Macronutrient concentration of human milk and cow milk.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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Apart from mathematical optimization problems, evolutionary algorithms have also been used as an experimental framework within biological evolution and natural selection in the field of artificial life.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-171-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4493-9",doi:"10.5772/627",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"evolutionary-algorithms",numberOfPages:598,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"6816724ee9d4c10832441d90fd28a485",bookSignature:"Eisuke Kita",publishedDate:"April 26th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/98.jpg",numberOfDownloads:73100,numberOfWosCitations:98,numberOfCrossrefCitations:80,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:7,numberOfDimensionsCitations:138,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:7,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:316,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 25th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 22nd 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 27th 2010",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 26th 2010",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 9th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"22506",title:"Prof.",name:"Eisuke",middleName:null,surname:"Kita",slug:"eisuke-kita",fullName:"Eisuke Kita",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/22506/images/1591_n.jpg",biography:"Eisuke Kita was born in Japan in 1964. He moved straight from high school to School of Engineering of Mie University. After getting the bachelor and the master degree, he moved to Graduate School of Mechanical Engineering of the Nagoya University and graduated with the Doctor of Engineering in 1991. He spent 9 years in the School of Mechanical Engineering as a lecturer and an assistant professor, and 11 years in the School of Informatics and Science as an associate professor. He became, in 2009, the full professor of the Graduate School of Information Science of the Nagoya University. His publications include numerical analysis schemes, multi-agent traffic simulation, artificial market simulation, application of Bayesian network and so on. He earned the honor as Encouraging prize of Japan Society of Mechanical Engineering in 2000, Encouraging prize of Computer Science Committee of Information Processing Society of Japan in 2007 and 2009.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"590",title:"Algorithm Analysis",slug:"numerical-analysis-and-scientific-computing-algorithm-analysis"}],chapters:[{id:"15613",title:"Hybridization of Evolutionary Algorithms",doi:"10.5772/15592",slug:"hybridization-of-evolutionary-algorithms",totalDownloads:2852,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Iztok Fister, Marjan Mernik and Janez Brest",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15613",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15613",authors:[{id:"11259",title:"Dr.",name:"Marjan",surname:"Mernik",slug:"marjan-mernik",fullName:"Marjan Mernik"},{id:"21330",title:"Dr.",name:"Iztok",surname:"Fister",slug:"iztok-fister",fullName:"Iztok Fister"},{id:"22483",title:"Prof",name:"Janez",surname:"Brest",slug:"janez-brest",fullName:"Janez Brest"}],corrections:null},{id:"15614",title:"Linear Evolutionary Algorithm",doi:"10.5772/14969",slug:"linear-evolutionary-algorithm",totalDownloads:2326,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Kezong Tang, Xiaojing Yuan, Puchen Liu and Jingyu Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15614",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15614",authors:[{id:"19381",title:"Dr.",name:"ke-zong",surname:"tang",slug:"ke-zong-tang",fullName:"ke-zong tang"}],corrections:null},{id:"15615",title:"Genetic Algorithm Based on Schemata Theory",doi:"10.5772/15927",slug:"genetic-algorithm-based-on-schemata-theory",totalDownloads:2921,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Eisuke Kita and Takashi Maruyama",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15615",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15615",authors:[{id:"22506",title:"Prof.",name:"Eisuke",surname:"Kita",slug:"eisuke-kita",fullName:"Eisuke Kita"}],corrections:null},{id:"15616",title:"In Vitro Fertilization Genetic Algorithm",doi:"10.5772/16074",slug:"in-vitro-fertilization-genetic-algorithm",totalDownloads:2274,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Celso G. 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Milk and dairy product are considered a main part of the healthy and balanced diet [1]. In this context, human milk is the most appropriate choice for feeding newborns and provides all the energy and nutrients needed to ensure proper growth and development [2]. Furthermore, human milk provides a large group of functional components which improve the newborn health, increase the immunity, and protect against the gastrointestinal and respiratory infections [3]. So, it was noted that breastfed infants suffer less gastrointestinal disorders and respiratory infections rather than formula-fed infants [4]. The exclusive breastfeeding pattern during the first 6 months of life was recommended by various health and breastfeeding organizations such as the American Academy of Pediatricians (AAP) and the American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) [5].
