Summary of the reported records [14] and the calculated limits of Si and GaAs solar cells performances under the global AM1.5 spectrum.
\r\n\tSolar radiation is the radiant energy that originated from the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation at various wavelengths. Solar radiation is the source of renewable energy and can be captured and converted into various forms of energy (e.g. electricity and heat) using different technologies.
\r\n\tA very vast amount of solar energy reaches the atmosphere and surface of the earth and solar energy has been used for heating purposes for a very long-time and after solar cells’ invention in 1954, solar cells have also been used widely for electricity generation. Solar cells convert the sunlight into electricity by the creation of voltage and electric current through the so-called photovoltaic effect.
\r\n\tPhotovoltaic (PV) solar energy has attracted significant attention in the recent decade as a reliable source for power generation due to various merits such as the free source of energy, abundant materials resources, environmentally friendly and noise-free, longtime service life, requiring low maintenance, technological advancements, market potential, and very importantly, low cost. The growth of using photovoltaic (PV) solar energy as a promising renewable energy technology, is being increased more and more worldwide. Therefore, much further research is needed for possible future developments in the field of solar photovoltaic energy.
\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to provide detailed information about solar radiation as the source of photovoltaic (PV) solar energy for a broad range of readership including undergraduate and postgraduate students, young or experienced researchers and engineers.
\r\n\tThis should be accomplished by addressing the various technical and practical aspects of solar radiation fundamentals, modeling and the measurement for photovoltaic (PV) solar energy applications.
\r\n\tThe majority of this book should describe the basic, modern, and contemporary knowledge and technology of extraterrestrial and terrestrial solar irradiance for photovoltaic (PV) solar energy.
\r\n\tThe book covers the most recent developments, innovation and applications concerning the following topics:
\r\n\t• Fundamental of solar radiation and photovoltaic solar energy
\r\n\t• Solar radiation and photovoltaic solar energy potential
\r\n\t• Solar irradiance measurement: techniques, instrumentation and uncertainty analysis
\r\n\t• Solar radiation modeling for photovoltaic solar energy applications
\r\n\t• Solar monitoring and data quality assessment
\r\n\t• Solar resource assessment and photovoltaic system performance
\r\n\t• Solar energy and photovoltaic power forecasting
\r\n\tThese are accompanied with other useful research topics and material.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-859-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-858-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-860-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4c3d1319d7286e81bfb15c1f4b20460a",bookSignature:"Dr. Mohammadreza Aghaei",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9862.jpg",keywords:"Solar Radiation Modeling, Solar Data Assessment, Solar Monitoring, Solar Radiation Forecasting, Solar Irradiance Measurements, Solar Instruments, Solar Spectral Distributions, Uncertainty Analysis, Solar Cell Technologies, Photovoltaics (PV), Solar Resource Assessment, Photovoltaics Power Forecasting",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 17th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 15th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 14th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 4th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 3rd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A senior researcher in the field of photovoltaic solar energy, a postdoctoral scientist at Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), Chair of the WG2: reliability and durability of PV in EU COST PEARL PV.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"317230",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammadreza",middleName:null,surname:"Aghaei",slug:"mohammadreza-aghaei",fullName:"Mohammadreza Aghaei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317230/images/system/317230.jpg",biography:"Mohammadreza Aghaei is a senior researcher in the field of photovoltaic solar energy, Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), The Netherlands. He is chair of the Working Group 2: reliability and durability of PV in European Cooperation in Science and Technology, COST Action PEARL PV.\nHe received the M.S. degree in electrical engineering from the Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Selangor, Malaysia, in 2013, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy, in 2016.\nHe was a Postdoctoral Scientist with Fraunhofer ISE and Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin (HZB)-PVcomB, Germany, in 2017 and 2018, respectively. He is a Guest Scientist with the Department of Microsystems Engineering (IMTEK), Solar Energy Engineering, University of Freiburg since 2017. He is currently a Postdoctoral Scientist with the Design of Sustainable Energy Systems Group, Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), The Netherlands. He has authored numerous publications in international refereed journals, book chapters, and conference proceedings. The main his research interests include Solar Energy, Photovoltaic systems, PV monitoring, LSC PV, solar cells, machine learning, and UAVs.\nDr. Aghaei is a member of the International Energy Agency, PVPS program-Task 13 and International Solar Energy Society, and also an MC member in EU COST Action PEARL PV.",institutionString:"Eindhoven University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Eindhoven University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Netherlands"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247865",firstName:"Jasna",lastName:"Bozic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247865/images/7225_n.jpg",email:"jasna.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5962",title:"Estuary",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43058846a64b270e9167d478e966161a",slug:"estuary",bookSignature:"William Froneman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5962.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109336",title:"Prof.",name:"William",surname:"Froneman",slug:"william-froneman",fullName:"William Froneman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"47490",title:"Theoretical Calculation of the Efficiency Limit for Solar Cells",doi:"10.5772/58914",slug:"theoretical-calculation-of-the-efficiency-limit-for-solar-cells",body:'In recent years there has been intense research work into the development of high efficiency solar cells relying on emerging novel materials and structures. All this has lead to a continuous record breaking of highest achievable efficiencies using different technologies. Since the first photovoltaic devices were developed the most prevalent concern is to hem in all sorts of efficiency losses preventing from reaching the physical limits [1-3]. To overcome this impediment, thorough investigations have been carried out to control and unearth their origins in order to identify potential efficiency advantages. Numerous thermodynamic approaches were employed to calculate solar cell efficiency limit, starting from the ideal Carnot engine to the latest detailed balance with its improved approach.
The aim of this chapter is to present a review of the techniques used to calculate the energy conversion efficiency limit for solar cells with detailed calculation using a number of numerical techniques. The study consists of analyzing the solar cell intrinsic losses; it is these intrinsic losses that set the limit of the efficiency for a solar energy converter. Several theoretical approaches were used in order to obtain the thermodynamic limit for energy conversion.
In the first place a solar cell could be considered as a simple energy converter (engine) able to produce an electrical work after the absorption of heat from the sun. In this fundamental vision the solar cell is represented by an ideally reversible Carnot heat engine in perfect contact with high temperature reservoir (the sun) and low temperature reservoir representing the ambient atmosphere. If the sun is at a temperature of 6000K and the ambient temperature is 300K, the maximum Carnot efficiency is about 95% this value constitutes an upper limit for all kind of solar converters.
When the solar cell is supposed a blackbody converter absorbing radiation from the sun itself a blackbody, without creating entropy, we obtain an efficiency of about 93 % known as the Landsberg efficiency limit, which is slightly lower than Carnot efficiency.
Whilst a solar cell is assumed as an endoreversible system [4], the energy conversion efficiency is limited to 85.7% this figure is obtained where the sun is assumed fully surrounding the cell (maximum concentration). If we bear in mind that in a real situation the solar cell does not operate always in maximum concentration and the solid angle under which the cell sees the sun is in fact only a minute fraction of a hemisphere, the maximum efficiency is not larger than 12.79%, which is actually lower than most recently fabricated solar cells. However, we can conclude that solar cell is a quantum converter and cannot be treated as a simple solar radiation converter [5].
Semiconductor pn junction solar cell is a quantum converter where the energy band-gap of semiconductor material is the most important and critical factor controlling efficiency. Incident photons with energy higher than the energy gap can be absorbed, creating electron-hole pairs, while those with lower energy are not absorbed, either reflected or transmitted.
