3GPP considerations for V2X use cases [4].
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art novel imaging techniques by focusing on the most important evidence-based developments in this area.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d9159ce31733bf78cc2a79b18c225994",bookSignature:"Dr. Gabriel Cismaru",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11867.jpg",keywords:"Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy, Dilated Cardiomyopathy, Restrictive Cardiomyopathy, Transesophageal Echocardiography, Intracardiac Echocardiography, 3-Dimensional Echocardiography, Adult Congenital Heart Disease, Tetralogy of Fallot, Transposition of the Great Vessels, Coronary Artery Disease, Risk Stratification, Revascularization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 21st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Cismaru Gabriel is an Assistant Professor at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, certified in Cardiology. 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He has authored or co-authored peer-reviewed articles and book chapters in the field of cardiac pacing, defibrillation, electrophysiological study, and catheter ablation.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Raluca Tomoaia is an MD, Ph.D. in novel techniques in Echocardiography at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Cluj-Napoca, Romania., assistant professor, and a researcher in echocardiography and cardiovascular imaging.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191888/images/system/191888.png",biography:"Dr. Cismaru Gabriel is an assistant professor at the Cluj-Napoca University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Romania, where he has been qualified in cardiology since 2011. He obtained his Ph.D. in medicine with a research thesis on electrophysiology and pro-arrhythmic drugs in 2016. Dr. Cismaru began his electrophysiology fellowship at the Institut Lorrain du Coeur et des Vaisseaux Louis Mathieu, France, after finishing his cardiology certification with stages in Clermont-Ferrand and Dinan, France. He began working at the Rehabilitation Hospital\\'s Electrophysiology Laboratory in Cluj-Napoca in 2011. He is an experienced operator who can implant pacemakers, CRTs, and ICDs, as well as perform catheter ablation of supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias such as ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation. He has been qualified in pediatric cardiology since 2022, and he regularly performs device implantation and catheter ablation in children. 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It is triggering an exceptional attention from academia, governments and diverse industry sectors on the evolving generations of wireless networks. The imminent coming application of fifth generation (5G) wireless communications scheme has spurred the question what is next?. Research sectors have recently started to investigate what is beyond 5G and envisage the upcoming sixth generation (6G). The work in [1] has paved the way for a more detailed exploration of possible methodologies of AI-empowered 6G communication systems and their unprecedented makeover in their architectures compared to the preceding versions of wireless networks. Figure 1 illustrates a world of
Potential network design for future generation of wireless networks [
Now, time has come for academia and manufacturing sectors to bring their focus on the potential applications of the coming generations of wireless communication systems in various aspects of our lives. It can be observed that multiple countries have been starting to apply the new generations of communications i.e., fifth generation (5G) wireless communications scheme. Today, the current promises in telecommunication sector for 5G tell that, firstly the deployment of 5G is ongoing now, prominent low levels of latency, significant increment in capacity, higher speeds of transmissions rate, device-to-device (D2D) communication and of course connected V2X networks, and internet of everything (IoE). Intensive progress is currently witnessed for the transition from the Long-Term Evolution (LTE) to 5G systems in the communication industry. With this momentum, V2X has garnered more considerable attraction today [2], it has the ultimate potential into the enhancement of transportation efficiency, road safety and security, forming a key platform for transportation systems. Such systems intend to be more efficient and intelligent when next-generation communication schemes (5G & beyond) are involved. 5G-based V2X communications can accelerate the advancement of the intelligent transportation systems and reduce traffic and road risks. In V2X schemes, the connected vehicles can aggregate more information about the road environment condition and communicate this valuable information with adjacent vehicles in a real-time scenario. This will lead to an accurate estimation of a risky event before its occurrence. Originally, before this collaboration among vehicles, an internal sensor unit like a global positioning system (GPS) or radar device was envisioned to generate and provide information about vehicle-surrounding environment. Today, the emergence of 5G & beyond communications schemes is promising to efficiently facilitate collaborative connections among vehicles. Back to LTE systems, the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) worked on completing the standardization of LTE-based V2X in their Release 14 to support the automotive industry with LTE services [3]. In Release 16, 3GPP has developed the 5G New Radio (NR) to provide V2X services much more superior than the facilities provided by LTE networks earlier [4]. Normally, Mobile units in cellular networks are connected via one or more base stations but with 5G NR scheme, these unites are connected directly by using what is called sidelink communication technology. Thus, 5G-assisted vehicles will be able to form their ad hoc systems, leaving the need of any extra radio access equipment as an interface among them. On the other hand, in contrast to LTE sidelink, plateau of services are offered by NR sidelink such as collision prevention, unicast and groupcast transmission, QoS administration, cooperative lane switching, compatibility in mm-wave frequency bands, etc. Figure 2 illustrates V2X communication scenario. The fıgure depeicts various potential events that may occur among vehicles in real time, the roadside unit (RSU) can relay the received information and deliver them to a vehicle or a group of vehicles supporting V2I applications. This transportation system tends to be more intelligent when V2X scheme is applied as it enables less traffic, collision avoidance, real time data collection [5].