\nIt is scientifically accepted that using the nutritional factors may decrease or prevent the extension of these diseases and its implications to the adult life. Nowadays, researchers and health and breastfeeding organizations are trying to discover the precise substances in human milk that seem to supply physiological benefits beyond its normal nutritional value which contribute earlier in delay, treatment or prevent some diseases [6]. Thus, these functional ingredients hold a great promise for future trends in human nutrition. Additionally, the relationship between milk consumption and human health requires a deeper understanding to uncover the protective role of some bioactive compounds, which naturally present in human milk.
\nAlthough human milk is considered the optimal food and supplies all the nutrient and some bioactive components, it is no longer sufficient to meet all the necessary nutritional requirements after 4–6 months of infant life [7]. In this case, infant formulas play an indispensable role in infant feeding. The formulas should be similar to mature human milk regarding its micronutrient and macronutrient contents. During the evolution of infant formulas, the manufacturers should take into account the necessary nutritional requirements of the newborns and infants and enrich the formulas with the functional ingredients which are naturally present in human milk [8]. The aim of this review is to present current knowledge regarding evidence on the importance of breastfeeding, the functionality of selected human milk ingredients, infant formulas as a human milk alternative, and the similarities and differences between human milk and infant formulas.
\nIt is well established that breastfeeding pattern of newborn provides more benefits for both mothers and their babies. It is well documented that breastfeeding not only provides the optimal nutrition [9] but also has many health benefits for both children and their mothers [10]. Breastfeeding pattern is positively associated with maternal sensitivity and with bonding between mother and infant [11]. It helps to build up a safe and full-of-feeling relationship between the mother and her infant and offers numerous other positive advantages. Breastfeeding mothers suffer less from certain serious diseases: reduced risk of certain cancers, including ovarian and breast cancer, type 2 diabetes, delayed resumption of menses, and more rapid postpartum weight loss. So, breastfeeding mothers are likely to be more health conscious, and, therefore, to promote healthy habits, which are likely to prevent overweight and obesity later in childhood [12].
\nOn the other hand, breastfeeding pattern provides the protection against childhood-related diseases. In this regard, breastfed infants showed higher resistance to infectious disease and stronger immune systems, leading to lower rates of chronic diseases as compared to formula-fed infants. The ideal composition of human milk provides nutritional, growth, and developmental advantages to the child [13]. By the way, lower risk of gastrointestinal infection, otitis media, asthma, allergies, respiratory tract infection, type 1 diabetes, and sudden infant death syndrome are observed in breastfed infants. Other benefits include evidence of protection against childhood obesity, which may persist into adulthood, and less cognitive development and behavioral problems in breastfed children compared with children not breastfed [14]. Based on the abovementioned, breastfeeding should be actively recommended and supported as the most preferred method of infant feeding at both nutritionally and healthy states.
\nIt is well established that infancy is the most important stage of human life where newborns are growing with high rate allowing to duplicate the infant weight in only 4–5 months. So, an adequate supply of nutrients represents paramount importance in this early stage of infant life. The breastfeeding of infants is obviously important to provide the needed nutrients and energy for the synthesis and deposition of new tissues from birth until 4–6 months of infant life.
\nThe high metabolic requirements contrast with the limited ability of young infants to compensate for an inadequate supply of nutrients due to the diminished body reserves of nutrients and the immature homeostatic mechanisms. For example, the activity of some metabolic pathways and the kidney’s ability to concentrate the urine are still low during the first 3–4 months of life. Young children may not be able to synthesize sufficient amounts of certain substrates considered as nonessential or dispensable since the limited capacity of the specific metabolic synthesis is not always sufficient to achieve the high requirements. Some nutrients considered nonessential in adults and older children can become indispensable for young infants that would be supplied in the diet [15].
\nIn addition to the immediate consequences of infant feeding on growth, body composition, health, and wellness, a number of recent studies have also provided indications that the quantity and quality in the supply of nutrients during childhood has important long-term consequences in the development and function of the organs, health, and risk of disease as well as in the cognitive ability [16]. Human milk is nowadays universally recognized as the optimal feeding choice for every infant [17] where it contains many nutritional components that are able to conserve his development.
\nThe nutritional components of human milk are classified into two categories: macronutrients and micronutrients [18]. Macronutrients of human milk include protein, fat, and sugar. The concentration of human milk macronutrients differed during the course of lactation and between the mothers as well as differed between term and preterm milk. The latter has a higher content of protein and fat. Generally, the mean macronutrient composition of term mature human milk is presented in Table 1 as compared with cow milk, the most common milk type used in infant formula manufacturing.