In the ideal model of a monochromatic cell incident photons are within a narrow interval of energy, while the cell luminescence outside this range is prevented. The overall resulting efficiency upper limit for an infinite number of monochromatic cells is 86.81% for fully concentrated sun radiation.
The ultimate efficiency of a single band gap pn junction for an AM1.5 G solar spectrum gives a value of 49%, this maximum efficiency, if compared to Carnot efficiency limit, is substantially lower. Therefore in quantum converters it is obvious that more than 50% of the solar radiation is lost because of spectral mismatch.
To represent a more realistic picture of a solar cell, three other fundamental factors should be taken into account, namely; the view factor of the sun seen from the solar cell position, the background radiation which could be represented as a blackbody at ambient temperature, and losses due to recombination, radiative and non-radiative.
In the detailed balance efficiency limit calculation first suggested in 1961 by Shockley and Queisser (SQ) in their seminal paper [6]. It is assumed that illumination of semiconductor pn junction by a blackbody source creates electron-hole pairs due to the fundamental absorption of photons with energies greater than the band-gap. These pairs either recombine locally if they are not separated and extracted along different paths to perform work in an external circuit. They assumed that recombination in the semiconductor is partly radiative and the maximum efficiency is attained when radiative recombination in dominant. The Shockley-Queisser model has been extended and completed to account for more physical phenomena [7-13]. For instance, the generalised Planck radiation law introduced by Würfel [7], the effect of background radiation has been included and elaborate numerical techniques has been used in order avoid mathematical approximations which would yield erroneous results.
The currently achieved short-circuit current densities for some solar cells are very close to predicted limits [14]. Nevertheless, further gain in short-circuit current can therefore still be obtained, mainly by minimising the cell surface reflectivity, while increasing the thickness, so as to maximize the photons absorption. For thin film solar cells gain in photocurrent can be obtained by improving light trapping techniques to enhance the cell absorption.
Radiative recombination and the external fluorescence efficiency have a critical role to play, if the created photons are re-emitted out of the cell efficiently, which corresponds to low optical losses, the open circuit voltage and consequently the cell efficiency approach their limits [15]. Concentrating solar radiation onto a solar cell improves remarkably its performance. Comparable effect could be obtained if the solar cell emission and acceptance angles were made equal.
Thermodynamics has widely been used to estimate the efficiency limit of energy conversion process. The performance limit of solar cell is calculated either by thermodynamics or by detailed balance approaches. Regardless of the conversion mechanism in solar cells, an upper efficiency limit has been evaluated by considering only the balances for energy and entropy flux rates. As a first step the solar cell was represented by an ideally reversible Carnot heat engine in perfect contact with high temperature Ts reservoir (the sun) and low temperature Ta reservoir representing the ambient atmosphere. In accordance with the first law of thermodynamics the extracted work, the cell electrical power output, is represented as the difference between the net energy input from the sun and the energy dissipated to the surrounding environment. The model is illustrated in figure 1. Where Q1 is the incident solar energy impinging on the cell, Q2 is the amount of energy flowing from the converter to the heat sink and W is the work delivered to a load in the form of electrical energy (W=Q1\n\t\t\t\t\t– Q2). The efficiency of this system is defined using the first thermodynamic law as:
for a reversible engine the total entropy is conserved,
Hence the Carnot efficiency could be represented by:
This efficiency depends simply on the ratio of the converter temperature, which is equal to that of the surrounding heat sink, to the sun temperature. This efficiency is maximum (ηc=1) if the converter temperature is 0\n\t\t\t\t\tK and the solar energy is totally converted into electrical work, while ηc=0 if the converter temperature is identical to that of the sun Ts the system is in thermal equilibrium so there is no energy exchange. If the sun is at a temperature of 6000K and the ambient temperature is 300K, the Carnot efficiency is 95% this value constitutes an upper limit for all solar converters.
A schematic diagram of a solar converter represented as ideal Carnot engine.
Another way of calculating the efficiency of a reversible heat engine where the solar cell is assumed as a blackbody converter at a temperature Tc, absorbing radiation from the sun itself a blackbody at temperature Ts, without creating entropy, this efficiency is called the Landsberg efficiency[16].
Under the reversibility condition the absorbed entropy from the sun Sabs is given off in two ways one is emitted back to the sun Semit and the second part goes to the ambient thermal sink Sa. Under this condition, the solar cell is called reversible if:
In accordance with the Stefan–Boltzmann law of black body, the absorbed heat flow from the sun is:
For a blackbody radiation, the absorbed density of entropy flow is:
The energy flow emitted by the converter at a temperature Tc is:
And the emitted entropy flow is:
In this model the blackbody source (sun) surrounds entirely the converter at Tc which is assumed in a contact with a thermal sink at Ta then Tc=Ta. Therefore the entropy transferred to the thermal sink is:
And the transferred heat flow is:
The entropy-free, utilizable work flow is then:
Therefore the Landsberg efficiency can be deduced as:
The actual temperature of the converter Tc depends on the operating point of the converter and is different from the ambient temperature Ta, (Tc ≠ Ta). To maintain the same assumption as the Landsberg efficiency calculation, the entropy transferred to the ambient thermal sink is rewritten as:
We arrive to a more general form of the Landsberg efficiency η’:
Both forms of Landsberg efficiency (ηL and η’L) are plotted in Figure 2, Carnot efficiency curve is added for comparison. At 300K\n\t\t\t\t\tηL and η’L coincide at 93.33 % which is slightly lower than Carnot efficiency. When the temperature of the converter is greater than the ambient temperature (Tc > Ta) there is less heat flow from the converter to the sun (in accordance with Landsberg model). This means that much work could be extracted from the converter leading to a higher efficiency. As Tc approaches the sun temperature, the net energy exchange between the sun and the converter drops, therefore the efficiency is reduced and finally goes to zero for Tc=Ts.
Landsberg and Carnot Efficiency limits of a solar converter versus ambient temperature.
In the Landsberg model the blackbody radiation law for the sun and the solar cell has been included, unlike the previous Carnot engine.
This figure represents an upper bound on solar energy conversion efficiency, particularly for solar cells which are primarily quantum converters absorbing only photons with energies higher or equal to their energy bandgap. On the other hand in the calculation of the absorbed solar radiation the converter was assumed fully surrounded by the source, corresponding to a solid angle of 4π.
Using the same approach it is possible to split the system into two subsystems each with its own efficiency; the Carnot engine that include the heat pump of the converter at Tc and the ambient heat sink at Ta, with an efficiency ηc (ideal Carnot engine).
The ambient temperature is assumed equal to 300 K, therefore high efficiency is obtained when the converter temperature is higher then the ambient temperature.
The second part is composed of the sun as an isotropic blackbody at Ts and the converter reservoir assumed as a blackbody at a temperature Tc. The energy flow falling upon Qabs and emitted by the solar converter Qemit are given by:
In which f is a geometrical factor taking into account the limited solid angle from which the solar energy falls upon the converter. In accordance with the schematic representation of figure 3, where the solar cell is represented as a planar device irradiated by hemisphere surrounding area and the sun subtending a solid angle ωs at angle of incidence θ,\n\t\t\t\t\tf is defined as the ratio of the area subtended by sun to the apparent area of the hemisphere:
ωs being the solid angle subtended by the sun, where ωs=6.85×10-5 sr. The concentration factor C (C > 1) is a measure of the enhancement of the energy current density by optical means (lens, mirrors…).The maximum concentration factor is obtained if we take Ts=6000°K:
Then
The case of maximum concentration also corresponds to the schematic case where the sun is assumed surrounding entirely the converter as assumed in previous calculations.