V2X communication environment with roadside unit (RSU).
According to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), V2X communication messages are categorized into two groups: decentralized environmental notification messages (DENMs) [6] and cooperative awareness messages (CAMs) [7]. These messages convey information about the vehicle condition such as direction, position, velocity, and acceleration, etc. Figure 3 portrays a scenario on how vehicles being instantly assisted by warning messages. In addition, LTE\\5G NR enable exchanging these V2X-messages in unicast and broadcast carriers (bearers) whereas acknowledging the message delivery is executed, at the physical & MAC layers, by the network (i.e. base station). This acknowledgment feature can efficiently minimize the retransmission rate of V2X communication messages. Detected situations will generate DENMs to warn road drivers whereas the periodic CAMs to update the condition within up to 100
The 5G base station broadcasting warning messages to vehicles on trajectory.
In June 2016, the use cases and related key requirements for enabling LTE network to serve V2X communications, were identified by Technical Specification Group (TSG) and System Aspects Working Group 1 (SA1). They classified the use cases in 3GPP into safety and non-safety use cases. The former focusing on securing life and objects, and collision avoidance, the latter use cases aiming the enhancement of environmental performance and transportation movement. Nevertheless, 3GPP has carried out a comprehensive revision of V2X service requirements and enhanced them by proposing NR Release 16 [8, 9]. There are four areas of V2X possible events, have been defined in [9] (i.e., platooning, advanced driving, extended sensor, and remote driving). The following Table 1 maps these four areas into various 3GPP technologies.
Use case field | Use cases | QoS necessities | Technical enablers | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Data rate [Mb/s] | Reliability [%] | Latency [ms] | |||
Driving group of vehicles together (platooning) | Sharing information among the vehicle group and with other groups | 65 | 99.99 | 10 | LTE or 5G broadcast (for limited cases), 5G groupcast or unicast |
Advanced driving | Data sharing, Cooperative crash prevention, Vulnerable driver recognition, Emergency trajectory alignment | 53 | 99.999 | 3 | 5G broadcast/groupcast/unicast |
Extended sensor | Collective perception of environment, Transparency | 1000 | 99.999 | 3 | LTE broadcast, 5G broadcast |
Remote control | Drive a vehicle remotely | Uplink: 25, Downlink: 1 | 99.999 | 5 | LTE or 5G unicast via cellular interface |
3GPP considerations for V2X use cases [4].
Practically, most of the requirements mentioned in Table 1 have been already attained by 5G Release 15 cellular downlink and uplink. On the other hand, remote driving demands optimal QoS requirements i.e., extremely small latency values and higher levels of reliability which are abbreviated as ultra-reliable low-latency communication (URLLC). In order to meet these demands, 3GPP has extensively worked on improving the reliability and reducing the latency of the cellular downlink and uplink [10] in Release 16, by considering the following procedures:
Enable more stable and solid transmissions by improving the downlink control channel information (CCI).
Enable prompt feedback of hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ) by refining the uplink CCI.
Empower instant communication by enabling multiple configurations to the uplink and downlink scheduling.
Support the recurrence of short-range communications by improving the uplink data channel.
Ease transmissions of critical packets at crucial levels of latency by prioritizing intra-vehicles and inter-vehicles packets
The above procedures will lead to the betterment of reliability and latency of V2X communications. Thus, 5G communication scheme (including LTE & NR Release 16) can increasingly enhance the V2X use cases covering those ones that require high levels of reliability and low latency.
3GPP has been actively worked on specifying the 5G radio interface or as referred to as NR, aiming to achieve more flexible spectrum with higher frequency operations. This is due to the need of deploying radio access technologies and enlarging the spectrum range.
In order to ensure a reliable communication among vehicles and avoid any outage effect from the network, 3GPP, in its Release 16, proposed device-to-device link in NR called sidelink [11]. The proposed sidelink enjoys multiple advantages such as:
Flexible radio link benefiting from the exiting NR cellular interface.
Operates in unlicensed and licensed frequencies’ ranges, hence, it can be allocated for V2X facilities and even shares with existing mobile network services.
Enables V2X use cases for unicast and broadcast transmission among vehicles themselves.
Gives a space to the network to allocate and control the sidelink resource.
Offers instant V2X services by the coexistence of NR and LTE sidelinks.
Operates in dual ranges of frequencies, lower (FR1) and higher (FR2) frequency bands i.e., 7.125 GHz and 52.6 GHz respectively.
Enables vehicles to connect with each other regardless the condition of the base stations in the network.
The design of NR inherently includes capabilities that support the user equipment to control the sidelink transmissions in the network. This, together with cellular transmissions, leads to share the existing available frequency bands. The aforementioned discussion can lead us to the fact that there are two transmission scenarios termed as mode 1 and mode 2. The former is active when decisions are given and centralized by the network. The latter operates in the case when base station system goes down.
Figure 4 shows potential scenarios of 5G (i.e., NR) and LTE with V2X networks. A base station can be classified into LTE or 5G station, depending on its connected core. As illustrated in the figure, the base station can configure all the cellular links and sidelinks over the network.
