thiamethoxam, imidacloprid, acetamiprid, lambda cyhalothrin, & chlorpyrifos can provide effective control of thrips populations. In northern US states, thrips populations do not reach to higher numbers because of low temperature, rainfall, and overwintering period but in the south the population grows rapidly and hence pesticide applications may be required.
In the US, a high SVNV incidence in soybean crops was reported, and yield losses on full-season crops were marginal but in double-cropped beans the losses were substantial [17, 37]. Since planting takes place later, thrips colonized on normal cultivated soybeans shift at flowering stage to the double-cropped beans when the plants are often very small, only about 12–24 inches tall. Populations of thrips are very high on double-cropped beans and yield is remarkably decreased [17] . On double-cropped beans insecticide application along with yellow sticky card placement, and
Acibenzolar S methyl, or other organic compounds that like salicylic acid induce plant resistance. Application of this product can reduce bacterial and fungal diseases. Also, this will induce salicylic acid in plants which may reduce SVNV incidence through promotion of plant resistance through a phyto hormone pathway. However, all research related to Acibenzolar S methyl has been conducted with Acibenzolar S methyl and TSWV interaction but has not been done with soybean plants and SVNV. Further research on time of Acibenzolar S methyl application before thrips attack through spray may determine if induction of salicyclic acid can reduce SVNV.
In TSWV and thrips interaction, Gn-Gc glycoproteins have a specific role in the receptor-mediated endocytosis and movement of virions from insect gut to the salivary gland. Although Han, Nalam [78] showed the virus presence in salivary gland of
Non-Structural silencing suppressor proteins (NSs) in TSWV and thrips interaction are hypothesized to overcome thrips inner immune processes. Elucidating the putative role of SVNV NSs protein in
In our experiments we found plant cultivars responded differently to vector colonization and hence virus titer was variable on different cultivars [62], similar results have been reported by Zhou et al., 2019. Possibly in nature there are certain processes involved which govern host plant resistance against vector virus. These mechanisms in relation to SVNV isolates may decrease SVNV incidence in farmer’s fields. However, SVNV resistant varieties may also be developed through strategizing against virus and vector.
In our work on SVNV in Pakistan we found that symptomatic SVNV infected plants were present within one month after plantation of seed [62]. In US we did not find symptomatic plants until August while crop is planted in May [62]. This may be due to insecticide treated seeds, Thrips cannot colonize plants early in the season in US but in Pakistan herbicide resistant and insecticide treated seed is not available. Hence farmers and scientists use untreated seeds which may be reason behind higher disease incidence in Pakistan as compared to Northeastern US but studies regarding global warming and its relation to viral epidemics and insects’ abundance may help to better understand and forecast the disease incidence in future.
The work on virus evolution would provide information about the origin of the virus. Up to the present, we have the characterization of SVNV from US and Egypt [62]. More information on sequence comparison may help to resolve this mystery of evolution of this virus. This is because soybean is native to Asia but now US, Brazil and Argentina dominate the world production, but since the virus can be transmitted through seed, may be this virus could have arrived along with seeds from Asia to US and inhabited here generation after generations until sequenced for first time in 2008 in Tennessee [21].
Management of SVNV requires a broad knowledge of thrips natural history as well as knowledge of the biology of the virus inside the plant host and the vector. Until now research has been done on virus characterization and the vector/virus relationship, but research is needed to understand the resistance mechanisms in plants against SVNV. According to our research experiments we did not find any cultivar which is resistant to the virus although some varieties were less preferred and some were highly preferred by thrips resulting in lower and higher incidence of SVNV [62]. But soybean (
Various kinds of microbes induce resistance in plants against orthotospoviruses. One example is
The diet of poor people in developing countries mostly consists of proteins derived from legumes. Mung beans, mash beans, & tofu are the food sources of the poor. Soybean vein necrosis virus decreases the oil content of seeds which decreases the profit margin of oil seed firms and hence the product become more expensive as well. The cost of production can be lowered through introduction of virus resistant cultivars and hence more high-quality food can be provided to poor of the world.
Disruption of the binding of the virus to its vector through transgenic cultivar development has been a pursuit of IPM specialists against viruses and vectors. In TSWV and
Soybean vein necrosis virus is an important seed and vector transmitted virus present in middle East, US and Canada. This virus can decrease the oil content percentage. SVNV can be transmitted through different species of thrips. Among them
The authors would like to acknowledge the Fulbright grant for PhD studies of the first author. We also wish to acknowledge the Pennsylvania Soybean Board (PSB) for providing funds for graduate student research (PSB #199751).