Similar situation can be obtained if the solid angle through which the photons are escaping from the cell (emission angle) is limited to a narrow range around the sun. This can be achieved by hosing the cell in a cavity that limits the angle of the escaping photons.
A schematic representation of a solar converter as a planar cell irradiated by the sun subtending a solid angle ωs at angle of incidence θ.
The efficiency of this part of the system (isolated) is given by:
the resulting efficiency is simply the product:
This figure represents an overall efficiency of the entropy-free energy conversion by blackbody emitter-absorber combined with a Carnot engine. The temperature of the surrounding ambient Ta is assumed equal to 300K. When f is taken equal to ωs/π=2.18×10-5 and without concentration (C=1) we obtain a very low efficiency value (about 6.78%), as shown in figure 4. The efficiency for concentrations of 10, 100 and full concentration (46200) is found respectively 31.36, 53.48 and 85.38%. In this model the solar cell is not in thermal equilibrium with its surrounding (Tc ≠ Ta), then it exchanges radiation not only with the sun but also with the ambient heat sink. Therefore, energy can be produced or absorbed from the surrounding acting as a secondary source. Neglecting this contribution naturally decreases the efficiency of the converter, particularly at C=1. The second explanation of the low efficiency value is the under estimation of the re-emitted radiation from the cell, at operating conditions the solar cell re-emits radiation efficiently especially at open circuit point.
Efficiency ηac for different concentration rates (C=1, 10, 100 and Cmax) with Landsberg and Carnot Efficiency limits of a solar converter as a function of ambient temperature.
A more realistic model has been introduced by De Vos et al. [8] in which only a part of the converter system is reversible, endoreversible system. An intermediate heat reservoir is inserted at the temperature of the converter Tc, this source is heated by the sun at Ts (blackbody radiation) and acting as a new high temperature pump in a reversible Carnot engine. In this system the entropy is generated between the Ts reservoir and the converter, the temperature Tc is fictitious and is different from the ambient temperature Ta. The effective temperature Tc depends on the rate of work production. In this model the solar converter is assumed to behave like the Müser engine, itself a particular case of the Curzon-Ahlborn engine, as shown in Fig.5, the sun is represented by blackbody source at temperature T1=Ts the solar cell includes a heat reservoir assumed as blackbody at T3=Tc (the converter temperature) and an ideal Carnot engine capable of producing utilizable work (electrical power), however Tc is related to the converter working condition. This engine is in contact with an ambient heat sink at T2 representing the ambient temperature T2=Ta. In addition to the absorbed energy from the sun, the converter absorbs radiation from ambient reservoir assumed as a blackbody at Ta.
A schematic diagram of a solar converter represented as an endoreversible system.
The net energy flow input to the converter, including the incident solar energy flow
The Müser engine efficiency (Carnot engine):
The converter temperature can be extracted from ηM:
And the solar efficiency is defined as ratio of the delivered work to the incident solar energy flux:
hence
The maximum solar efficiency is then a function of two parameters; the Müser efficiency and the surrounding ambient temperature. From the 3d representation at figure 6 of the solar efficiency (ηs) against Müser efficiency ηM and the surrounding temperature Ta, the efficiency is high as the temperature is very low and vanishes for very high temperature (as Ta approaches the sun temperature). For Ta=289.23K the efficiency is 12.79% if the sun’s temperature is 6000°K.
The solar efficiency surface ηs (ηM, Ta), the sun as a blackbody at Ts=6000°K.
A general expression of solar efficiency of the Müser engine is obtained when the solar radiation concentration factor C is introduced:
Compared to Carnot efficiency engine the Müser engine efficiency, even when C is maximal, remains low.
If the ratio
Hence, the corresponding ηS becomes:
In the assumption of Ta=289.23K the maximum efficiency without concentration, i.e. the solar cell sees the sun through a solid angle ωs is 12.79% which is better than the predicted value of Würfel [7] but still very low, as shown in figure 8. For concentration equal to 10, 100 and CMAX, the efficiency reaches 33.9, 54.71 and 85.7% respectively.
The maximum solar efficiency using Müser engine for different concentration rates (C=1, 10, 100 and Cmax) with Carnot Efficiency limit as a function of ambient temperature.
The solar efficiency using Müser engine for different concentration rates (C=1, 10, 100 and Cmax) as a function of Müser efficiency.
In a quantum converter the semiconductor energy band-gap, of which the cell is made, is the most important and critical factor controlling efficiency losses. Although what seems to be fundamental in a solar cell is the existence of two distinct levels and two selective contacts allowing the collection of photo-generated carriers [2].
Incident photons with energy higher than the energy gap can be absorbed, creating electron-hole pairs, while those with lower energy are not absorbed, either reflected or transmitted. The excess energy of the absorbed energy greater than the energy gap is dissipated in the process of electrons thermalisation, resulting in further loss of the absorbed energy. Besides, only the free energy (the Helmholtz potential) that is not associated with entropy can be extracted from the device, which is determined by the second law of thermodynamics.
It is interesting to examine first an ideal monochromatic converter illuminated by photons within a narrow interval of energy around the bandgap
The number of created electron-hole pairs, in the assumption that each absorbed photon yields an electron-hole pair, could be simply represented by:
Where μeh is the emitted photon chemical potential, with μeh=Fn-Fp, (Fn, Fp are the quasi Fermi levels of electrons and holes respectively). The cell is assumed in thermal equilibrium with its surrounding ambient, then Tc=Ta.
This expression describes both the thermal radiation (for μeh=0) and emission of luminescence radiation (for μeh ≠ 0). The number of emitted photons from the cell is then:
This equation allows the definition of an equivalent cell temperature Teq from:
When a solar cell formed by a juxtaposition of two semiconductors p- and n-types is illuminated, an electrical voltage V between its terminals is created. This voltage is simply the difference in the quasi Fermi levels of majority carriers at Ohmic contacts for constant quasi Fermi levels and ideal Ohmic contacts, this voltage is equal to the chemical potential: qV=μeh=Fn-Fp.
At open circuit condition, the voltage Voc is given by a simple expression (deduced from (31)):
The density of work delivered to an external circuit (density of extracted electrical power) dW is:
The incoming energy flow from the sun can be written as:
The emitted energy density from the solar cell in a radiation form (radiative recombination) is:
The efficiency of this system is:
The work extracted from a monochromatic cell is similar to that extracted from a Carnot engine. The equivalent temperature of this converter is directly related to the operating voltage. At short-circuit condition it corresponds to the ambient temperature (μeh=0 then Teq,sc=Tc=Ta) whereas at open circuit condition and for fully concentrated solar radiation, the equivalent temperature is that of the sun, (dJ=0 then Teq,oc=Ts). For non-concentrated radiation (C ≠ CMax) at open circuit voltage Teq,oc is obtained by solving the equation
It is therefore possible to consider a monochromatic solar cell as reversible thermal engine (Carnot engine) operating between Teq,oc and Ta.
We can see that an ideal monochromatic cell, which only allows radiative recombination, represents an ideal converter of heat into electrical energy.
In order to find the maximum efficiency of such a cell as a function of the monochromatic photon energy (hνg), the dW=dJ×V versus V characteristic is used. We search for the point (dJmp, Vmp) corresponding to the maximum extracted power. The maximum chemical energy density (dWmp=dJmp× Vmp) is divided by the absorbed monochromatic energy gives the efficiency ηmono(Eg) as a function of the bandgap.