Illustration of (a) LTE sidelink mechanism, and (b) 5G sidelink mechanism.
WAVE is a group of wireless standards that are represented by the Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC) protocol such as IEEE 802.11p and IEEE 1609 standards [12]. This protocol, to support V2X networks, is being defined by IEEE and ETSI in collaboration with the automotive industry sector. The main idea behind DSRC protocol is the provision of road safety in V2X networks. Furthermore, academia, industries and governments have supported many projects to utilize DSRC in fulfilling V2X applications.
The IEEE 802.11p, which belongs to IEEE 802.11 family, is considered as a base to the V2X communication networks due to its high security levels. Moreover, road safety applications such as crucial exchange of real-time data among fast-moving vehicles, and many more of Intelligent Transport System (ITS) platforms, are supported by IEEE 802.11p protocol.
Figure 5 portrays the WAVE stack, which has multiple layers and protocols. On the top WAVE stack, there is application layer (APPL) which is responsible for resource management and handling diversity of non-safety and safety applications. Under this layer, there are three essential sublayers, that is, user datagram protocol (UDP), transmission control protocol (TCP) and internet protocol version 6 (IPV6) sub-layers. They are part of the main WAVE short message protocol (WSMP) layer. Then, the logic link control (LLC) layer, WAVE MAC layer, and eventually the WAVE physical layer which essentially supports the higher layers [13, 14, 15].
Wireless access in vehicular environments (WAVE) stack.
It is crucial to mention that possessing a very flexible and reliable design of WAVE physical layer will ensure optimum throughput and extremely lower latency. This can be realized in the upcoming 5G communication scheme and its proposed NR sidelinks.
In fact, the structure of sidelink protocol between LTE and 5G is nearly common. However, as illustrated in Table 1 before, the focus on quality of services’ issues is much more vital in 5G sidelink than in LTE as enhancing the V2X use cases is an essential goal in this new cellular paradigm. In contrast to LTE, the 5G sidelinks are envisioned to provide more flexibility in efficient utilization of existing resources and superior adaptability to various mobility situations. These potentials are attributed to significant privileges of 5G sidelink, involving:
A power control procedure to alleviate interferences among V2V sidelink and base stations.
Radio link adaption based on sensing channel condition.
More details will be elaborated in subsequent sections on signal identification techniques in next-generations wireless communications.
Next-generation communication networks are envisioned to go more intelligent in the coming decade. Transmitters and receivers in any such networks are anticipated to work in adaptive mode when these devices are able to sense the communication medium (i.e., wireless channel) status between them. Based on the channel condition i.e., signal to noise ratio (SNR) value, the transmitter can decide the optimum transmitted signal parameters before the implementation of transmission process. For example, bit rates, modulation type, SNR level, transmitted power, and so on, can be adjusted by the transmitter, depends on the current environment status. It will monitor the channel condition, if it is good, then parameters such as less transmitted power, is required, or higher modulation schemes can be considered, hence higher transmission data rates can be achieved. This, in turn, requires the other receiving side to adapt to such unexpected changes and correctly estimate the parameters used to transmit the signal by the sender. Artificial intelligent (AI) tools can play a significant role to facilitate this estimation process [16]. On the other hand, it is promising that AI-based V2X communication systems will enable more safety, traffic efficiency, awareness & automotive driving, and security in the vehicular industry. When AI meets the emergence of 5G & beyond communication systems, the way is more paved to smart transport networks [17]. These networks will definitely bring a new concept of connectivity among vehicles and have a profound influence on our daily life. Furthermore, the deployment of 5G communication systems in V2X networks will bring this paradigm to higher efficiency and safety level.
As in traditional mobile networks, there are both transmitter and receiver nodes to exchange the data. Similarly in V2X communication networks, there are these nodes (i.e., vehicles) to exchange instant information. In the transmission process, a vehicular transmitter will modulate the data and send the modulated signal via the communication channel to the vehicular receiver side. A smart vehicle in 5G-based V2X network is anticipated to adapt to the channel condition and optimally adjust the modulation type or transmitted power suitable for transmission. This, in turn, will necessitate the vehicular receiver to adapt itself to these unexpected changes and recognize the signal parameter i.e., modulation being used at the transmitter side. Accurate recognition of V2V signal’s parameters can be very beneficial to many use cases in the vehicular networks. In addition, it can be utilized as a source of information for the base stations to update many instant and vital data such as the position of moving vehicles, awareness messages, and information related to road environment.
For the purpose of meeting such demands, vehicular networks utilized indexed modulation (IM) techniques for data transmission [18]. IM method (i.e., spatial modulation) uses indices of the building modulated blocks (i.e., transmit antennas) in a communication scheme (i.e., MIMO systems). The following block diagram illustrates the key idea of IM technique as shown in Figure 6.
The key principle of IM process.
As illustrated in the figure, first, the input data is projected into a common vector before splitting it into two sub-vectors. They are dedicated to distinct transmit indices and then mapped to a digital modulation symbol such as phase shift keying (PSK) or quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). Eventually, the common vector is mapped to IM vector for the purpose of transmission.
