Families of Axiidea and Gebiidea within the classification of the arthropod superclass Multicrustacea based on Dworschak et al. [15], updated by worms [22].
\r\n\tArsenic’s history in science, medicine and technology has been overshadowed by its feature as a poison. Arsenic is a synonym of toxicity. Arsenic is widely distributed throughout the environment. It is present in biota, the atmosphere, oceans, lakes, groundwater, sediments, and soils throughout the world. Arsenic is present in many minerals. Due to high mobilization of arsenic, both from natural and anthropogenic sources, it is reactive in aquatic environments and the atmosphere. Natural sources of arsenic mobilization include weathering of arsenic-bearing rocks, biological activity, and volcanic eruption. Anthropogenic sources include mining of metal ores, combustion of fossil fuels, pesticide use, livestock feed additives, wood preservatives, and pigment production. In most cases of groundwater contamination, however, a combination of natural and anthropogenic actions leads to arsenic release. The aim of this book should be to describe and present the most recent findings focused on methods for the determination and separation of arsenic species. Speciation analysis is defined as the determination of the various chemical (oxidation/valence states) forms of the element which together make up the total concentration of that element on a sample. Speciation analysis is aiming to define and quantify the distribution of an element between the different species in which it occurs. These structural levels are important in different areas, for instance, valence state and inorganic and organic speciation are of great importance in determining the availability and toxicity of metals or metalloids, thus being very important in food, and also in clinical and biological fields. The contribution of this book is to present state-of-art in the field of the development and application of methods for determination and removal of arsenic species.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"18f6bb0aaa4110f52d0d7ab155cab7bf",bookSignature:"Prof. Vladana Rajakovic-Ognjanovic",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8507.jpg",keywords:"Toxicity, Presence in the Environment, Occurrence of Different Oxidative States, Detection Limits, Instrumental Techniques, Simple and Efficient Techniques Cost Effective Technologies, Solidification and Stabilization Technologies, Waste Treatment",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 11th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 2nd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 1st 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 19th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 20th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"141214",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladana",middleName:null,surname:"Rajakovic-Ognjanovic",slug:"vladana-rajakovic-ognjanovic",fullName:"Vladana Rajakovic-Ognjanovic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/141214/images/system/141214.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vladana N. Rajaković-Ognjanović currently works as an Assistant Professor at Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Belgrade. Her general professional interests include instrumental methods for the characterization and determination of water quality and development of analytical methods for water purification. Dr. Rajaković-Ognjanović has achieved results in the field of arsenic research regarding determination, detection methods and precision of different instrumental techniques. 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Next, this term is Latinized as Thalassinidea Latreille, 1831, incorporating it to the suborder Pleocyemata Burkenroad, 1963. Dana [2] divided Thalassinidea into Eubranchiata (species with thoracic branchiae) and Anomobranchiata (species with abdominal branchial appendages), classifying the taxa Gebidae; Callianassidae Dana, 1852; and Thalassinidea Latreille, 1831, into Eubranchiata and Callianidea H. Milne Edwards, 1837, and Isaea H. Milne Edwards, 1830, into Anomobranchiata. The famous zoologist de Saint Laurent [3] elevated the genus Upogebia Leach, 1814 (e.g., Callianassidae) to family rank, and she reorganized the families Callianassidae; Callianideidae Kossmann, 1880; and Axiidae Huxley, 1879, into superfamily Axioidea [4]. In another work published in the same year, she divided Reptantia into 10 groups that in her opinion were caused by the process called “radiation Triassique” [5]. In her work, she stated that infraorder Thalassinidea was the only group of Reptantia impossible to define precisely and so introduced the term (French) “Thalassinacea.” De Saint Laurent [5] argued that in “Thalassinacea,” relationship between the epistome and the carapace varied notably from one family to another, also the number of chelate pereopods (sometimes one and sometimes two); an appendix interna was not always present. From these observations, she proposed the separation of “Thalassinacea” into infraorders Axiidea and Gebiidea, thus transferring the families Axiidae and Callianassidae for the former infraorder and Laomediidae; Upogebiidae Borradaile, 1903; and Thalassinidea for the latter infraorder [5].