\nComponents | \nContent (mg/100 g) | \n|
---|---|---|
Human milk | \nCow milk | \n|
Protein | \n1.2 | \n3.2 | \n
Fat | \n3.7 | \n3.7 | \n
Sugar | \n7 | \n4.9 | \n
Energy (kcal) | \n65 | \n66 | \n
Proteins provide amino acids for growth as well as are presented in the form of polypeptides that facilitate digestion [19], the defense of the guest [20], and other functions [21]. Fats provide energy, but some have antiviral properties [22]. Carbohydrates provide energy and can also stimulate the absorption of minerals [23], and various human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) play a pivotal role in the microbial intestinal balance. Energy estimates range from 65 to 70 kcal/dL and are highly correlated with the fat content of human milk. Butte et al. [24] also clearly showed that intakes of energy, protein, fat, and carbohydrate were lower in breastfed than in formula-fed infants at 3 and 6 months. The differences in composition between human milk and infant formulas seem to affect the growth pattern between breastfed infants and formula-fed infants [25]. However, no apparent consequences were associated with the lower intake and slower weight gain of breastfed infants where they do not differ in activity level, and they suffer less gastrointestinal and respiratory infections and have higher cognitive development [26].
\nBecause human milk is considered the optimal and first functional food for infant feeding, nowadays, especially in the USA, pasteurized donor milk represents the suitable alternative provided for an infant that is in high risk [28]. However, infant formulas become necessary for infant feeding when human milk is unavailable or the mother cannot breastfeed her infant. So, special efforts are needed to ensure an adequate diet composition in young infants [25].
\nVarious negative consequences are noted with very low- or very high-specific nutrients [29]. For example, cow’s milk is not an ideal food during the first year of life. The ingestion of protein for the infants fed with cow’s milk is higher than that for those fed with human milk, and this leads to overload renal solutes [30]; in addition, a high-protein intake can cause hypercalciuria [31]. On the other hand, high consumption of cow’s milk below the first year of life is one of the most important risk factors for the development of iron deficiency anemia. Cow’s milk is low in iron, and much of that iron is attached to the casein micelles, which interferes with its absorption. Additionally, its low content in vitamin C does not favor the absorption of the little iron that contains [32].
\nOverall, the breastfeeding pattern is the preferred choice of infant nutrition and human milk provides all the nutritional components during 4–6 months of life. It also provides a large group of bioactive components, which play an indispensable role in protecting the infant health.
\nIncreasing evidence currently shows that short- and long-term benefits of human milk feeding are resulted by its content of various components named functional or bioactive components. These functional components involved a large group of several compounds such as protein (such as lactoferrin (Lf)), carbohydrates (especially human milk oligosaccharides), fats (polyunsaturated fatty acids), vitamins, nucleotides, minerals, and immunoglobulins. In this section, the occurrence, variation, and functionality of selected components of human milk are discussed.
\nLactoferrin (Lf) is the second most abundant protein in human milk belonging to the transferrin family [33]. It is a glycoprotein first isolated from cow’s milk and second from human milk [34]. It is well known as the principal iron-binding protein in mammals’ milk [35] and the first-line defense molecule against infections [33]. The highest content of Lf is found in human colostrum (7 g/L), and this content declined after 2 weeks after birth reaching 2–4 g/L of mature human milk [36]. While Lf content in cow colostrum and milk is 10-fold lower [37]. Structurally, Lf is an iron-binding glycoprotein consisting of a single polypeptide chain distributed to two lobes (N and C lobes). Both human Lf and bovine Lf are sharing a sequence homology of about 70%, and their 3D structures (Figure 1) are very similar but not identical [38]. Each lobe of Lf contains an iron-binding site with a high affinity and a glycan-binding site. N and C lobes have very similar conformations but show slight differences in their affinity for iron [39]. Table 2 presents the differences between human and bovine Lf.
\nProtein structure of human Lf. Source: Ref. [
Characteristics | \nHuman Lf | \nBovine Lf | \n
---|---|---|
Molecular weight (kDa) | \n80 | \n77 | \n
Amino acids | \n711 | \n689 | \n
N lobe | \n1–332 | \n1–233 | \n
C lobe | \n344–703 | \n345–689 | \n
α-Helix | \n333–344 | \n334–344 | \n
Due to its distribution in several parts of the body and its involvement in several physiological processes, Lf is considered as a multifunctional protein. Moreover, numerous studies have been carried out to uncover the wide range of activities of Lf and its peptides [42, 43]. Iron absorption enhancement by Lf is one of the most observed activities especially in breastfed as compared to formula-fed infants. In this context, the high affinity of Lf to bind iron is a key characteristic of this beneficial role. Although iron is the main cation bound by Lf, other metals such as Cu2+, Zn2+, and Mn2+ ion can be bound by Lf [44]. Lf exists in three forms, according to its saturation degree with iron: apo-lactoferrin (iron free), mono-ferric form (one ferric iron), and holo-lactoferrin (binds two Fe3+ ions) [45]. Apo-lactoferrin is the secreted form of Lf in human milk where its saturation degree does not exceed 10%, whereas its saturation degree in cow milk is about 20% [46].