The decision of choosing which digital modulation type is suitable, can significantly affect the vehicular network throughput. In conventional transmission, the receiver will have a pre-knowledge about the selected modulation type, the channel condition, the transmitted power, the bit rates and so on. As mentioned earlier, a vehicle in advanced generations of vehicular communication systems is anticipated to go more intelligent in sensing the wireless channel condition and adjusting these parameters accordingly. In other words, to determine the optimal signal parameters (modulation type, bit rates, transmitted power, etc) before transmission takes a place. In this scenario, the vehicular receiver has to track these possible changes and automatically recognize these signal parameters without any pre-communication with the transmitter. This capability at the receiver side, will exempt the vehicular transmitter to broadcast these valuable information over a wireless channel, and this means adding another good level of security to such information.
In order to enable the receiver with an accurate automatic recognition property of signal parameters i.e., automatic modulation recognition (AMR), two key approaches are used and have been reported in literature, that is, maximum likelihood (ML) approach and feature-based (FB) approach [19, 20]. The former provides optimal solution but suffers from higher computational complexity whereas the latter offers sub-optimal results but with lower complexity as illustrated in Figure 7. Hence, in this chapter, the FB approach is considered. After careful scanning of existing work in V2X networks, it is worth to mention that, to the best of our knowledge, the recognition of wireless signal parameters has not yet been addressed in the literature.
ML and FB methods used for wireless signal parameter recognition.
In ML approach, the values of likelihood functions are calculated and compared with a reference value to finalize the optimal modulation. On the other hand, in FB approach, the statistical characteristics of the received signal are extracted and utilized to estimate the intended signal parameters. There are numerous types of features can be exploited to recognize the modulation type of a detected signal such as, instantaneous time-domain features, fourier and wavelet transforms, higher-order statistics, asynchronous amplitude histograms (AAHs), two-dimensional histogram of asynchronous sampled in-phase-quadrature amplitudes (2D-ASIQHs), and so on.
For instance, AAHs features have proved a prominent cost-effectiveness, flexibility and lower computational and implementation complexity. We have applied this type of features before in our work in [21] to estimate multiple signal parameters together using support vector machines (SVMs). It has shown a phenomenal performance to distinguish signals from each other in a realistic cellular wireless environment. Furthermore, SVM has proved its capability in processing small size of datasets compared to other machine learning tools. To clarify the conceptual meaning of AAHs features to the readers, the following Figure 8 depicts the idea.
The main idea of AAHs-based signals (three different modulations i.e., ASK, QPSK, and 16QAM) [
As illustrated in Figure 8, the main constellation diagrams of three different signals and the corresponding AAHs are shown. Asynchronous shift keying (ASK) has two constellation levels (0 and 1), therefore, two unique peaks appear in the corresponding histogram. But, the case is different in the second histogram for the quadrature-PSK, where one unique peak exists. This is due to the existence of single equal amplitude for the four constellation points in the related constellation diagram. In 16QAM modulation, AAHs show different shape than in the previous two signals. As portrayed in the complex plane for this type, there are 16 points of constellations but only three unique amplitude levels exist, and this interprets why we have three amplitude levels in the corresponding AAH for this signal. We can conclude that AAHs feature demonstrates distinctive signatures among various digital modulations of detected signals. This, in turn, will facilitate the job of the receiver node in the network to automatically recognize the type of modulation being used by the transmitter node leaving the necessity to obtain this information from the transmitter vehicle beforehand.
In the subsequent procedure, the aforementioned features will be fed into a machine learning tool as an input vector in order to enable autonomous recognition at the receiver terminal in the vehicular network. Machine learning tools have found a versatile deployment in different aspects of our lives. They construct smart systems to experience challenging environments. Moreover, they process large quantity of data generated from multiple resources, to extract useful and unique models that can be efficiently utilized in intelligent telecommunications terminals [17]. AI (i.e., machine & deep learning) techniques are still an attractive research direction in the vehicular communication to be more explored. They have the potential to enable data-driven decisions and offer exceptional services in the vehicular networks such as instant traffic control and estimation, position-based facilities, and of course, autonomous driving. Basically, machine learning tools can be broadly classified into two main groups. One called supervised learning machine, the second one is unsupervised machine. The former requires a training process for the classifier\\regressor whereas the latter does not use training subset and usually its task is for clustering and dimension reduction process.
Artificial intelligent (AI) tools have been regarded as a key solid solution to the challenges experienced by self-driving vehicles, such challenges are heavy rain, dense fog or snow, and any other difficult hostile weather conditions. For instance, authors in [22] have proposed a novel scheme to enable awareness and clear vision in automated cars of their surroundings. They deployed deep neural network in combination with the automatic white balance joined with laplacian pyramids (AWBLP) technique in order to enhance the contrast and resolution of the captured vehicle image. For a missed or wrong detection in the adverse condition of weather, they proposed an online tracking system and constructed a dataset which can serve as a benchmark called, detection in adverse weather nature (DAWN) aiming to examine their proposed system. Sample images of the DAWN dataset, before restoration, are shown in Figure 9 where this dataset covers four challenging weather conditions for automatous vehicles.