The monochromatic efficiency is considerable, particularly in the case of fully concentrated radiation (C=CMax), and rises with the energy bandgap, as shown in figure 9. In theory the connection of a large number of ideal monochromatic absorbers will produce the best solar cell for the total solar spectrum. To calculate the overall efficiency numerically, a fine discretization of the frequency domain is made; the sum of the maximum power density over the solar spectrum divided by the total absorbed energy density. The efficiencies resulting from this calculation are respectively 67.45% and 86.81% for non-concentrated and fully concentrated radiation.
To cover the whole solar energy spectrum an infinite number of monochromatic absorbers, each for a different photon energy interval, are needed. Each absorber would have its own Carnot engine and operate at its own optimal temperature, since for a given voltage the cell equivalent temperature depends on the photon energy (hνg). Finally this model can not be directly used to describe semiconductor solar cells where the electron-hole pairs are generated in bands and not discrete levels, besides if the cell is considered as a cascade of tow-level converters; the notion of effective or equivalent temperature is no longer valid, since for each set of levels a different equivalent temperature is defined.
The monochromatic efficiency against the photon energy corresponding to the energy band-gap of the cell for non-concentrated (C=1) and fully concentrated (C=Cmax) solar spectrum.
The total number of photons of frequency greater than νg (Eg=hνg) impinging from the sun, assumed as a blackbody at temperature Ts, in unit time and falling upon the solar cell per unit area Ns is given by:
This integral could be evaluated numerically.
In the assumption that each absorbed photon will produce a pair of electron-hole, the maximum output power density that could be delivered by a solar converter will be:
The solar cell is assumed entirely surrounded by the sun and maintained at Tc=0K as a first approximation and to get the maximum energy transfer from the sun. The total incident energy density coming from the sun at Ts and falling upon the solar cell, Pin is given by
In accordance with the definition of the ultimate efficiency [6, 17], as the rate of the generated photon energy to the input energy density, its expression can be evaluated as a function of Eg as follows:
This expression is plotted in figure 10, so the maximum efficiency is approximately 43.87% corresponding to Eg=1.12 eV, this energy band-gap is approximately that of crystalline silicon. Similar calculation of the ultimate efficiency taking the solar spectrum AM1.5 G (The standard global spectral irradiance, ASTM G173-03, is used [18]) is shown in figure 10 gives a slightly higher value of 49%. If one compares this efficiency to the aforementioned thermodynamic efficiency limits, most of them approach the Carnot limit for the special case where the converter’s temperature is absolute zero, this ultimate efficiency limit is substantially lower (44% or 49%) than the Carnot limit (95%). In quantum converters it is obvious that more than 50% of the solar radiation is lost because of the spectral mismatch. Therefore, non-absorption of photons with less energy than the semiconductor band-gap and the excess energy of photons, larger than the band-gap, are the two main losses.
The ultimate efficiency against the energy band-gap of the solar cell, using the AM1.5G spectrum with the blackbody spectrum at Ts=6000°K.
The detailed balance limit efficiency for an ideal solar cell, consisting of single semiconducting absorber with energy band-gap Eg, has been first calculated by Shockley and Queisser (SQ) [6]. The illumination of a pn junction solar cell creates electron-hole pairs by electronic transition due to the fundamental absorption of photons with hν > Eg, which is basically a quantum process. The photogenerated pairs either recombine locally or circulate in an external circuit and can transfer their energy. Their approach reposes on the following main assumptions; the probability that a photon with energy hν > Eg incident on the surface of the cell will produce a hole-electron pair is equal to unity, while photons of lower energy will produce no effect, all photogenerated electrons and holes thermalize to the band edges (photons with energy greater than Eg produce the same effect), all the photogenerated charge carriers are collected at short-circuit condition and the upper detailed balance efficiency limit is obtained if radiative recombination is the only allowed recombination mechanism.
The model initially introduced by SQ [6] has been improved by a number of researchers, by first introducing a more exact form of radiative recombination. The radiative recombination rate is described using the generalised Planck radiation law introduced by Würfel [7], where the energy carried by emitted photons turn out to be the difference of electron-hole quasi Fermi levels. While for non-radiative recombination the released energy is recovered by other electrons, holes or phonons.
In the following sub-section the maximum achievable conversion efficiency of a single band-gap absorber material is determined.
Now we consider a more realistic situation of a solar cell, depicted in figure 3. Three factors will be taken into account, namely; the view factor of the sun seen from the solar cell, the background radiation is represented as a blackbody at ambient temperature Ta, and losses due to recombination (radiative and non-radiative).
In steady state condition the current density J(V) flowing through an external circuit is the algebraic sum of the rates of increase of electron-hole pairs corresponding to the absorption of incoming photons from the sun and the surrounding background, in addition to recombination (radiative and non-radiative). This leads to a general current voltage characteristic formula:
with reference to the solar cell configuration shown in figure 3, Ts, Ta and Tc are the respective temperatures of sun, ambient background and solar cell. As defined previously, C and f are the concentration factor and the sun geometrical factor, while fRR represents the fraction of the radiative recombination rate or radiative recombination efficiency. If UNR and URR are the non-radiative and radiative recombination rates respectively, fRR is defined by:
The current density formula (43) can be rewritten in a more compact form as follows:
With:
Under dark condition and zero bias the current density must be null, then:
Therefore the current density expression becomes:
From the above J (V) expression we can obtain the short-circuit current density (Jsc=J(V=0)) as follows:
In the ideal case the short-circuit current density depends only on the flux of impinging photons from the sun and the product Cf, recombination has no effect. The term φa in Jsc, representing the radiation from the surrounding ambient is negligible. The total photogenerated carriers are swept away and do not recombine before reaching the external circuit where they give away their electrochemical energy. Figure 11 illustrates the maximum short-circuit current density to be harvested against band-gap energy according to (49) for a blackbody spectrum at Ts=6000°K normalised to a power density of 1000W/m2 and a spectral photon flux corresponding to the terrestrial AM1.5G spectrum. Narrow band-gap semiconductors exhibit higher photocurrents because the threshold of absorption is very low, therefore most of the solar spectrum can be absorbed. For power extraction this is not enough, the voltage is equally important and more precisely, the open circuit voltage.
The currently achieved short-circuit current densities for some solar cells are very close to predicted limits. Nevertheless, further gain in short-circuit current can therefore still be obtained, mainly by minimising the cell surface reflectivity, while increasing its thickness, so as to maximize the photon absorption. For thin film solar cells the gain in Jsc can be obtained by improving light trapping techniques to enhance the cell absorption.
For instance crystalline silicon solar cells with an energy band-gap of 1.12 eV at 300K has already achieved a Jsc of 42.7 mA/cm2 compared to a predicted maximum value of 43.85 mA/cm2 for an AM1.5 global spectrum (only 39.52 mA/cm2 for a normalised blackbody spectrum at 6000°K), while for GaAs with Eg=1.43eV a reported maximum Jsc of 29.68 mA/cm2 compared to 31.76 mA/cm2 (only 29.52 mA/cm2 for a normalised blackbody spectrum at 6000°K) [14].