The first cladistic analysis of Thalassinidea was conducted by Poore [6]. He found the group to be monophyletic and divided into three superfamilies (Callianassoidea, Axioidea, Thalassinidea). A subsequent phylogenetic study using molecular data divided Thalassinidea into two major clades [7]. The first clade composed of the families Strahlaxiidae Poore, 1994, and Callianassidae and the second clade of Laomediidae Borradaile, 1903, Upogebiidae, and Thalassinidea (see also [8] sperm data; [9] molecular data). Sakai [10] compared the gastric mill in species of the Thalassinidea and found the group “diphyletic.” From his information, he proposed the division of Thalassinidea into superorder Callianassoidea composed of five families (Axiidae; Callianassidae; Callianideidae; Ctenochelidae Manning and Felder, 1991; Gourretiidae Sakai, 1999) and Thalassinidea composed of three families (Laomediidae, Upogebiidae, Thalassinidea). In the former group, all species are characterized by the presence of a propyloric ossicle simple, whereas in the latter group by having a propyloric ossicle triangularly protruded downward [6]. Lastly, Robles et al. [11] undertook a molecular phylogeny of the thalassinideans and discovered the same two groups proposed by de Saint Laurent [4, 5] and other researchers [12, 13, 14].
Currently, it is reasonably assumed by researchers that Axiidea and Gebiidea represent two distinctly separate infraorders of decapods whose main evolutionary characteristic is the fossorial lifestyle [15]. Members of Axiidea (casually known as ghost shrimps) are characterized by having the first and second pereiopod chelate and a soft and delicate body, whereas all Gebiidea (casually known as mud lobsters) possess the first pereiopod chelate or subchelate and second pereiopod subchelate or simple with a hard and heavily calcified body [15, 16]. Recent discovery of new species has added a series of new families within Axiidea and Gebiidea [17, 18]. Considering this information, modern classification of both groups divided Axiidea into six families and Gebiidea into five (Table 1). Nevertheless, taxonomy of old name Thalassinidea follows being very controversial among carcinologists from the “American school” and opinions of Sakai, particularly in what concerns to the correct use of the names Axiidea and Gebiidea versus Callianassidea and Thalassinidea [19, 20].
Taxon |
Class Malacostraca |
Subclass Phyllocarida |
Subclass Hoplocarida |
Subclass Eumalacostraca |
Superorder Syncarida Packard, 1885 |
Superorder Peracarida Calman, 1904 |
Superorder Eucarida Calman, 1904 |
Order Euphausiacea Dana, 1852 |
Order Decapoda Latreille, 1802 |
Suborder Dendrobranchiata Spence Bate, 1888 |
Suborder Pleocyemata Burkenroad, 1963 |
Infraorder Achelata Scholtz and Richter, 1995 |
Infraorder Anomura MacLeay, 1838 |
Infraorder Astacidea Latreille, 1802 |
Infraorder Axiidea de Saint Laurent, 1979 |
Family Axiidae Huxley, 1879 |
Family Callianassidae Dana, 1852 |
Family Callianideidae Kossmann, 1880 |
Family Gourretiidae Sakai, 1999 |
Family Micheleidae Sakai, 1992 |
Family Strahlaxiidae Poore, 1994 |
Infraorder Brachyura Latreille, 1802 |
Infraorder Caridea Dana, 1852 |
Infraorder Gebiidea de Saint Laurent, 1979 |
Family Axianassidae Schmitt, 1924 |
Family Kuwaitupogebiidae Sakai, Türkay and Al Aidaroos, 2015 |
Family Laomediidae Borradaile, 1903 |
Family Thalassinidea Latreille, 1831 |
Family Upogebiidae Borradaile, 1903 |
Infraorder Glypheidea Van Straelen, 1925 |
Infraorder Polychelida Scholtz and Richter, 1995 |
Infraorder Procarididea Felgenhauer and Abele, 1983 |
Infraorder Stenopodidea Spence Bate, 1888 |
In order to understand and define what is meant by ghost shrimp and mud lobster, the general morphological components of the infraorders Axiidea and Gebiidea need to be examined. The carapace in most of these species (except in laomediids of the genus Naushonia) is laterally compressed and can be strongly ornamented (Figure 1A, left and right panel), with spines and tubercles as in Thalassinidea and Upogebiidae (Gebiidea) or unornamented as in Callianassidae and Callianideidae (Axiidea) [15, 16]. The pleon is longer than the cephalothorax in most ghost shrimps (Figure 1B, top panel) but usually shorter in mud lobsters (Figure 1B, down panel), and anterior feet are thrown directly forward in all members of these clades [15, 16] (Figure 1C, left and right panel).