Different groups of images that describe four challenging weather conditions in DAWN dataset.
The images in this dataset will be restored to enhance their resolution and then to be input into the deep learning tool. This is to perform an online detection of the vehicles and enable them to see each other in difficult weather conditions, and therefore to increase the road safety. However, we have enhanced the resolution of the sample images in Figure 9 just to add more clarity and visibility for the reader as reflected in Figure 10. More challenges will be overcome in the industry domain with such current proposed panacea like DAWN and AWBLP. However, more investigations on other deep learning types, their parameters and their performance to serve cellular V2X networks are still demanded.
Samples from DAWN dataset after enhancing their resolution.
This chapter has offered an insight to the scientific community about the potential enhancement of V2X schemes by the deployment of 5G communication network. Let recap what have been addressed earlier, the 5G & beyond wireless systems will enable vehicles to talk to each other and to different infrastructures. Furthermore, the latest advancements in 3GPP enable deploying 5G as a great communication paradigm for V2X networks. In addition, the 5G sidelinks offer unicast, groupcast and broadcast transmission in vehicular communication networks. Furthermore, 5G & beyond systems can enhance the DSCR for collision-free and road safety. With the emergence of 5G technology, the cellular V2X networks will track the momentum and gain more capabilities and connectivity.
The chapter has also paved the way to a prospective research direction on signal recognition schemes (i.e., AMR & SNR) in V2X communication networks. Furthermore, it shed light on their potential techniques and the significance of their role in V2X networks in increasing security levels and enhancing V2V communication system throughput. However, further investigation on identifying many other parameters is required. For instance, a vehicular node in future intelligent V2V networks is envisaged to go adaptive and vary the transmitted power or transmission data rate when sensing the wireless channel.
On the other hand, simultaneous recognition of multiple signal parameters of a vehicle in V2X networks remains a future challenge in the V2X future development. Besides, issues related to wider coverage range utilizing wireless cooperative communication schemes; and matters concerned about higher levels of security in V2X networks with arising complexity of densely connected things will be attractive topics in the near future.
V2X | Vehicle-to-Everything |
V2V | Vehicle-to-Vehicle |
5G | Fifth-Generation |
SVM | Support Vector Machine |
LTE | Long-Term Evolution |
DNN | Deep Neural Network |
IoE | Internet of Everything |
6G | Six-Generation |
3GPP | Third Generation Partnership Project |
D2D | Device-to-Device |
GPS | Global Positioning System |
RSU | Roadside Unit |
QoS | Quality of Service |
ETSI | European Telecommunications Standards Institute |
NR | New Radio |
CAM | Cooperative Awareness Message |
TSG | Technical Specification Group |
SA1 | System Aspects Working Group 1 |
CCI | Control Channel Information |
HARQ | Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request |
FR1 | Lower Frequency Band |
FR2 | Higher Frequency Band |
WAVE | Wireless Access in Vehicular Environment |
ITS | Intelligent Transport System |
UDP | User Datagram Protocol |
IPV6 | Internet Protocol Version 6 |
IM | Indexed Modulation |
PSK | Phase Shift Keying |
QAM | Quadrature Amplitude Modulation |
AMR | Automatic Modulation Recognition |
ML | Maximum Likelihood Approach |
FB | Feature-Based Approach |
AAH | Asynchronous Amplitude Histogram |
2D-ASIQH | Two-dimensional Asynchronous Sampled In-phase-Quadrature Amplitude |
AWBLP | Automatic White Balance Joined with Laplacian Pyramid |
DAWN | Detection in Adverse Weather Nature |
The increase in the human population around the world has pushed farmers to produce more food. This pressure forced some farmers to use more chemicals in their operations, which led to concerns raised by environmentalists and health officials as some chemicals were damaging the environment and people’s health. This has raised a necessity of exploring alternative methods to improve fertilization, and manage pests and diseases.
Biofertilizer became an option as it is friendlier to the environment as well as on human health.
Phytohormones on the other hand are compounds that are responsible for the growth and development of the plant. Some are responsible for plant elongation, shoot and root developments, others are involved in plant pests and disease control [4].
Biofungicides also became an alternative to chemical or synthetic fungicides to minimize the damage caused by chemical fungicides to the environment, animals and human beings.