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tJsc(mA/cm2)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tVoc(V)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tη (%)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
Limit | \n\t\t\trecord | \n\t\t\tlimit | \n\t\t\trecord | \n\t\t\tlimit | \n\t\t\trecord | \n\t\t|
Si | \n\t\t\t43.85 | \n\t\t\t42.7 | \n\t\t\t0.893 | \n\t\t\t0.706 | \n\t\t\t34.37 | \n\t\t\t25.0 | \n\t\t
GaAs | \n\t\t\t31.76 | \n\t\t\t29.68 | \n\t\t\t1.170 | \n\t\t\t1.122 | \n\t\t\t33.72 | \n\t\t\t28.8 | \n\t\t
Summary of the reported records [14] and the calculated limits of Si and GaAs solar cells performances under the global AM1.5 spectrum.
The maximum short-circuit current density against the energy band-gap of the solar cell, using the AM1.5G spectrum with the blackbody spectrum at Ts=6000°K.
At open circuit condition electron-hole pairs are continually created as a result of the photon flux absorption, the only mechanism to counter balance this non-equilibrium condition is recombination. Non-radiative recombination could be eliminated, whereas radiative recombination has a direct impact on the cell efficiency and particularly on the open circuit voltage. The radiative current as the rate of radiative emission increases exponentially with the bias subtracts from the current delivered to the load by the cell. At open circuit condition, external photon emission is part of a necessary and unavoidable equilibration process [15]. The maximum attainable Voc corresponds to the condition where the cell emits as many photons as it absorbs. The open circuit voltage of a solar cell can be found by taking the band gap energy and accounting for the losses associated with various sources of entropy increase. Often, the largest of these energy losses is due to the entropy associated with radiative recombination.
In the case where qV is several kT smaller than
The current density expression becomes then:
The open circuit voltage can be deduced directly from this expression as:
The open circuit voltage is determined entirely by two factors; the concentration rate of solar radiation C (C ≥1) and radiative recombination rate fRR (fRR ≤1).
Radiative recombination has a critical role to play, if the created photons are re-emitted out of the cell, which corresponds to low optical losses, the open circuit voltage and consequently the cell efficiency approach the SQ limit. Therefore the limiting factor for high Voc (efficiency) is the external fluorescence efficiency of the cell as far as radiative recombination is concerned. Since the escape cone is in general low, efficient external emission involves repeated escape attempts and this is ensured by perfect light trapping techniques. In this case the created photons are allowed to be reabsorbed and reemitted again until they coincide with the escape cone, reaching high external fluorescence efficiency [15, 18-19].
So dominant radiative recombination is required to reach high Voc and this is not sufficient to reach the SQ limit, the other barrier is to get the generated photons out of the cell and this is limited by the external fluorescence efficiency ηfex. Hence, the external fluorescence efficiencyηfex, is introduced in the expression of Voc and fRR is multiplied by ηfex, (ηfex ≤ 1) then:
If we define a maximum ideal open circuit voltage value Voc,max for fully concentrated solar radiation (C=Cmax=1/f) and when the radiative recombination is the only loss mechanism with maximum external fluorescence efficiency (i.e, fRRηfex=1), then:
It is worth mentioning that (56) is not an exact evaluation of Voc. As shown in figure 12.b equation (56) for narrow band-gap semiconductors yields wrong values of Voc,max (above Eg/q line), acceptable values are obtained only for Eg greater than 2 eV, where it coincides with the result obtained when solving numerically (45) for J(V)=0.
From this figure one can say that taking Voc,max=Eg/q is a much better approximation; thus, instead of (56) we can use the following approximation:
A more accurate value of Voc is obtained after numerical resolution of equation (45) for J(V)=0, the results are plotted in figure12a and 12.b.
The other type of entropy loss degrading the open-circuit voltage is the photon entropy increase due to isotropic emission under direct sunlight. This entropy increase occurs because solar cells generally emit into 2π steradian, while the solid angle subtended by the sun is only 6.85×10−5 steradian.
The most common approach to addressing photon entropy is a concentrator system. If the concentration factor C of sun radiation is increased, this is generally achieved by optical means, a significant increase of Voc is obtained (as shown in figure 12.b). The calculation is carried out assuming a dominant radiative recombination and with maximum external fluorescence efficiency (fRRηfex=1). In this case we can notice that as C is increased Voc approaches its ultimate value Eg/q, for example GaAs (Eg=1.43 eV) for C=CMax we get Voc=0.99×Eg/q=1.41 V, which corresponds to an efficiency limit of approximately 38.5% (blackbody spectrum at 6000K). This theoretical limit shows the importance of dealing with entropy losses associated with angle of acceptance of photons from the sun and emission of photons from the cell efficiently. This value is well above the predicted SQ limit, where the concentration factor was considered.
The Voc/Eg against energy band-gap of the solar cell, using a blackbody spectrum at Ts=6000°K; a)-for different radiative recombination rates, b)-for different solar concentrations and a plot of (56) for C=Cmax.
With reference to table 1 we can clearly see that the record open circuit voltage under one-sun condition (C=1) of gallium arsenide solar cell (1.12 V) is already close to the SQ limit (1.17 V) while silicon solar cell is still behind with a record Voc of 0.706 V compared to a limit of 0.893 V, this difference is due to the fact that GaAs has a direct band gap, which means that it can be used to absorb and emit light efficiently, whereas Silicon has an indirect band gap and so is relatively poor at emitting light. Although Silicon makes an excellent solar cell, its internal fluorescence yield is less than 20%, which prevents Silicon from approaching the SQ limit [20]. On the other hand It has been demonstrated that efficiency in Si solar cells is limited by Auger recombination, rather than by radiative recombination [20-22].
Energy conversion efficiency η is usually known as the most relevant figure for solar cell performance. Solar cell efficiency is calculated by dividing a cell\'s electrical power output at its maximum power point by the input solar radiation and the surface area of the solar cell. The maximum power output from the solar cell is obtained by choosing the voltage V so that the product current-voltage (IV) is a maximum. This point corresponds to the situation where a maximum power is extracted from the cell. Using equation 45 we can define the power delivered by a cell as:
The maximum power
For AM1.5G solar spectrum Pin is replaced by 1000.
Figure 13 illustrates efficiency against energy band-gap of a solar cell, using the AM1.5G spectrum and the blackbody spectrum at Ts=6000°K for one sun and full concentration (C=CMax), the only recombination mechanism is radiative and 100% external fluorescence efficiency, which means that all emitted photons from the cell (issue from radiative recombination) are allowed to escape. The maximum efficiency is 34.42% for AM1.5G corresponding to a gap of 1.34 eV, for a blackbody spectrum normalized to 1000 W/m2 the maximum efficiency is 31.22% at 1.29 eV, while for a full solar concentration the maximum is 40.60% at 1.11 eV, this confirms the fact that the optimal band gaps decrease as the solar concentration increases.
In figure 14 the product of radiative recombination rate and the external fluorescence efficiency (
The maximum efficiency against the energy band-gap of the solar cell, using the AM1.5G spectrum with the blackbody spectrum at Ts=6000°K for one sun and full concentration (C=CMax).