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
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\\n\\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\\n\\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\\n\\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\\n\\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\\n\\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\\n\\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\\n\\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\\n\\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\\n\\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Dumitrache, F. Frunzulica and T.C. Ionescu",authors:[{id:"151443",title:"Dr.",name:"Dumitrache",middleName:null,surname:"Alexandru",slug:"dumitrache-alexandru",fullName:"Dumitrache Alexandru"},{id:"151449",title:"Dr.",name:"Frunzulica",middleName:null,surname:"Florin",slug:"frunzulica-florin",fullName:"Frunzulica Florin"},{id:"151451",title:"Dr.",name:"Ionescu",middleName:null,surname:"Tudor",slug:"ionescu-tudor",fullName:"Ionescu Tudor"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"74096",title:"Time Frequency Analysis of Wavelet and Fourier Transform",slug:"time-frequency-analysis-of-wavelet-and-fourier-transform",totalDownloads:1219,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Signal processing has long been dominated by the Fourier transform. However, there is an alternate transform that has gained popularity recently and that is the wavelet transform. The wavelet transform has a long history starting in 1910 when Alfred Haar created it as an alternative to the Fourier transform. In 1940 Norman Ricker created the first continuous wavelet and proposed the term wavelet. Work in the field has proceeded in fits and starts across many different disciplines, until the 1990’s when the discrete wavelet transform was developed by Ingrid Daubechies. While the Fourier transform creates a representation of the signal in the frequency domain, the wavelet transform creates a representation of the signal in both the time and frequency domain, thereby allowing efficient access of localized information about the signal.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Karlton Wirsing",authors:[{id:"325178",title:"Dr.",name:"Karlton",middleName:null,surname:"Wirsing",slug:"karlton-wirsing",fullName:"Karlton Wirsing"}]},{id:"54366",title:"Solution of Differential Equations with Applications to Engineering Problems",slug:"solution-of-differential-equations-with-applications-to-engineering-problems",totalDownloads:6815,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Over the last hundred years, many techniques have been developed for the solution of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. While quite a major portion of the techniques is only useful for academic purposes, there are some which are important in the solution of real problems arising from science and engineering. In this chapter, only very limited techniques for solving ordinary differential and partial differential equations are discussed, as it is impossible to cover all the available techniques even in a book form. The readers are then suggested to pursue further studies on this issue if necessary. After that, the readers are introduced to two major numerical methods commonly used by the engineers for the solution of real engineering problems.",book:{id:"5513",slug:"dynamical-systems-analytical-and-computational-techniques",title:"Dynamical Systems",fullTitle:"Dynamical Systems - Analytical and Computational Techniques"},signatures:"Cheng Yung Ming",authors:[{id:"191017",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Y.M.",slug:"cheng-y.m.",fullName:"Cheng Y.M."}]},{id:"56538",title:"Stochastic Resonance and Related Topics",slug:"stochastic-resonance-and-related-topics",totalDownloads:1695,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stochastic resonance (SR) is the phenomenon which can emerge in nonlinear dynamic systems. In general, it is related with a bistable nonlinear system of Duffing type under additive excitation combining deterministic periodic force and Gaussian white noise. It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]},{id:"74032",title:"Wavelets for EEG Analysis",slug:"wavelets-for-eeg-analysis",totalDownloads:1208,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter introduces the applications of wavelet for Electroencephalogram (EEG) signal analysis. First, the overview of EEG signal is discussed to the recording of raw EEG and widely used frequency bands in EEG studies. The chapter then progresses to discuss the common artefacts that contaminate EEG signal while recording. With a short overview of wavelet analysis techniques, namely; Continues Wavelet Transform (CWT), Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), and Wavelet Packet Decomposition (WPD), the chapter demonstrates the richness of CWT over conventional time-frequency analysis technique e.g. Short-Time Fourier Transform. Lastly, artefact removal algorithms based on Independent Component Analysis (ICA) and wavelet are discussed and a comparative analysis is demonstrated. The techniques covered in this chapter show that wavelet analysis is well-suited for EEG signals for describing time-localised event. Due to similar nature, wavelet analysis is also suitable for other biomedical signals such as Electrocardiogram and Electromyogram.