The objective of this book chapter is to prove that
It produces plant growth hormones and volatile compounds;
It contributes to solubilizing phosphates that are unavailable to the crop
It also takes part in promoting the uptake of macro and micro nutrients needed by the crop
Plant growth hormones are also called phytohormones. They are involved in many processes in the plant including communication, biotic and abiotic stress management, and many more processes. They have been reported for many years to play a vital role in the growth and development of a crop. Root and shoot elongation needs phyto-hormones to happen properly at the correct speed that supports high productivity. It has been reported that the presence of
Intended use | Target crop | Mode of application | Benefits/comments | Ref. (s) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Growth promotion and inhibition of phytopathogen development | Lettuce | Expose plants to | Increased chlorophyll content, and carotenoids. Decreased the severity of white mold by up to 78.83% | [16] | |
Growth promotion | Tomato | Seed treatment | Phytohormone homeostasis, antioxidant activity, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and glutathione metabolism | [17] | |
Biofertilizer | Chinese cabbage | Through irrigation | Increased yield by 37%; Increased enzyme activity in the soils (urease by 25.1%, phosphatase by 13.1%, and catalase by 14.0%, Providing more inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus to the soil | [18] | |
Soil conditioner | Maize | On soil as granules | Increased yields | [19] | |
Biofertilizer | Tomato | Seedling drenching | Produces indole-3 acetic acid and | [15] |
Production of plant growth hormones and volatile compounds by
Phosphorus is one of the critical nutrients that plants need for their growth and development. It is found in the soil but due to depletion farmers have to apply fertilizers. However, the availability of phosphorus to the crop depends on the form it is in. Acidic soils bind phosphorus and make it unavailable to the crop, which is an undesired outcome [20]. Due to this, the accuracy of the amount required by the crop may not be achieved resulting in challenges associated with lack or insufficient phosphorus in the soil [3]. Some microorganisms mediate this process by solubilizing phosphates, converting them back to be in the available form for crop utilization.
Intended use | Target crop | Mode of application | Benefits/comments | Ref. (s) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Biofertilizer | Chinese cabbage | Through irrigation | Increased yield by 37%; Increased enzyme activity in the soils (urease by 25.1%, phosphatase by 13.1%, and catalase by 14.0%, Providing more inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus to the soil | [18] | |
Biofertilizer | Tomato | Seed treatment | Increase Phosphorus uptake | [23] | |
Biofertilizer | Tomato | Seedling drenching | Phosphorus solubilization | [15] |
Solubilization of phosphates by
It has been reported that plant nutrient uptake can be improved resulting in plant growth promotion. Microorganisms play a major role in accelerating nutrient uptake.
Intended use | Target crop | Mode of application | Benefits/comments | Ref. (s) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Growth promotion and inhibition of phytopathogen development | Lettuce | Expose plants to | Increased the content of chlorophyll, and carotenoids. Decreased the severity of white mold by up to 78.83% | [16] | |
Biofertilizer and biofungicide | Rice | Seed treatment | Improved germination rate and enhanced vigor. Increased yields | [27] | |
Biofertilizer | Tomato | Seed treatment | Improved soil fertility, nutrient uptake, increased yields, antioxidants and minerals | [28] | |
Biofertilizer | Chinese cabbage | Through irrigation | Increased yield by 37%; Increased enzyme activity in the soils (urease by 25.1%, phosphatase by 13.1%, and catalase by 4.0%, Providing more inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus to the soil | [18] | |
Biofertilizer | Tomato | Seed treatment | Improves nutrient uptake (enhance nitrogen utilization efficiency, increase Phosphorus uptake | [23] | |
BioF/compost | Tomato | Soil amendment compost | Provided 12.9% yield increase compared to recommended fertilization | [29] | |
Soil conditioner | Maize | On soil as granules | Increased yields | [19] | |
Biofertilizer | Sugar cane | Powder broadcasted with fertilizer | Improve nutrient uptake NPK | [25] | |
Biofertilizer -micronutrient | Cucumber | Seedling drenching | Enhance Fe and Cu uptake by plants | [30] | |
Compost | Most crops | Compost | Improves the rate of Residue decomposition resulting in greater availability of soil nutrients | [31] | |
Biofertilizer | Bell pepper | Seedling drenching | Bell pepper yield increase up to 67%. Enhance tolerance to abiotic stresses | [32] | |
Biofertilizer | Tomato | Seedling drenching | Improve nutrient uptake | [15] | |
Biofertilizer BioF/compost | Tomato | Seed treatment | Improved soil fertility, nutrient uptake, increased yields, antioxidants and minerals (P, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn) | [28, 29] | |
Biofertilizer -micronutrient | Cucumber | Seedling drenching | Enhance Fe and Cu uptake by plants | [30] | |
Compost | Most crops | Compost | Improves the rate of Residue decomposition resulting in greater availability of soil nutrients | [31] | |
Plant growth promoter | Chickpea | Seed treatment | mineral mobilization and their uptake | [33] |
Agriculture is an indispensable part of any country to feed the millions of people. However, production is hampered by various plant diseases posing serious yield reductions threatening global food security. Disease management employs mainly synthetic fungicides. However, with the mounting concern for human health and environmental risks, and the loss of pesticides to resistance, the search for non-chemical alternatives has been a focus of much research for more than three decades. Biocontrol agents have emerged as an important component of plant disease management, and may provide an alternative to synthetic fungicides.