Main morphological adaptations in Axiidea and Gebiidea. (A) Carapace of Neocallichirus grandimana (left panel) and Axianassa linda (right panel), dorsal view; (B) male specimen of Callichirus seilacheri (top panel) and Naushonia macginitiei (Glassel, 1938) (down panel), lateral view; (C) male specimen of Lepidophthalmus siriboia (left panel) and Upogebia omissa (right panel), dorsal view. (a,B) left and right panel, scale bar = 1 cm, 0.5 cm, respectively; (B) top and down panels, scale bar = 1 cm, 0.5 cm, respectively.
Inhabiting most oceans and seas of the world, ghost shrimps (Axiidea) and mud lobsters (Gebiidea) exhibit a greatest diversity with about 423 and 192 extant species, respectively [21]. According to information available in database World Register Marine Species, for Axiidea and Gebiidea, those values have increased in about 85% and 25%, respectively, during the last decade [22]. In terms of extant species, family Callianassidae exhibits the greatest diversity within infraorder Axiidea whereas Upogebiidae within Gebiidea (Table 2).
Taxon | Number of genera | Extant species |
---|---|---|
Infraorder Axiidea | ||
Family Axiidae | 63 | 205 |
Family Callianassidae | 67 | 495 |
Family Callianideidae | 6 | 18 |
Family Gourretiidae | 9 | 20 |
Family Micheleidae | 4 | 33 |
Family Strahlaxiidae | 3 | 10 |
Infraorder Gebiidea | ||
Family Axianassidae | 2 | 15 |
Family Kuwaitupogebiidae | 1 | 1 |
Family Laomediidae | 4 | 21 |
Family Thalassinidea | 1 | 11 |
Family Upogebiidae | 13 | 192 |
Number of genera and species for each family of Axiidea and Gebiidea based on database of worms [22].
Both axiideans and gebiideans are known for constructing burrows of different shapes and depths [23, 24, 25, 26, 27] (Figure 2A) and for playing an important role in shaping the community structure in intertidal and shallow water of marine habitats [28, 29, 30, 31]. Bioperturbation produced by these organisms, i.e., the activity of water and sediment expulsion from the galleries, contributes to the suspension of organic matter, nitrogen fixation, and the increases of food availability among the trophic levels [32, 33, 34] (Figure 2B). Members of Axiidea and Gebiidea can be found inhabiting as sponge symbionts, living between coarse coral rubble or even associated to hydrocarbon seeps and hydrothermal vents in deep water [35, 36, 37, 38]. Some species of ghost shrimps are considered ecosystem engineers because of their capacity to modify, maintain, and/or create habitats for other marine invertebrates [39, 40]. Also, several ghost shrimps and mud lobsters are used as a bait for recreational fishing and human consumption [41, 42, 43, 44, 45] (Figure 2C).