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Nikesh Bajaj",authors:[{id:"326400",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikesh",middleName:null,surname:"Bajaj",slug:"nikesh-bajaj",fullName:"Nikesh Bajaj"}]},{id:"70067",title:"Analytic Prognostic in the Linear Damage Case Applied to Buried Petrochemical Pipelines and the Complex Probability Paradigm",slug:"analytic-prognostic-in-the-linear-damage-case-applied-to-buried-petrochemical-pipelines-and-the-comp",totalDownloads:2681,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In 1933, Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov established the system of five axioms that define the concept of mathematical probability. This system can be developed to include the set of imaginary numbers by adding a supplementary three original axioms. Therefore, any experiment can be performed in the set \n\nC\n\n of complex probabilities which is the summation of the set \n\nR\n\n of real probabilities and the set \n\nM\n\n of imaginary probabilities. The purpose here is to include additional imaginary dimensions to the experiment taking place in the “real” laboratory in \n\nR\n\n and hence to evaluate all the probabilities. Consequently, the probability in the entire set \n\nC\n=\nR\n+\nM\n\n is permanently equal to one no matter what the stochastic distribution of the input random variable in \n\nR\n\n is; therefore the outcome of the probabilistic experiment in \n\nC\n\n can be determined perfectly. This is due to the fact that the probability in \n\nC\n\n is calculated after subtracting from the degree of our knowledge the chaotic factor of the random experiment. Consequently, the purpose in this chapter is to join my complex probability paradigm to the analytic prognostic of buried petrochemical pipelines in the case of linear damage accumulation. Accordingly, after the calculation of the novel prognostic model parameters, we will be able to evaluate the degree of knowledge, the magnitude of the chaotic factor, the complex probability, the probabilities of the system failure and survival, and the probability of the remaining useful lifetime; after that a pressure time t has been applied to the pipeline, which are all functions of the system degradation subject to random and stochastic influences.",book:{id:"7751",slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",fullTitle:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis"},signatures:"Abdo Abou Jaoude",authors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"163",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81892",title:"Perspective Chapter: Lattice Solitons in a Nonlocal Nonlinear Medium with Self-Focusing and Self-Defocusing Quintic Nonlinearity",slug:"perspective-chapter-lattice-solitons-in-a-nonlocal-nonlinear-medium-with-self-focusing-and-self-defo",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104824",abstract:"The fundamental lattice solitons are explored in a nonlocal nonlinear medium with self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearity. The band-gap boundaries, soliton profiles, and stability domains of fundamental solitons are investigated comprehensively by the linear stability spectra and nonlinear evolution of the solitons. It is demonstrated that fundamental lattice solitons can stay stable for a wide range of parameters with the weak self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearity, while strong self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearities are shortened the propagation distance of evolved solitons. Furthermore, it is observed that when the instability emerges from strong quintic nonlinearity, increasing anisotropy of the medium and modification of lattice depth can be considered as a collapse arrest mechanism.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Mahmut Bağcı, Theodoros P. Horikis, İlkay Bakırtaş and Nalan Antar"},{id:"80350",title:"A Comparison of the Undetermined Coefficient Method and the Adomian Decomposition Method for the Solutions of the Sasa-Satsuma Equation",slug:"a-comparison-of-the-undetermined-coefficient-method-and-the-adomian-decomposition-method-for-the-sol",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101817",abstract:"This chapter will talk about the mathematical as well as numerical aspects of the Sasa-Satsuma equation that is the extended nontrivial version of nonlinear Schrödinger’s equation. The exact solution will be found out by the undetermined coefficient method. After that, the Adomian decomposition method is secure numerical simulations of computed analytical solutions. The error plots are given to see the accuracy of the results.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Mir Asma"},{id:"79127",title:"Soliton Like-Breather Induced by Modulational Instability in a Generalized Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",slug:"soliton-like-breather-induced-by-modulational-instability-in-a-generalized-nonlinear-schr-dinger-equ",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100522",abstract:"We consider the nonlinear Schrödinger equation modified by a rational nonlinear term. The model appears in various studies often in the context of the Ginzburg-Landau equation. We investigate modulational instability by means of a linear stability analysis and show how the nonlinear terms affect the growth rate. This analytical result is confirmed by a numerical simulation. The latter analysis shows that breather-like solitons are generated from the instability, and the effects of the nonlinear terms are again clearly seen. Moreover, by employing an auxiliary-equation method we obtain kink and anti-kink soliton as analytical solutions. Our theoretical solution is in good agreement with our numerical investigation.