They are successful antagonists having biocontrol abilities against a broad range of economically important phytopathogenic fungi such as
Competition for nutrient and ecological niche, mycoparasitism and antibiosis are the major biological mechanisms involved in their direct antagonistic activity against plant pathogenic fungi [43, 44, 45]. They can also achieve an indirect effect of antagonism on the target pathogen by interacting with the host tissue, inducing host resistance which protects against the pathogen, promoting plant and root growth as well as improving plant stress tolerance. Many successful biocontrol agents use a combination of different modes of action to produce a higher level of antagonism [38, 46].
Antibiosis involves the production of various antimicrobial compounds by
Mycoparasitism, direct contact of an antagonist with a fungal pathogen, involves sequential events, including pathogen recognition, attack and subsequent penetration of the host cell and death [10]. In this process,
Starvation is the most common cause of death for microorganisms, so the limited availability of and competition for micro- and macro nutrients results in the biological control of fungal phytopathogens [59].
During plant–pathogen interactions, plants have evolved a wide range of defense mechanisms to cope with the constant attack by invading pathogens. However, plant defense can also be triggered by biocontrol agents [2, 54]. The rhizocompetent nature of
Disease | Mode of action | Ref. (s) | |
---|---|---|---|
Antibiosis metacaspase-independent Apoptotic cell death. | [74, 75] | ||
Endo-chitinase, chitobiosidase | [63, 76, 77] | ||
Colonization and antibiosis | [10, 48, 78] | ||
Mycoparasitism | [14] | ||
Competition for space | [45] | ||
Induced resistance | [69] |
Examples of
Authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Kwasi Sackey Yobo, Bongi Kubheka, Nolitha Skenjana and Sinegugu Shude for their support during the writing of this chapter. We would also like to acknowledge our families for moral support and understanding.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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To realize the SG, an advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) based on smart meters is the most important key.",book:{id:"5119",slug:"smart-metering-technology-and-services-inspirations-for-energy-utilities",title:"Smart Metering Technology and Services",fullTitle:"Smart Metering Technology and Services - Inspirations for Energy Utilities"},signatures:"Trong Nghia Le, Wen‐Long Chin, Dang Khoa Truong and Tran Hiep\nNguyen",authors:[{id:"178015",title:"Dr.",name:"Trong Nghia",middleName:null,surname:"Le",slug:"trong-nghia-le",fullName:"Trong Nghia Le"},{id:"178169",title:"Prof.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Chin",slug:"wen-long-chin",fullName:"Wen-Long Chin"}]},{id:"29291",doi:"10.5772/31112",title:"Electrolyte and Solid-Electrolyte Interphase Layer in Lithium-Ion Batteries",slug:"electrolyte-and-solid-electrolyte-interphase-layer-in-lithium-ion-batteries",totalDownloads:8856,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:null,book:{id:"848",slug:"lithium-ion-batteries-new-developments",title:"Lithium Ion Batteries",fullTitle:"Lithium Ion Batteries - New Developments"},signatures:"Alexandre Chagnes and Jolanta Swiatowska",authors:[{id:"85632",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Chagnes",slug:"alexandre-chagnes",fullName:"Alexandre Chagnes"},{id:"88217",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",middleName:null,surname:"Swiatowska",slug:"jolanta-swiatowska",fullName:"Jolanta Swiatowska"}]},{id:"14085",doi:"10.5772/14798",title:"Magnetic Reluctance Method for Dynamical Modeling of Squirrel Cage Induction Machines",slug:"magnetic-reluctance-method-for-dynamical-modeling-of-squirrel-cage-induction-machines",totalDownloads:5363,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:null,book:{id:"69",slug:"electric-machines-and-drives",title:"Electric Machines and Drives",fullTitle:"Electric Machines and Drives"},signatures:"Jalal Nazarzadeh and Vahid Naeini",authors:[{id:"18796",title:"Prof.",name:"Jalal",middleName:null,surname:"Nazarzadeh",slug:"jalal-nazarzadeh",fullName:"Jalal Nazarzadeh"},{id:"20586",title:"Prof.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Naeini",slug:"vahid-naeini",fullName:"Vahid Naeini"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"77871",title:"Protection of Microgrids",slug:"protection-of-microgrids",totalDownloads:299,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The concept of microgrids goes back to the early years of the electricity industry although the systems then were not formally called microgrids. Today, two types of microgrids can be seen: independent and grid connected. The protection requirement of these two types differs as the protection needs of an independent microgrid are intended for protecting components and systems within the microgrid, whereas a grid connected microgrid demands both internal and external protection. The first part of this chapter is dedicated to independent microgrids. How protection devices such as residual current circuit breakers, miniature and moulded case circuit breakers, and surge protective devices should be selected for an example microgrid is discussed while referring to the relevant standards. In the next section, the protection of a grid connected microgrid is discussed. Particularly, micro-source protection, microgrid protection, loss of mains protection and fault ride-through requirements are discussed while referring to two commonly used distributed generator connection codes. An example with simulations carried out in the IPSA simulation platform was used to explain different protection requirements and calculation procedures. Finally, grounding requirements are discussed while referring to different interfacing transformer connections and voltage source inverter connections.",book:{id:"10176",slug:"microgrids-and-local-energy-systems",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",fullTitle:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems"},signatures:"Janaka Ekanayake",authors:[{id:"328170",title:"Prof.",name:"Janake",middleName:null,surname:"Ekanayake",slug:"janake-ekanayake",fullName:"Janake