(A) Burrow morphology and copulatory behaviour in Callichirus seilacheri (Callianassidae), scale bar = 20 cm; (B) model of bioperturbation activity in Axianassa linda (Axianassidae); (C) fishermen harvesting Callichirus major (Callianassidae) at São Paulo State, Brazil.
Dworschak et al. [15] stated that most ghost shrimps and mud lobster species are characterized by solitary habits; however, such assumption lacks empirical support from the available literature. With the exception of larval period [46, 47, 48, 49], axiideans and gebiideans spend their lifetime within of gallery [15], which makes it difficult to capture and study them. As a result, the knowledge about population dynamics and reproduction of these species is restricted to about 6.00% of already described species, being most of these studies realized in species of the families Callianassidae and Upogebiidae [40, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56].
The location of the male and female sexual openings in Axiidea and Gebiidea is similar to described universally for the reptant decapods [57]. Males possess prominent gonopores on the ventral coxal segment of the fifth pereiopod, whereas females have oval gonopores on the ventral coxal segment of the third pereiopod [40, 58, 59] (Figure 3A).
Schematic representation of the external genitalia and reproductive system in males (A, left panel, B) and females (A, right panel, C) of ghost shrimps and mud lobster. A–C scale bar = 5 mm.
Information about internal anatomy of the reproductive system is virtually nonexistent in most species of ghost shrimps and mud lobsters. Scarce information published point out that male reproductive system involves paired testes dorsally to the hepatopancreas and the intestine and is located between first and second abdominal somites, whose connection with genital openings (gonopores) is produced through a pair of translucent or whitish vas deferens [60] (Figure 3B). Secreting epithelium of the vas deferens is responsible for forming the gelatinous spermatophoric mass [61], as observed in other decapods [62]. Female sexual system is composed of paired orange or dark red ovaries (depending upon developmental stage), one ovary shorter than another, both visible through pleonal region and a pair of short and translucent oviducts linking the ovary to gonopore [59, 60] (Figure 3C). Seminal receptacle or spermathecae have not been described for any Axiidea and Gebiidea, despite attempts to find them [63]. Laboratory observations show that females of callianassid shrimps are not able to store sperm [64], as reported in most brachyuran crabs [65].
Males of most ghost shrimps and mud lobsters can be identified by the absence/presence and morphology of the first pleopod. The first pleopod is absent in most males of Axianassidae, Laomediidae, Strahlaxiidae, and Upogebiidae and in numerous Callianassidae [15, 16, 66, 67]. When present, the male first pleopod is uniramous and can be unsegmented as in Thalassina [68], bisegmented as in Callichirus [58], or composed of four articles as in Ctenocheles [69]. Male first pleopod in some species as Callianidea mariamartae Hernáez and Vargas, 2013, and Marcusiaxius lemoscastroi Rodrigues and de Carvalho, 1972, is morphologically similar to gonopods of Brachyura [70, 71], showing a tiny size and function totally unknown [15]. First pleopod plays an important role during the mating behavior of caridean shrimps [72] and brachyuran crabs [65]; however, their function is not clearly defined in Axiidea and Gebiidea.
Female first pleopod is present in all females of Axiidea and Gebiidea [15]. It is uniramous and consists of one article in Axianassidae, two articles in most families, or three articles in Callianassidae, with the distal part sometimes appearing as a shovel (Callianassidae) or flagellum (Laomediidae, Callianideidae) [58, 59, 66, 73]. Depending upon species, sometimes the first two pairs or all female pleopods are used for carrying the eggs during the incubation of embryos [55, 74, 75, 76]. Females use pleopods 3–5 to generate strong water currents during the spawning and so help the larvae release from the burrow [76].