The maximum efficiency against the energy band-gap of the solar cell, using the AM1.5G spectrum with the blackbody spectrum at Ts=6000°K for one sun and full concentration (C=CMax)
Since the power output of the cell is determined by the product of the current and voltage, it is therefore imperative to understand what material properties (and solar cell geometries) boost these two parameters. Certainly, the short-circuit current in the solar cell is determined entirely by both the material absorption property and the effectiveness of photo-generated carriers collection at contacts. As previously mentioned (section 2.4.1), the manufactured solar cells with present technologies and materials have already achieved short-circuit currents close to predicted limits. Therefore the shortfall in efficiency could be attributed to the voltage. We show here that the key to reaching the highest possible voltages is first to have a recombination predominantly radiative with a maximal external emission of photons from the surface of the solar cell. Secondly we need a maximum solar concentration. The second condition could be achieved either by using sun concentrators, there are concentrators with concentration factor from ×2 to over ×1000 [23] or by non-concentrating techniques with emission and acceptance angle limited to a narrow range around the sun [24-26].
At this level we can conclude that the efficiency limit of a single energy gap solar cell is bound by two intrinsic limitations; the first is the spectral mismatch with the solar spectrum which retains at least 50% of the available solar energy. The best known example of how to surmount such efficiency restraint is the use of tandem or stacked cells. This alternative will become increasingly feasible with the likely evolution of materials technology over the decades to 2020 [27].
The second intrinsic loss is due to the entropy associated with spontaneous emission. To overcame this limitation three conditions should be satisfied, that is: a) – prevailing radiative recombination (to eliminate the non-collected electro-hole pairs), b)-efficient external fluorescence (to maximise the external emission of photons from the solar cell) and c)-using concentrated sun light or restricting the emission and acceptance angle of the luminescent photons to a narrow range around the sun.
For single junction cell the record at present is 28.8% (GaAs) [14] compared to the SQ limit of 33.7% which is a significant accomplishment and little room has been left for improvement. Immense experimental research is now directed towards maximizing the external emission of photons from the solar cell. One way of getting beyond the SQ limit for a single junction is the use of concentrated radiation, the current record for concentrator cell is only 29.1% (GaAs) under 117 suns [14], this technology has a number of challenging problems (such as tracking and cooling systems) and there is still a long way to go. The same goal is accomplished by matching the angles under which light impinges from the sun and into which light is emitted from the solar cell. Recently it has been demonstrated that light trapping GaAs solar cell with limited emission angle efficiencies above 38% may be achievable with a single junction solar cell [25].
To overcome the restrictions of a single junction solar cell several directions were investigated during the last decades (i.e. hot carrier cells, carrier multiplication and down-conversion, impurity photovoltaic and multiband cells, thermophotovoltac and thermophotonic conversion…).
The most widely explored path has been tandem or stacked cells; they provide the best known example of how such high efficiency might be achieved. The present efficiency record for a triple junctions cell (InGaP/GaAs/InGaAs) is 37.9% compared to a predicted value of over 51% for an optimised set of three stacked cells [28, 29]. The major technological challenge with tandem solar cells is to find materials with the desired band gaps and right physical properties (i.e. lattice constant and thermal parameters). The ultimate efficiency target for this kind of configuration is 86.81% (for a set of an infinite number of stacked monochromatic cells under maximum solar concentration) which constitutes an arduous target, corresponding to an infinite number of stacked junctions radiated by a maximum solar concentration. The best performance that the present technology can offer is 44.4% using a triple junction GaInP/GaAs/GaInAs cell under 302 suns [14].
The author would like to thank Professor Helmaoui A. for his valuable and helpful discussions throughout the preparation of this work.
Currently, in the international system, cooperation as a form of interstate relations is implemented more often than conflict. However, their practical aspects have been little conceptualized in international relations, especially in the context of the fact that these forms are categories of dialectics. In this regard, in order to determine the role of inter-state cooperation in international relations, it is necessary to correlate cooperation with its paired category.
D. Shevchuk notes that “conflicts and cooperation are among the most significant characteristics of international relations, considered as a process, and are inextricably linked sides of interaction between their participants [1]. In the language of Friedrich Hegel and Karl Marx [2, 3, 4], they are a “dialectical pair“ - that is, mutually presupposing and mutually determining opposites that can “change places”.
In the theory of interstate cooperation and conflict, there are two directions: “liberalism” and “realism”. The development of the liberalist concept took place until the mid-30s of the last century, after this concept was replaced by the concept of realism, which operated until the 70s.
Prior to this period, the problems of cooperation were secondary to the problems of conflict. Thus, the theory of cooperation was based on the theory of conflict. In accordance with this, starting from the 50s, such a direction of the theory of inter-state relations as conflictology began to be formed, bringing the theory of inter-state conflict into an independent direction.
But the same could not be said about the theory of interstate cooperation, which for a long time remained unnoticed by researchers in the field of international relations. The main focus of research in this area was the study of military-political unions as a form of interstate cooperation.
However, since the 60s, the need to study the problems of interstate cooperation has gradually come to the fore. During this period, issues of integration processes, which were considered as a form of interstate cooperation, become relevant. Already in the 80’s, cooperation became an independent direction in the theory of international relations, as well as the direction of conflictology.
The prerequisites for studying interstate cooperation are the need for answers to such questions as internal reasons for the formation of cooperation, obstacles to the development of cooperation in the international environment, types and forms of cooperation, and many others.
At the same time, translation as a fundamental component of collaboration becomes an important issue for researchers. As a result, a fairly large amount of material has been generated for the study of problems and models of interstate cooperation.
The classical dialectic between realistic and liberal theories of international politics, expressed by R. Keohane and R. Rosecrance, can be overcome [5]. Neither paradigm explains the only correct international behavior. While realism is the dominant approach, liberal theories of transnationalism and interdependence help illuminate how national interests are being studied and changed.
Cohen and his fellow critics argue that neorealism, formulated definitively in the“ Theory of international politics “ by K. Waltz, systematizes the concepts of realism, but focuses on the structure of the international system at the expense of systemic processes. Focused on the concept of bipolarity, Waltz’s theory tends to be consistent [6].
At the same time, it is important to note that realism and neorealism deny the very possibility of cooperation in interstate interaction. K. Waltz notes that “States, when planning or implementing their foreign policy, strive to maximize relative benefits, i.e., seek to acquire more opportunities than their partners.”
Classical realists also focus more on human nature. They believe that people are generally selfish and aggressive. The main actors in the international system, States, are guided by these principles, which leads to the inevitability of conflicts.
In turn, neorealists are more focused on the distribution of power in the international system. The theory is based on the claim that the international system does not have a sovereign power that could conclude and enforce binding agreements. Without such power, States are given the opportunity to do what they like, which ultimately prevents States from trusting each other and, as a result, effectively cooperating.
This situation is further reinforced by the realistic assumption that the main goal of the state is to maximize power and security. Therefore, without a global center of power and influence that would keep States aspiring to power, it is difficult to prevent international conflicts.
This is why realists view international relations as a constant battle and struggle for survival. Even if some States do not try to increase their power and are happy with the way things are going, they cannot trust other States to think the same way. If another state suddenly decides to stop cooperation, the security of the first state will be under serious threat. Because all States know this, they all try to protect themselves by seeking control, building up their military capabilities, and forming alliances with other States. This, in turn, leads to another realistic concept-the security dilemma.
The security dilemma is that under conditions of uncertainty and limited rationality, perceived external threats (real or imagined) create a sense of insecurity in those States that consider themselves the targets of such threats, which encourages these States to take measures to increase their strength and ability to counter these threats (creating alliances, building up weapons, etc.).
Therefore, if one state registers that another state is suddenly increasing its military power, it will assume that it is going to attack, even if it is not. A state that believes it is under threat will also have to increase its military strength, which in turn will cause alarm to the primary state, and this spiral may continue for a long time.