\nThe apo-Lf molecule is an open molecule, whereas the holo-Lf is a closed molecule [47]. Thus, apo-Lf is less stable than holo-Lf against gastrointestinal enzymes [48]. In view of this, the stability of Lf against gut enzymes is determined by its degree of saturation with iron. Interestingly, media pH plays a key role in iron release from Lf. So, bovine Lf retains the metal over a wide range of pH and starts to release its iron below pH 4 and at pH 2 iron is completely released, while it starts to release at pH 3 in human Lf [42].
\nAmong the principal factors that influence the iron bioavailability is its distribution in milk where 20–45% of iron in human milk is mainly bound to Lf, while 24% of iron in cow milk is bound to casein micelles [49]. This distribution resulted in a high iron bioavailability from human milk. Moreover, the high iron absorption from human milk was attributed to its high content of Lf. This hypothesis was supported by the discovery of species-specific receptors with high affinity for Lf (Lf receptors) in the enterocytes. This would explain the high bioavailability of iron from human milk, as only human lactoferrin releases iron to the enterocyte by this mechanism [48]. Additionally, Lf can increase the gene expression of divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) receptors that may play a central role in enhancing Fe uptake via proton-coupled mechanism [50]. It was also reported that Lf may be useful as a natural solubilizer of iron for food products, and it was suggested that Lf, orally administered, could solubilize ferric Fe in the intestine [51]. The endocytosis, another possible mechanism, was speculated to explain the role of Lf in iron absorption. The enterocytes catch Lf-iron complex through the endocytosis and then release its iron, through Lf degradation, at the intracellular level [52]. The released iron inside the cell is quickly complexed, forming another protein named ferritin, and then, apo-form of Lf comes back again to mucosa surface to catch another iron to start another transport process [53]. Figure 2 shows the possible mechanisms of iron absorption enhancement by Lf.
\nPossible mechanisms and characteristics of Lf associated with Fe bioavailability enhancement.
Overall, Lf is a multifunctional glycoprotein and has a central role in decreasing the gastrointestinal and respiratory infections and protecting the newborn from anemia.
\nHuman milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), the third most abundant component of human milk, are another multifunctional milk ingredient. Its content is higher in colostrum (15–23 g/L) than mature milk, which contains 8–12 g/L [54]. Structurally, human milk contains more than one hundred oligosaccharides with diverse structure and functions. A wide range of activities were reported for HMOs [55]. The prebiotic activity of HMOs has been observed by various studies [54] where it acts as a bifidogenic molecule that improves the beneficial microflora growth. It also provides functional capacity including anti-adhesive and immunomodulators [56].
\nHMOs are nondigestible substances, and this property is the main key to its physiological role. HMOs can survive against the gastrointestinal conditions, digestive enzymes, and pH and thus reach the colon in an intact form where these serve as fermentable substances, leading to improvement in the beneficial bacteria growth and activity [57], preferably Bifidobacteria [58]. The fermentation of prebiotics is accompanied by organic acid production and pH decrease. Hence, prebiotic fermentation may create an environment in the colon that inhibits the growth and activity of pathogens. In addition, prebiotics fermentation may enhance the beneficial bacteria in the colon that can produce various antibacterial factors, leading to pathogen growth inhibition. Additionally, HMOs possess direct activities resulted in pathogen inhibition where it has anti-adhesive effects that reduce or prevent the pathogen biofilm formation through its ability to reduce pathogens binding to colonocytes [59]. Similarly, HMOs also act as receptor analogues to inhibit the adhesion of pathogens on the epithelial surface, and this evidence is seen as a passive defense of the host [60].