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Saïdou Abdoulkary and Alidou Mohamadou"},{id:"79040",title:"Traveling Wave Solutions and Chaotic Motions for a Perturbed Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation with Power-Law Nonlinearity and Higher-Order Dispersions",slug:"traveling-wave-solutions-and-chaotic-motions-for-a-perturbed-nonlinear-schr-dinger-equation-with-pow",totalDownloads:92,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100396",abstract:"This chapter aims to study and solve the perturbed nonlinear Schrödinger (NLS) equation with the power-law nonlinearity in a nano-optical fiber, based upon different methods such as the auxiliary equation method, the Stuart and DiPrima’s stability analysis method, and the bifurcation theory. The existence of the traveling wave solutions is discussed, and their stability properties are investigated through the modulational stability gain spectra. Moreover, the development of the chaotic motions for the systems is pointed out via the bifurcation theory. Taking into account an external periodic perturbation, we have analyzed the chaotic behavior of traveling waves through quasiperiodic route to chaos.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Mati Youssoufa, Ousmanou Dafounansou, Camus Gaston Latchio Tiofack and Alidou Mohamadou"},{id:"78957",title:"Resonant Optical Solitons in (3 + 1)-Dimensions Dominated by Kerr Law and Parabolic Law Nonlinearities",slug:"resonant-optical-solitons-in-3-1-dimensions-dominated-by-kerr-law-and-parabolic-law-nonlinearities",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100469",abstract:"This study investigates the optical solitons of of (3+1)-dimensional resonant nonlinear Schrödinger (3D-RNLS) equation with the two laws of nonlinearity. The two forms of nonlinearity are represented by Kerr law and parabolic law. Based on complex transformation, the traveling wave reduction of the governing model is derived. The projective Riccati equations technique is applied to obtain the exact solutions of 3D-RNLS equation. Various types of waves that represent different structures of optical solitons are extracted. These structures include bright, dark, singular, dark-singular and combined singular solitons. Additionally, the obliquity effect on resonant solitons is illustrated graphically and is found to cause dramatic variations in soliton behaviors.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Khalil S. Al-Ghafri"},{id:"78793",title:"Nonlinear Generalized Schrödinger’s Equations by Lifting Hamilton-Jacobi’s Formulation of Classical Mechanics",slug:"nonlinear-generalized-schr-dinger-s-equations-by-lifting-hamilton-jacobi-s-formulation-of-classical-",totalDownloads:97,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100068",abstract:"It is well known that, by taking a limit of Schrödinger’s equation, we may recover Hamilton-Jacobi’s equation which governs one of the possible formulations of classical mechanics. Conversely, we may start from the Hamilton-Jacobi’s equation and, by using a lifting principle, we may reach a set of nonlinear generalized Schrödinger’s equations. The classical Schrödinger’s equation then occurs as the simplest equation among the set.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Gérard Gouesbet"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA. Dr. Stavropoulos received her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. She is the Assistant Director of the SEARCH Center at UCR and is a Faculty member in the Graduate Program in Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of California, Riverside",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. Ben-Soussan leads international studies on training and neuroplasticity from neurophysiological and psychobiological perspectives. As a neuroscientist and bio-psychologist, she has published numerous articles on neuroplasticity, movement and meditation. She acts as an editor and reviewer in several renowned journals and coordinates international conferences integrating theoretical, methodological and practical approaches on various topics, such as silence, logics and neuro-education. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",slug:"ricardo-izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"82392",title:"Nanomaterials as Novel Biomarkers for Cancer Nanotheranostics: State of the Art",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105700",signatures:"Hao Yu, Zhihai Han, Cunrong Chen and Leisheng Zhang",slug:"nanomaterials-as-novel-biomarkers-for-cancer-nanotheranostics-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11405.jpg",subseries:{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering"}}},{id:"81778",title:"Influence of Mechanical Properties of Biomaterials on the Reconstruction of Biomedical Parts via Additive Manufacturing Techniques: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104465",signatures:"Babatunde Olamide Omiyale, Akeem Abiodun Rasheed, Robinson Omoboyode Akinnusi and Temitope Olumide Olugbade",slug:"influence-of-mechanical-properties-of-biomaterials-on-the-reconstruction-of-biomedical-parts-via-add",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11405.jpg",subseries:{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9869",title:"Self-Driving Vehicles and Enabling Technologies",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9869.jpg",slug:"self-driving-vehicles-and-enabling-technologies",publishedDate:"September 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marian Găiceanu",hash:"fd451ca2e4785ef098e04b7d695a18d9",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Self-Driving Vehicles and Enabling Technologies",editors:[{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9958",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Latest Advances, New Paradigms and Novel Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9958.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-latest-advances-new-paradigms-and-novel-applications",publishedDate:"September 1st 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Eneko Osaba, Esther Villar, Jesús L. 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