This is an infinite situation, and that is why realists believe that cooperation is not only difficult, but at the very least impossible. The security dilemma arises from fear between States. Many of these States lack contact with each other, which ultimately leads to a lack of trust.
In order to move to interstate cooperation, the security dilemma between the two countries must not only stop growing, but also “turn around” in the opposite direction, the result of which will be that States can trust each other. However, even if States agree to certain international agreements on armaments, nothing will prevent one of them from violating the agreement, which still does not exclude a security threat.
Nevertheless, there is some disagreement among realists about this. While “offensive” realism asserts that States must always act aggressively to survive, because the international system encourages conflict and the inevitability of war, “defensive” realism is less negative. Its representatives believe that cooperation or conflict depends on the situation. For example, if two States have the same mindset and share the same views, they are more likely to cooperate.
The reason for this may be a better understanding between countries such as Germany and France, which share the same views and thus trust each other more. Therefore, the international system does not necessarily generate conflict.
Thus, first of all, realism ignores the importance of different concepts of identity and culture in different States. For example, districts with the same religion and culture are more likely to cooperate with each other. Realism has been sharply criticized for exaggerating the importance of States and for not taking into account other actors, such as various non-governmental organizations.
The opponents of realism are the theory of liberalism or institutionalism. Liberalism began to take shape immediately after the end of the First world war. Europe was so shaken by what had happened that politicians wanted to find a way to prevent any future wars.
The reason why liberal views have become more popular since the cold war is that States have begun to adopt international laws, arms control has increased significantly, as well as the role of international organizations has increased, and the movement towards democratic principles has begun in many States.
Unlike classical realists, liberals believe that human nature is such that people are able to restrain aggression. Their main assumption is that war is not inevitable, and there is much more scope for inter-state cooperation if anarchic factors are neutralized. This will lead to global changes.
The main obstacle to cooperation is the lack of a sufficient number of international institutions. According to liberalists, if the world created international organizations that promoted peaceful change, disarmament and the implementation of international laws, cooperation would be much easier to achieve.
If necessary, these international organizations can use law enforcement against States. States that are bound by rules and regulations created by institutions will have no choice but to cooperate. In the globalized world in which the international system now finds itself, new actors, such as transnational corporations and non-governmental organizations, will promote interdependence and integration among States, which in turn will lead to a peaceful international environment.
Another obstacle to cooperation is the huge deficit of democracy at the global level. Liberals believe that democratic States act peacefully towards each other, and most of the conflicts and threats in the world come from non-democratic States.
Another explanation may be that democratic States are aware that cooperation with other countries is beneficial to them. This is particularly valuable from an economic point of view, especially in a globalized world and in a free trade system. Organizations such as the WTO promote free markets, and States use this to improve their economic efficiency.
Neoliberalism became an extension of liberalism. In turn, the argument of R. Rosecrans, a proponent of neoliberalism, consists in the statement that an open trading system offers States maneuverability due to economic growth, and not military intervention. He softens his argument with realistic considerations of blasphemy, but cannot clarify the realist-liberal connections in his theory or fully explore the connections between power and non-power incentives that influence the behavior of States.
The synthesis of neorealism and neoliberalism is justified: the system theory uses the former for analysis at the level of structure, and the latter for analysis at the level of process. In the study of international relations, neoliberalism refers to a school of thought that believes that States should strive to extract absolute, rather than relative, gains in relation to other States.
At the same time, neoliberal thinkers of international relations often use game theory to explain why States cooperate or do not cooperate. Since their approach emphasizes the possibility of mutual benefits, they are interested in institutions that can negotiate mutually beneficial agreements and compromises.
As a result, neoliberalism is a response to neorealism, while not denying the anarchic nature of the international system, neoliberals claim that its importance and effect have been exaggerated. The neoliberal argument focuses on the alleged underestimation by neorealists of the varieties of cooperative behavior possible in a decentralized system.
Neoliberalism asserts that even in an anarchic system of Autonomous rational States, cooperation can arise through the cultivation of mutual trust and the creation of norms, rules and institutions.
From the point of view of the field of international relations theory and foreign interventionism, the debate between neoliberalism and neorealism is intra-paradigm, since both theories are positivist and focus mainly on the state system as the main unit of analysis.
In addition, neoliberalists note that with the development of democracy in countries, the concept of neorealism is increasingly losing relevance. Thus, Y. V. Borovsky and P. A. Gvozdev note that “the democratic world” completely removes “military and political restrictions for the expansion of diverse interstate cooperation, integration and the formation of international institutions” ([7], p. 127).
Thus, neorealism denies the very need for inter-state cooperation, and neoliberalism finds more and more grounds for developing cooperation.
Considering the dialectical relationship between conflict and cooperation, it is also important to introduce concepts such as the concept of “hard power” and the concept of “soft power”, which determine the very possibility of cooperation.
“Hard power” includes military interventions, coercive diplomacy, and economic sanctions, and relies on such material resources as the armed forces and economic resources.“ Accordingly, when implementing the “hard power” policy, it is impossible to talk about the possibility of interstate cooperation.
On the contrary, the implementation of the “soft power” policy creates a space for interstate cooperation. The concept of “soft power ““implies complete subordination of the object, but not out of fear, but out of the confidence that the subject is completely right and his attitudes are a good alternative, or the only correct ones” [8, 9].
J. Nye emphasized that soft power is based on the attractiveness of certain States to other participants in international relations [10].
Thus, the implementation of the policy of “soft power” allows the state to dominate, while not destroying the possibility of forming interstate cooperation.
In general, the theory of international relations has various definitions of inter-state cooperation, which come down to the general formulation that inter-state cooperation is considered as a situation “when some actors regulate their behavior in accordance with the actual or expected preferences of others through a process of [mutual] policy coordination” [11].
Thus, according to this definition, inter-state cooperation involves the interaction of States within the framework of coordinating their policies in accordance with the goal that unites them. At the same time, an important parameter in their interaction is the possibility of obtaining mutual benefits from the cooperation process. Similarly, the inability of one of the partner States to obtain benefits calls into question the possibility of implementing the cooperation process itself.
In contrast to conflict, when the parties seek to reduce the benefits of the opposite side, cooperation involves the search for mutually reinforcing benefits, as a solid basis for partnership on any issues important to both sides. In this regard, it is important to note that cooperation is always, at least, bilateral, in which the parties try to take into account the interests of the other party and avoid negative consequences for any of the parties.
Thus, cooperation is based on cooperation, in which the parties try to reach an optimal consensus that provides benefits for the parties to cooperation. At the same time, R. G. Mumladze notes that “interstate regulation of international relations is a set of obligations voluntarily assumed by various countries and General rules of action in the sphere of world economic relations” [12].
Accordingly, inter-state cooperation is described in the categories of obligations assumed by States within the established General rules of action. An international Treaty is a form of General rules and specification of States ‘obligations in the framework of cooperation. According to V. Vezhnovets and A. Borodich, the international Treaty “as the main source of international law, plays a key role in the development of interstate cooperation across the entire spectrum of international relations, both in bilateral and multilateral formats” [13].
In order to reveal the concepts of interstate cooperation, it is important to consider the conditions under which it can be implemented. Within this framework, E. Milner introduces a number of hypothetical conditions for the implementation of interstate cooperation.
It is useful to classify the conditions for interstate cooperation:
the “reciprocity hypothesis”. This hypothesis is based on the possibility of implementing equal opportunities for partner States, both in obtaining benefits from cooperation, and in incurring losses or receiving penalties for failure to fulfill their obligations under concluded international treaties.