\nHMO’s structure and diversity represent another difference among human milk, cow milk, and infant formulas. As well known that human milk is structurally very complex and has huge diversity [61], identical structures are not available for use in infant formulas [62]. Thus, several researchers proposed using oligosaccharides much simpler such as GOS and FOS or that derived from cow milk [63]. Thus, breastfed infants have less gastrointestinal infections and their stools contain more beneficial bacteria,
Nucleotides, another bioactive ingredient of human milk, are nitrogenous compounds which play a main role in various metabolism processes, such as energy transfer, nucleic acid synthesis (DNA and RNA), and carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins synthesis. Nucleotides are found in human milk in free form as ribonucleotides and ribonucleosides accounting 2–5% of nonprotein nitrogen and participate in protein utilization by breastfed infants [35]. Free nucleotide content is higher in human milk than cow milk. Additionally, some related components such as nucleosides, purine and pyrimidine bases, nucleic acids, and products derived from them (such as uridine diphosphate galactose) have been found in human milk [64]. Human milk contains a higher content of free nucleotides than cow milk. Thus, it is recommended to enrich cow milk-based formulas with the nucleotide level similar to that found in human milk [65]. Recently, legislation allows the addition to infant formulas and follow-on formula, nucleotides in quantities of: 1.5 mg adenosine-5-phosphate/100 kcal, 2.5 cytosine-5-phosphate/100 kcal, 0.5 kcal guanosine-5-phosphate/100 mg, 1.75 mg uridine-5-phosphate/100 kcal, 1 mg inosine-5-phosphate/100 kcal, until a total concentration of 5 mg/100 kcal, which is similar to the amounts of free ribonucleotides in milk (4–6 mg/100 kcal) [25]. Also in this context, Koletzko et al. [15] reported that ESPGHAN supports the optional addition of nucleotides in amounts not to exceed 5 mg/100 kcal as adverse effects have been seen with higher concentrations.
\nAddition of nucleotides to infant formulas have been found to increase the probiotic bacteria counts and reduce the pathogen counts in stool samples in infants fed on nucleotide-supplemented formula as compared to whose fed standard infant formula, but probiotic counts in the stool of breastfed infants were still higher. The intestinal microflora modulation attributed to nucleotides due to that nucleotides serve as an energy source of intestinal microflora. Because probiotic bacteria are characterized by a higher growth rate than pathogenic bacteria, they limit the growth of pathogens. Thus, supplementation with nucleotides able to positively modulate the intestinal microbial balance, leading to increase probiotic growth and limit the growth of the pathogens [66].
\nAlthough human milk contains all nutrients and provides diverse bioactive ingredients and considered the first functional food in infant life, it is not generally attractive, adequate, or acceptable or it is not available; in some cases, the infants cannot be breastfed. Thus, looking for a suitable alternative is of importance.
\nIn these cases, infant formulas play an indispensable role in infant nutrition. All efforts of industry are aimed to resemble human milk composition [67]. The accumulated knowledge about human milk composition highly assists in infant formula development. However, the human milk composition is not stable, since it changes along breastfeeding period [68], as well as depending on different factors such as environment, mother’s diet, and so on. Nowadays, companies and research centers are devoted to prepare these formulas focused on enhancing the quality of infant formulas, not only adapting the concentration of macronutrients and micronutrients but also the composition of bioactive compounds to make it as similar as possible to human milk [69] where the final aim of infant formula development is not necessarily to mimic the composition of human milk in every respect but to achieve physiological effects as in breastfed infants [70].
\nNowadays, there are numerous infant formulas adapted to special physiological state and infant formula based on soy or without lactose, among others. But, in this chapter, we are focused on those formula based on supplemented cow milk with functional ingredients. The current trend of infant formula manufacturing is to enrich it with the functional ingredients that naturally found in human milk. Thus, these ingredients such as probiotics, prebiotics (oligosaccharides), proteins such as lactoferrin and α-lactalbumin, nucleotides,and polyunsaturated fatty acids (mainly docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acids) among others are incorporated in infant formulas to make them more functional [71]. In fact, many studies revealed the higher efficacy of infant formulas supplemented with certain bioactive ingredients than the unsupplemented ones [72].
\nHuman milk must be always selected as the first option for the best infant nutrition. However, when it is impossible, an adequate substitute should be found. Historically, milk from different animals was studied, obtaining the best results for the cow. However, some problems have been found after using cow milk as a substitute, since the high-protein content, the different protein composition, and the sodium content, among others, could induce some metabolic problems to the not fully developed gastrointestinal system of newborns. From last decades until now, the infant formula has been developed trying to mimic to human milk in macronutrients and energy density, but it is in the most recent past when the functional ingredients are included in the infant formulation to simulate the beneficial health effects of breast milk. Table 3 shows the composition of infant formula supplemented or not including legal limits according to the European Commission [73].