Ghost shrimps constitute a promising group for growth studies because many of them show marked differences between relative growth of chelipeds of males and females during postpuberty phase. In Callianideidae and Callianassidae, for instance, males show a positive allometric growth of the major cheliped in relation to body size, whereas this morphometric relationship is isometric in females of both families [40, 77]. According to Rodrigues and Höld [78], hypertrophied chelipeds in males of ghost shrimps are often used to defend galleries against invasion from other shrimps from the same or opposite sex. Also, Felder and Lovett [51] suggest that antagonistic interactions among males of callianassid shrimps might cause a high mortality of adult males, thus creating a bias toward females in these populations. Consequently, development of extremely larger chelipeds in callianassid species not only includes morphometric changes during sexual maturity but also can provide some advantages to males, a competition for sexual partners, as were widely documented in several species of Caridea Dana, 1852 [72].
Sexual system varies considerably in Decapoda. Most caridean shrimps and brachyuran crabs are gonochoric, that is, all individuals in the population exhibit separate sexes throughout their lifetime [65, 72]. Other species are sequential hermaphrodites in which the individual changes sex at some point in the life history [79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84]. If the initial sex is male, the condition is known as protandry; the converse situation is protogyny [85]. Finally, several species have been reported as simultaneous hermaphrodites sensu Ghiselin [86], that is, an organism has both male and female sexual organs at the same time [72, 87, 88].
While the sexual system of most groups of Decapoda is well known such as Caridea [72], Astacidea [89], Anomura [90], and Brachyura [65] for most axiideans and gebiideans, the distribution of the sexes among individuals is not clear. This is because many researchers have omitted to report explicitly the sexual system of their focus species, wrongly accepting that most ghost shrimps and mud lobsters are gonochoric. Secondly, because in ghost shrimp and mud lobster studies, the sex ratio as a function of size is rarely reported, which is crucial to determine any sex changing through the ontogeny of one species [91].
Several studies conducted in Axiidea and Gebiidea species have reported morphological evidences that aim for a sexual system more complex than simply the existence of separate sexes during the lifetime of these species. For instance, in the intertidal mud lobster Upogebia major (De Haan, 1841) (Upogebiidae) and in the ghost shrimp Callichirus major (Say, 1818) (Callianassidae), male has the gonad divided in a posterior ovarian section and an anterior testicular section [92, 61] (Table 3). In both species, ovarian section produces functional oocytes. In other species of ghost shrimps and mud lobsters have been reported specimens with male and female gonopores which have been classified as intersexed (Table 3). To summarize, for 21 species of Axiidea and 12 of Gebiidea, explicit information—or strong indirect evidence—on their sexual system was available. Of these, 26 species are gonochoristic (i.e., all individuals in the population exhibit separate sexes throughout their lifetime); 2 males are hermaphrodites, and 10 species present intersexed specimens (Table 3). Considering this information and given that reproductive biology has been studied in only a small proportion of the 781 ghost shrimps and 240 mud lobsters, it can be concluded that hermaphroditism might not be unusual in these organisms.