“Hypothesis about the number of actors”. This hypothesis is related to the statement that the more actors involved in the cooperation process, the less benefits each of the partner States can receive from this cooperation. And, accordingly, on the contrary, reducing the number of actors expands the prospects for cooperation for the interacting parties in cooperation.
“the hypothesis of the iteration”. This hypothesis is based on the statement that the longer the relationship exists between States, the more likely they are to enter the stage of cooperation. Due to the fact that iteration involves repeating something many times, in this case we mean the repeated repetition of successful experiences of cooperation between specific States. If there is not enough experience, the probability of successful inter-state cooperation is sharply reduced.
hypothesis of international regimes”. This hypothesis presupposes the expectation that partner States have similar principles and rules for decision-making. The regime presupposes a set of norms, principles, and rules of decision-making in the field of establishing international relations. It is the international regime is a regulatory basis for the solution of international conflicts and the implementation of inter-state cooperation.
Central to regime theory is the thesis of“ hegemonic stability”, according to which regimes were created and protected by the dominant powers.
“Hypothesis of epistemic communities”. This hypothesis suggests the development of self-organizing expert communities, which are based on collective values, are able to influence the adoption of economic and political decisions.
“the hypothesis of power asymmetry”. This hypothesis assumes that States are unequal in relation to power and cooperation is most likely if one of the States has a strong influence in international politics, which will eventually contribute to achieving stability.
In revealing the power asymmetry hypothesis, it is necessary to affirm that States are extremely unequal in terms of the power they wield and their influence in world Affairs, but they are equal before the law and in terms of their rights and obligations. In particular, the principle of “one country, one vote” should theoretically equalize all members of international organizations.
Another important aspect of inter-state cooperation is the need to ensure collective security. “Collective security refers to an order of inter-state cooperation in which any act of aggression against any of the participants in such a system is regarded as aggression against all other participants.”
Another important aspect is the need to ensure mutually beneficial economic interaction between States. At the same time, “a country’s foreign economic relations are a whole area that includes various forms of international cooperation with other countries and international organizations.”
The specifics of interstate cooperation at the current stage of development of international relations is the active participation of international and transnational organizations that determine the rules for forming and conducting cooperation within the framework of international law.
Thus, “in modern international relations, an important role belongs to international organizations as one of the organizational and legal forms of international (interstate) cooperation”.
At the same time, the role of intergovernmental organizations is being strengthened. Thus, “the infrastructure of the modern international system is also formed by intergovernmental organizations and other formats of multilateral interaction of States” [14].
The current state and dynamics of development of interstate cooperation processes are determined by international and domestic processes that have transformed the spheres of international politics and economy over the past 50 years.
Firstly, with the collapse of the international order that emerged after World War II, the need to develop new agreements on cooperation between states has significantly increased. Although cooperation is not always mutually beneficial, attempts by states to reduce the negative impact of their political decisions on each other can lead to an overall increase in their well-being.
Secondly, from the concepts of “transnationalism” and “interdependence”, in the context of which neorealist propositions became widespread in the 1970s and 80s, scientists came to the concept of globalization, which implies not only the traditional consideration of the international system as anarchic, but also the transformation of the principle of political territoriality, on which international relations were traditionally based on.
Thirdly, it is necessary to recognize the general decline of the traditional system of diplomacy. On the one hand, professional diplomacy is giving way to political support, ‘loud’ diplomacy and diplomacy of insults. On the other hand, professional diplomacy is being transformed into international technical management.
The development and existence of a state as a subject of international relations and international law cannot take place without external relations with other subjects of international law. The need for external relations requires the organization of an apparatus for the implementation of such relations and the regulation of these relations by means of international law.
The problems of world politics, international relations, and everything that happens in the international arena have always been at the center of attention of journalists, politicians, analysts, and society as a whole. Aspects that are directly related to the search for means that will allow us to approach the implementation of foreign policy decisions or how to do it-in other words, aspects of diplomacy – were of interest, rather, to a narrower circle. The reasons for this attitude to diplomacy are understandable and partly justified. First of all, it is necessary to understand what is happening, outline the main foreign policy priorities and approaches, and then only look for ways to implement them.
Today, diplomacy is largely multi-party in nature and simultaneously involves the participation of more than two parties in solving and discussing problematic issues. This is due to the fact that the globalization of the modern world affects the interests of many parties at once.
Multilateral negotiation and multilateral diplomacy give rise to new opportunities but at the same time and difficulties in the bilateral environment. For example, an increase in the number of parties when discussing a problem situation leads to a more complex overall structure of interests, the formation of coalitions, and the appearance of leading States in negotiating forums. In addition, a large number of procedural, organizational and technical problems arise in multilateral negotiations, namely: the need to agree on the venue; the agenda, decision-making and decision-making; and the chairmanship of forums; accommodation of delegations, etc. All this, in turn, contributes to the bureaucratization of negotiation processes.
It is also necessary to note other features of modern diplomacy, which are due to current trends in global political progress. The interdependence of the world and globalization have increased the importance of diplomacy, which is carried out at the highest and highest levels, as it provides an opportunity for “broad linkages” between different aspects. It is also necessary to take into account the fact that agreements signed by top officials of countries provide additional guarantees for their implementation. In addition, at these meetings, heads of state have the opportunity to quickly get the necessary information “first-hand” and exchange views.
In addition, diplomacy at the highest and highest levels has a downside. First of all, the scale of decisions made dramatically increases the degree of responsibility for them, and, accordingly, the price of a possible error. This problem is particularly acute in crisis situations. In addition, it should be borne in mind that if agreements that were reached at the highest or high levels are suddenly considered erroneous after they are signed, it is much more difficult to abandon them than those signed similarly at a lower level, because in this situation, the country’s officials are discredited.
Another limitation of diplomacy at the highest and highest levels is that it is largely determined by personal antipathies and sympathies, and this has an impact on foreign policy decisions. In addition, it should be borne in mind that diplomacy at the highest and highest levels can only be effective if it is well prepared. In other words, the participants of these meetings may be “hostages” of the public’s hopes for a quick solution to the problem situation and take unjustified steps. It is for this reason that G. Nickolson was quite reserved about top-level and high-level diplomacy [13]. He believed that there were situations when the foreign Minister or the head of the Cabinet should be present at important conferences, but their private mutual visits should not be too encouraged. These visits, he wrote, raise hopes, lead to misunderstandings, and often create confusion.
In modern diplomacy, the emphasis is not just on refusing outright deception. The informative and communicative function of diplomacy is primarily aimed at forming a dialog.
A bilateral dialog is a recognition that the other side has its own goals and interests. This is not only natural and natural, but also a productive factor in terms of the progress of relations. It follows that the main function of communication and information is not the Directive imposition of one’s own point of view, but the desire to seek a mutually acceptable solution to problems through dialog.
The ideas of progress in the inter-state dialog are also reflected in theoretical works on negotiations. The concept of hard bargaining, when each participant was concerned only with their own interests and presents their position as extremely closed, is replaced by the concept of joint analysis of the problem with the partner. It implies a focus on mutual satisfaction of interests and an open nature of negotiation processes.
The focus on dialog in the modern world is conditioned by the need to seek solutions to emerging problems related to the fight against terrorism, the environment, the development of integration processes, conflict resolution, etc. through joint efforts. As a result, solving international problems objectively becomes the main function of diplomacy.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
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