\n\n | Standard infant formula | \nSupplemented infant formula | \nSupplemented infant formula | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|
\n | \n | \n | Minimum limit | \nMaximum limit | \n
Energy (kcal) | \n68 | \n67 | \n60 | \n70 | \n
Protein (g) | \n1.3 | \n1.5 | \n1.1 | \n2.1 | \n
Fat (g) | \n3.8 | \n3.5 | \n2.6 | \n4.2 | \n
α-Linoleic (mg) | \n586 | \n500 | \n300 | \n840 | \n
α-Linolenic (mg) | \n55.9 | \n61.5 | \n30 | \n70 | \n
AA (mg) | \n— | \n8.7 | \n— | \n42 | \n
DHA (mg) | \n— | \n8.6 | \n12 | \n35 | \n
Carbohydrate (g) | \n7.2 | \n7.5 | \n5.4 | \n9.8 | \n
FOS (g) | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n0.1 | \n
GOS (g) | \n— | \n0.5 | \n— | \n0.7 | \n
Others | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
l-Carnitin (mg) | \n— | \n1.1 | \n0.8 | \n— | \n
Taurin (mg) | \n1.0 | \n6.0 | \n— | \n8.4 | \n
Nucleotides (mg) | \n— | \n3.2 | \n\n | 3.5 | \n
The composition of different infant formulas. Values are expressed as grams per 100 mL of reconstituted formula.
Source: Ref. [73].
As can be seen, different compounds are included in supplemented infant formulas in different concentrations. The caloric values have also been considered to establish a minimum or maximum legal limit for each one. Prebiotics (FOS and GOS) are considered as key compounds in human milk in order to promote an adequate intestinal microbiota; for this reason, infant formulas should be adequately supplemented. Beneficial bacteria of human milk should be also included in infant formulas; however, it is very difficult that added bacteria achieve colon as live microorganisms with beneficial effects on health.
\nOne of the functional ingredients added to infant formula is oligosaccharides (fructo- and/or galactooligosaccharides) since they are in human breast milk providing a beneficial effect on newborns due to its prebiotic activity. Furthermore, these compounds show anti-adhesive properties, protecting the intestinal epithelium against pathogens as well as enhancing the immune system that, in infants younger than 6 months, is not still fully developed.
\nPolyunsaturated fatty acids can be produced by newborns using its precursors (linolenic and linoleic acid), but this transformation pathway is not fully developed at this age. For that, most infant formulas are enriched with arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids (ARA and DHA, respectively), since they play an important role in neuronal function and cognitive and visual development [74].
\nOther important bioactive compounds present in human milk are polyamines that are nitrogen compounds and are present in a very low concentration in cow’s milk. Nowadays, based on different studies, polyamines should be added to infant formula; however, due to the scarce information found in the literature about its specific function and the effect on human health on medium-long term, more studies should be developed. Studies performed show an interesting role of polyamines in the maturation of intestinal and immune systems of infants [75].
\nStudies in infant formula composition must be studied in detail. Related to this, there is no doubt that the proteins in human milk provide an important source of amino acids to rapidly growing breastfed infants. However, this is not the only one role of milk proteins since many of them also play a role in facilitating the digestion and uptake of other nutrients in breast milk. Included in this group of functional proteins are lactoferrin and haptocorrin, which may assist in the absorption of iron and vitamin B12, respectively [76]. Vitamin B12 in human milk is mostly bound to haptocorrin, and these proteins have also been suggested to inhibit pathogenic bacterial growth by tightly binding and withholding vitamins and minerals from the bacteria [77].
\nAnother important human milk protein is alpha-lactalbumin (15% of the total protein content). This protein is responsible, in the mammary gland, for lactose synthesis, but it is also secreted in the milk. This functional protein is easily digested, forming peptides that may provide different bioactivities in the upper gastrointestinal tract (duodenum and jejunum) [78]. Alpha-lactalbumin, after gastrointestinal digestion, serves as a good source of essential amino acids.