Taxon | Sexual system | Intersex | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Axiidea | |||
Callianassidae | |||
Biffarius filholi (A. Milne-Edwards, 1878) | Gc | [54] | |
Callianassa aqabaensis Dworschak, 2003 | I (M,F) | [116] | |
Callianassa subterranea (Montagu, 1808) | Gc | [117] | |
Callichirus garthi (Retamal, 1975) | Gc | I (F) | [40] |
Callichirus islagrande (Schmitt, 1935) | Gc | [63] | |
Callichirus major (Say, 1818) | H (M) | I (F) | [100] |
Callichirus seilacheri (Bott, 1955) | Gc | I (F) | P. Hernáez unpublished data |
Lepidophthalmus bocourti (A. Milne-Edwards, 1870) | Gc | P. Hernáez unpublished data | |
Lepidophthalmus louisianensis (Schmitt, 1935) | Gc | [51] | |
Lepidophthalmus sinuensis Lemaitre and Rodrigues, 1991 | Gc | [118] | |
Lepidophthalmus siriboia Felder and Rodrigues, 1993 | Gc | [56] | |
Neocallichirus maryae Karasawa, 2004 | Gc | P. Hernáez unpublished data | |
Neocallichirus nickellae Manning, 1993 | Gc | P. Hernáez unpublished data | |
Neotrypaea californiensis (Dana, 1854) | Gc | [119] | |
Neotrypaea tabogensis (Sakai, 2005) | Gc | P. Hernáez unpublished data | |
Nihonotrypaea harmandi (Bouvier, 1901) | Gc | [120] | |
Nihonotrypaea japonica (Ortmann, 1891) | Gc | [53] | |
Nihonotrypaea petalura (Stimpson, 1860) | Gc | [120] | |
Sergio mirim (Rodrigues, 1966) | Gc | [121] | |
Sergio trilobata (Biffar, 1970) | Gc | [122] | |
Callianideidae | |||
Callianidea mariamartae Hernáez and Vargas, 2013 | Gc | [70] | |
Gebiidea | |||
Axianassidae | |||
Axianassa australis Rodrigues and Shimizu, 1992 | Gc | P. Hernáez unpublished data | |
Upogebiidae | |||
Austinogebia edulis (Ngoc-Ho & Chan, 1992) | I (M) | [123] | |
Austinogebia spinifrons (Haswell, 1882) | I (F) | [124] | |
Paragebicula edentata (Lin, Ngoc-Ho & Chan, 2001) | I (M) | [125] | |
Upogebia dawsoni Williams, 1986 | Gc | [126] | |
Upogebia deltaura (Leach, 1816) | I (M) | [50] | |
Upogebia major (De Haan, 1841) | H (M) | [92] | |
Upogebia omissa Gomes Corrêa, 1968 | Gc | P. Hernáez unpublished data | |
Upogebia pusilla (Petagna, 1792) | Gc | [127] | |
Upogebia stellata (Montagu, 1808) | Gc | I () | [128] |
Upogebia thistlei Williams, 1986 | Gc | I (M) | [129] |
Upogebia vasquezi Ngoc-Ho, 1989 | Gc | [130] |
Probable sexual system and the presence of specimens intersexed in 21 ghost shrimps and 12 mud lobsters.Empty spaces are left where no information is available; (Gc) = gonochoristic, (H) = hermaphroditic, (I) = intersex, (M) = male, and (F) = female.
Overall, monogamous decapods usually live in heterosexual pairs as a form to ensure the mating and optimize the survival [93]. In most monogamous species, disproportionate sexual dimorphism of chelipeds is not observed because sexual selection is weak given that monogamy evolved from fidelity between heterosexual pairs [94]. On the contrary, in polygamous species there is no fidelity among individuals of the opposite sex, wherefore agonistic encounters are common between adult males during the search for receptive females [72, 95]. In these species, males invest heavily in structures, such as chelipeds, that are used as armament against other potential competitors [96, 97]. Considering this information, all species of ghost shrimp and mud lobster with solitary habits and remarkable sexual dimorphism in the major cheliped are expected to be polygamous.
In the intertidal ghost shrimp Callichirus seilacheri (Bott, 1955), the burrow is individually inhabited by one male or a female (Figure 2A), and adult male develops hypertrophied chelipeds which is a potential evidence of intense male-to-male competition for sexual partners and therefore an indirect evidence of polygamy [98]. In a study conducted in Callichirus islagrande (Schmitt, 1935), an intertidal species in that males possess highly developed chelipeds [59], the egg mass of females is fertilized by multiple males which denotes polyandry [63]. In both species, the authors assume that mating occurs when the male digs a straight and almost horizontal connection from its gallery to other nearby galleries in search of a receptive female (Figure 2A), such as one that is observed in Upogebia noronhensis Fausto-Filho, 1969 [98]. Unfortunately, information about mating system in Axiidea and Gebiidea is virtually nonexistent. Further studies including behavioral experiments between male and female specimens should be carried out to investigate a possible mating system in these species.