Ekanayake"}]},{id:"79509",title:"Power Electronic Converters for Microgrids",slug:"power-electronic-converters-for-microgrids",totalDownloads:274,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Power electronic converters are indispensable building blocks of microgrids. They are the enabling technology for many applications of microgrids, e.g., renewable energy integration, transportation electrification, energy storage, and power supplies for computing. In this chapter, the requirements, functions, and operation of power electronic converters are introduced. Then, different topologies of the converters used in microgrids are discussed, including DC/DC converters, single-phase DC/AC converters, three-phase three-wire, and four-wire DC/AC converters. The remaining parts of this chapter focus on how to optimally design and control these converters with the emerging wide-bandgap semiconductors. Correlated tradeoffs of converter efficiency, power density, and cost are analyzed using Artificial Neural Networks to find the optimal design of the converters.",book:{id:"10176",slug:"microgrids-and-local-energy-systems",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",fullTitle:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems"},signatures:"Wenlong Ming",authors:[{id:"328358",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenlong",middleName:null,surname:"Ming",slug:"wenlong-ming",fullName:"Wenlong Ming"}]},{id:"65903",title:"Introductory Chapter: Power System Stability",slug:"introductory-chapter-power-system-stability",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"8358",slug:"power-system-stability",title:"Power System Stability",fullTitle:"Power System Stability"},signatures:"Kenneth Eloghene Okedu",authors:[{id:"172580",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenneth Eloghene",middleName:null,surname:"Okedu",slug:"kenneth-eloghene-okedu",fullName:"Kenneth Eloghene Okedu"}]},{id:"50520",title:"Fundamentals of Inductively Coupled Wireless Power Transfer Systems",slug:"fundamentals-of-inductively-coupled-wireless-power-transfer-systems",totalDownloads:4649,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The objective of this chapter is to study the fundamentals and operating principles of inductively coupled wireless power transfer (ICWPT) systems. This new technology can be used in various wireless power transfer applications with different specifications, necessities, and restrictions such as in electric vehicles and consumer electronics. A typical ICWPT system involves a loosely coupled magnetic coupling structure and power electronics circuitries as an integrated system. In this chapter, the emphasis is placed on the magnetic coupling structure, which is the most important part of the system. Although this technology has motivated considerable research and development in the past two decades, still there are several theoretical studies such as the level of the operating frequency, operating at high secondary circuit quality factor, coupling efficiency, etc., that need further investigation to fully develop the governing mathematical relationships of this technology.",book:{id:"5187",slug:"wireless-power-transfer-fundamentals-and-technologies",title:"Wireless Power Transfer",fullTitle:"Wireless Power Transfer - Fundamentals and Technologies"},signatures:"Ali Abdolkhani",authors:[{id:"179618",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Abdolkhani",slug:"ali-abdolkhani",fullName:"Ali Abdolkhani"}]},{id:"78626",title:"Electricity Storage in Local Energy Systems",slug:"electricity-storage-in-local-energy-systems",totalDownloads:220,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Traditionally, power system operation has relied on supply side flexibility from large fossil-based generation plants to managed swings in supply and/or demand. An increase in variable renewable generation has increased curtailment of renewable electricity and variations in electricity prices. Consumers can take advantage of volatile electricity prices and reduce their bills using electricity storage. With reduced fossil-based power generation, traditional methods for balancing supply and demand must change. Electricity storage offers an alternative to fossil-based flexibility, with an increase expected to support high levels of renewable generation. Electrochemical storage is a promising technology for local energy systems. In particular, lithium-ion batteries due to their high energy density and high efficiency. However, despite their 89% decrease in capital cost over the last 10 years, lithium-ion batteries are still relatively expensive. Local energy systems with battery storage can use their battery for different purposes such as maximising their self-consumption, minimising their operating cost through energy arbitrage which is storing energy when the electricity price is low and releasing the energy when the price increases, and increasing their revenue by providing flexibility services to the utility grid. Power rating and energy capacity are vitally important in the design of an electricity storage system. A case study is given for the purpose of providing a repeatable methodology for optimally sizing of a battery storage system for a local energy system. The methodology can be adapted to include any local energy system generation or demand profile.",book:{id:"10176",slug:"microgrids-and-local-energy-systems",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",fullTitle:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems"},signatures:"William Seward, Weiqi Hua and Meysam Qadrdan",authors:[{id:"328166",title:"Dr.",name:"Meysam",middleName:null,surname:"Qadrdan",slug:"meysam-qadrdan",fullName:"Meysam Qadrdan"},{id:"427345",title:"Dr.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Seward",slug:"william-seward",fullName:"William Seward"},{id:"427346",title:"Dr.",name:"Weiqi",middleName:null,surname:"Hua",slug:"weiqi-hua",fullName:"Weiqi Hua"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"756",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). 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His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11409,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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