\nBreastfeeding during the first 6 months of infant life represents the cornerstone of building his body and maintaining his health status. Feeding of an infant during this critical period of life has several short-term and long-term effects. So, breastfeeding is recommended exclusively after birth till 6 months; then, the complementary food must be included to meet the increasing nutrients needed. As we know, human milk is the optimal food during this early stage of life. In some cases, infant formulas represent the best alternative for infant feeding which must resemble human milk composition not only in its macronutrients but also in its functionality.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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in Complex Networks: An Overview and Some Modified Methods",slug:"spreading-information-in-complex-networks-an-overview-and-some-modified-methods",totalDownloads:1491,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The knowledge of node’s ability and importance in spreading information in a complex network is important for developing efficient methods either to decelerate spreading in the case of diseases or to accelerate spreading in the case of information flow, which would benefit the whole population. Some systems are highly affected by a small fraction of influential nodes. Number of fast and efficient spreaders in a network is much less compared to the number of ordinary members. Information about the influential spreaders is significant in the planning for the control of propagation of critical pieces of information in a social or information network. Identifying important members who act as the fastest and efficient spreaders is the focal theme of a large number of research papers. Researchers have identified approximately 10 different methods for this purpose. Degree centrality, closeness centrality, betweenness centrality, k‐core decomposition, mixed degree decomposition, improved k‐shell decomposition, etc., are some of these methods. In this expository article, we review all previous works done in the field of identifying potential spreaders in a network.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Reji Kumar Karunakaran, Shibu Manuel and Edamana Narayanan\nSatheesh",authors:[{id:"200190",title:"Dr.",name:"Reji Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Karunakaran",slug:"reji-kumar-karunakaran",fullName:"Reji Kumar Karunakaran"},{id:"200193",title:"Mr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Shibu",slug:"manuel-shibu",fullName:"Manuel Shibu"},{id:"200194",title:"Dr.",name:"E N",middleName:null,surname:"Satheesh",slug:"e-n-satheesh",fullName:"E N Satheesh"}]},{id:"55541",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68703",title:"Modeling Rooted in‐Trees by Finite p‐Groups",slug:"modeling-rooted-in-trees-by-finite-p-groups",totalDownloads:1138,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Graph theoretic foundations for a kind of infinite rooted in-trees T(R)=(V,E) with root R, weighted vertices v ∈ V, and weighted directed edges e∈E⊂V×V are described. Vertex degrees deg(v) are always finite but the trees contain infinite paths (vi)i≥0. A concrete group theoretic model of the rooted in-trees T(R) is introduced by representing vertices by isomorphism classes of finite p-groups G, for a fixed prime p, and directed edges by epimorphisms π: G → πG of finite p-groups with characteristic kernels ker(π). The weight of a vertex G is realized by its nuclear rank n(G) and the weight of a directed edge π is realized by its step size s(π)=logp(#ker(π)). These invariants are essential for understanding the phenomenon of multifurcation. Pattern recognition methods are used for finding finite subgraphs which repeat indefinitely. Several periodicities admit the reduction of the complete infinite graph to finite patterns. The proof is based on infinite limit groups and successive group extensions. It is underpinned by several explicit algorithms. As a final application, it is shown that fork topologies, arising from repeated multifurcations, provide a convenient description of complex navigation paths through the trees, which are of the greatest importance for recent progress in determining p-class field towers of algebraic number fields.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Daniel C. Mayer",authors:[{id:"198580",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel C.",middleName:null,surname:"Mayer",slug:"daniel-c.-mayer",fullName:"Daniel C. Mayer"}]},{id:"57771",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71774",title:"Governance Modeling: Dimensionality and Conjugacy",slug:"governance-modeling-dimensionality-and-conjugacy",totalDownloads:1324,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The Q-analysis governance approach and the use of simplicial complexes—type of hypergraph—allow to introduce the formal concepts of dimension and conjugacy between the network of entities involved in governance (typically organizations) and the networks of those attributes taken into account (e.g. their competences), which offer a specific angle of analysis. The different sources of existing data (e.g. textual corpora) to feed the analysis of governance—environmental in particular—are mentioned, their reliability is briefly discussed and the required pre-processing steps are identified in the perspective of evidence-based analyses. Various indices are constructed and evaluated to characterize the context of governance as a whole, at mesoscale, or locally, i.e. at the level of each of the entities and each of the attributes considered. The analysis of ideal-type stylizing boundary cases provides useful references to the analysis of concrete systems of governance and to the interpretation of their empirically observed properties. The use of this governance modeling approach is illustrated by the analysis of a health-environment governance system in Southeast Asia, in the context of a One Health approach.