In general, females of ghost shrimps attain, in average, a larger body size than males such as Biffarius filholi (A. Milne-Edwards, 1878) [99], C. major [100], and Lepidophthalmus siriboia Felder and Rodrigues, 1993 [56]. Females usually invest more energy into somatic growth than males when their reproductive success depends on reaching a larger body size [101]. In decapods, such evolutionary trend is explained by the fact that fecundity in females increases with body size [74, 102, 103, 104, 105]. Supporting this assumption, fecundity in species of callianassids increase with the female size, resulting in greater production of eggs in larger females [54, 74, 75].
The considerable variability among Axiidea and Gebiidea species in view of fecundity and egg size (Table 4) may indicate important differences in the reproductive strategy and may also reflect a latitudinal trend, as was observed in other decapods [106, 107, 108, 109, 110]. In C. seilacheri, for instance, females produce the highest number of eggs compared to those axiideans and gebiideans where data are available. However, this ghost shrimp and mud lobsters are the largest species among those listed in Table 4, and it is assumed that the area available for egg attachment increases with female size [102, 111]. When compared to a similar-sized species Upogebia deltaura (Leach, 1816) (18.9 mm CL, 5304 eggs) [50], fecundity in C. seilacheri is still substantially higher (18.6 mm CL, 9612 eggs). Moreover, this species produces considerably larger eggs (0.884 mm) than U. deltaura (0.558 mm). It is speculated that these differences in egg numbers in similar-sized species are related to the elasticity of the abdomen, which provides more space for egg attachment.
Taxon | Carapace length (mm) | Number of eggs | Egg length (mm) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Infraorder Axiidea | ||||
Family Callianassidae | ||||
Biffarius filholi | 5.5–14.9 | 1985 | 0.68 | [54] |
Callichirus garthi | 18.6–23.2 | 17,450 | 0.88 | [40] |
Callichirus kraussi (Stebbing, 1900) | n.a. | 122 | 1.52 | [113] |
Callichirus major (Brazil) | 10.3–15.0 | 4564 | 0.79a | [75] |
Callichirus seilacheri | 12.2–17.2 | 2387 | 0.71 | P. Hernáez unpublished data |
Lepidophthalmus louisianensis | n.a. | 598 | n.a. | [47] |
Lepidophthalmus sinuensis | 7.0–16.8 | 251 | 1.22 | [118] |
Pestarella tyrrhena (Petagna, 1792) | 5.2–10.4b | 270 | 1.18 | [131] |
Infraorder Gebiidea | ||||
Family Upogebiidae | ||||
Upogebia affinis (Say, 1818) | n.a. | 10,000 | n.a. | [132] |
Upogebia deltaura | 16.6–18.9 | 4757 | 0.56 | [50] |
Upogebia pusilla | 14.7–16.6 | n.a. | n.a. | [127] |
Carapace length of ovigerous females and number and length of eggs in some ghost shrimp and mud lobster species.
n.a., information not available. Letter in superscript indicates information obtained from further estimation
Egg size is one of the most variable parameters in decapods and offers valuable information on a species’ reproductive strategy. It is a useful indicator of the duration of embryogenesis and larval size at hatching [112]. Moreover, several studies on ghost shrimps and mud lobsters showed a clear relation between egg size and type of larval development [113, 114, 115]. Such information, however, is restricted to just a few species of both clades.
An updated classification of the infraorders Axiidea (ghost shrimps) and Gebiidea (mud lobsters) divide each of these clades into six families and five families, respectively. However, controversial taxonomic history of these infraorders is far from over due to recent discovery of new taxa. Diagnostic features of these organisms mainly include (i) carapace laterally compressed, (ii) pleon longer than the cephalothorax in Axiidea but usually shorter in Gebiidea, and (iii) anterior feet thrown directly forward. A recent count estimates the diversity of Axiidea and Gebiidea in about 781 and 240 extant species, respectively. In general, information about reproduction of these organisms is virtually nonexistent. Scarce reports about external and internal genital apparatus show that male possesses gonopores on the ventral coxal segment of the fifth pereiopod whereas females on the ventral coxal segment of the third pereiopod. Males of most ghost shrimps and mud lobsters can be identified by the absence/presence and morphology of the first pleopod and sexual dimorphism in the major cheliped during postpuberty phase. According to available information, gonochorism is the sexual system most common within Axiidea and Gebiidea. However, two cases of hermaphroditism and several cases of intersexuality have been also reported in ghost shrimps and mud lobsters that would be indicating the need of further studies about this topic in these organisms. Regarding mating system, all species of ghost shrimp and mud lobster with solitary habits and remarkable sexual dimorphism in the major cheliped are expected to be polygamous. Lastly, considerable variability among Axiidea and Gebiidea species in fecundity and egg size seems to indicate important differences in the reproductive strategy of these decapods.
Birth defects result in abnormal physiology, often with detrimental consequences, be it physical, developmental or intellectual disability. The resulting phenotype can range from mild impairment to severe to near incompatible with life. In most extreme cases, the foetus is incompatible with life and is spontaneously aborted prepartum, at much distress to the parents. However, all forms are of great personal pain to the families involved.
\nBirth defects are broadly categorised as either structural, affecting the ‘shape’ of the body, or ‘functional’ affecting the functionality of an organ or body system, in this case, the heart and circulation. Congenital heart disease (CHD) is a non-specific medical term for a range of defects present at the time of birth that affect the normal physiology of the heart and associated circulatory system [1]. CHD can arise from a combination of genetic and environmental causes. Recent advances in molecular testing techniques aid in diagnosis of these conditions; however, this creates ethical considerations with respect to sustainability and continuity of life with such conditions, especially when treatment options to alleviate debilitating symptoms may not be available.
\nCHD is one of the most common types of birth defects. About 28% of major congenital abnormalities are a result of a cardiac pathology [2]. These can be broadly categorised as those that result in cyanosis and those that do not (Figure 1). CHD occurs in approximately 1% of live births and affects up to 9 in every 1000 babies born in the United Kingdom (REF); however, the reported prevalence differs considerably globally.
\nBroad classification of congenital heart disease.
It was estimated that 48.9 million people had a congenital heart abnormality in 2015 [3] and CHD was responsible for 223,000 deaths in 2010 [4]. The incidence of birth defects has increased over time (Figure 2) partly due to the increased rates of fertility but also in part due to significant improvements in diagnostic modalities along with concomitant advances in anaesthesia and surgical intervention. The largest increase in incidence is in those born with atrial septal or ventricular septal defects.
\nPrevalence of CHD between 1945 and 2009 according to defect classification. AoS, aortic stenosis; ASD, atrial septal defect; Coarc, coarctation of the aorta; PDA, patent ductus arteriosus; PS, pulmonary stenosis; TGA, transposition of the great arteries; TOF, tetralogy of Fallot; VSD, ventricular septal defect (source: [5]).
The prevalence of CHD in the global population is illustrated in Figure 3. The incidence of CHD is similar between countries; however, those with higher rates of fertility have a disproportionately higher number of birth defects. Infant survival is poorest in developing countries often as a direct result of lack of medical care due to socioeconomic status. Future trends would suggest as socioeconomic conditions improve in such countries, an expected reduction in infant CHD mortality will follow.
\nGlobal distribution of congenital heart disease in birth numbers per million population.
In conclusion there is documented evidence of increasing prevalence of CHD births over the last century with a worldwide estimate of 9:1000 live births. This equates to 1.35 million annual CHD births, which has a major impact on healthcare and socioeconomic systems. The health burden falls mainly on those countries with low economic prospects, high fertility rates and poor access to advanced diagnostics and treatment options. Global healthcare monitoring and strategies to improve diagnosis and care in these areas are warranted.
\n"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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