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Pierre Mazzega, Claire Lajaunie and Etienne Fieux",authors:[{id:"220099",title:"Dr.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Mazzega",slug:"pierre-mazzega",fullName:"Pierre Mazzega"},{id:"220102",title:"Dr.",name:"Claire",middleName:null,surname:"Lajaunie",slug:"claire-lajaunie",fullName:"Claire Lajaunie"},{id:"220103",title:"Prof.",name:"Etienne",middleName:null,surname:"Fieux",slug:"etienne-fieux",fullName:"Etienne Fieux"}]},{id:"57940",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72145",title:"Graph-Based Decision Making in Industry",slug:"graph-based-decision-making-in-industry",totalDownloads:1693,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Decision-making in industry can be focused on different types of problems. Classification and prediction of decision problems can be solved with the use of a decision tree, which is a graph-based method of machine learning. In the presented approach, attribute-value system and quality function deployment (QFD) were used for decision problem analysis and training dataset preparation. A decision tree was applied for generating decision rules.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Izabela Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz",authors:[{id:"218951",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz",slug:"izabela-kutschenreiter-praszkiewicz",fullName:"Izabela Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz"}]},{id:"72140",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91972",title:"Comparative Study of Algorithms Metaheuristics Based Applied to the Solution of the Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problem",slug:"comparative-study-of-algorithms-metaheuristics-based-applied-to-the-solution-of-the-capacitated-vehi",totalDownloads:653,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter presents the best-known heuristics and metaheuristics that are applied to solve the capacitated vehicle routing problem (CVRP), which is the generalization of the TSP, in which the nodes are visited by more than one route. To find out which algorithm obtains better results, there are 30 test instances used, which are grouped into 3 sets of problems according to the position of the nodes. The study begins with an economic impact analysis of the transportation sector in companies, which represents up to 20% of the final cost of the product. This case study focuses on the CVRP for its acronym capacitated vehicle routing problem, analyzing the best-known heuristics such as Clarke & Wright and sweep, and the algorithms GRASP and simulated annealing metaheuristics based.",book:{id:"8241",slug:"novel-trends-in-the-traveling-salesman-problem",title:"Novel Trends in the Traveling Salesman Problem",fullTitle:"Novel Trends in the Traveling Salesman Problem"},signatures:"Fernando Francisco Sandoya Sánchez, Carmen Andrea Letamendi Lazo and Fanny Yamel Sanabria Quiñónez",authors:[{id:"155426",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Francisco",surname:"Sandoya",slug:"fernando-sandoya",fullName:"Fernando Sandoya"},{id:"313162",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Letamendi",slug:"carmen-letamendi",fullName:"Carmen Letamendi"},{id:"319376",title:"Dr.",name:"Fanny",middleName:null,surname:"Sanabria",slug:"fanny-sanabria",fullName:"Fanny Sanabria"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71899",title:"Moments of Catalan Triangle Numbers",slug:"moments-of-catalan-triangle-numbers",totalDownloads:542,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we consider the Catalan numbers, \n\n\nC\nn\n\n=\n\n1\n\nn\n+\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2\nn\n\n\n\n\nn\n\n\n\n\n\n, and two of their generalizations, Catalan triangle numbers, \n\n\nB\n\nn\n,\nk\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nA\n\nn\n,\nk\n\n\n\n, for \n\nn\n,\nk\n∈\nN\n\n. They are combinatorial numbers and present interesting properties as recursive formulae, generating functions and combinatorial interpretations. We treat the moments of these Catalan triangle numbers, i.e., with the following sums: \n\n\n∑\n\nk\n=\n1\n\nn\n\n\nk\nm\n\n\nB\n\nn\n,\nk\n\nj\n\n,\n\n∑\n\nk\n=\n1\n\n\nn\n+\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n2\nk\n−\n1\n\n\nm\n\n\nA\n\nn\n,\nk\n\nj\n\n,\n\n for \n\nj\n,\nn\n∈\nN\n\n and \n\nm\n∈\nN\n∪\n\n0\n\n\n. We present their closed expressions for some values of \n\nm\n\n and \n\nj\n\n. Alternating sums are also considered for particular powers. Other famous integer sequences are studied in Section 3, and its connection with Catalan triangle numbers are given in Section 4. Finally we conjecture some properties of divisibility of moments and alternating sums of powers in the last section.",book:{id:"8142",slug:"number-theory-and-its-applications",title:"Number Theory and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Number Theory and Its Applications"},signatures:"Pedro J. Miana and Natalia Romero",authors:null},{id:"55642",title:"Monophonic Distance in Graphs",slug:"monophonic-distance-in-graphs",totalDownloads:1534,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"For any two vertices u and v in a connected graph G, a u − v path is a monophonic path if it contains no chords, and the monophonic distance dm(u, v) is the length of a longest u − v monophonic path in G. For any vertex v in G, the monophonic eccentricity of v is em(v) = max {dm(u, v) : u ∈ V}. The subgraph induced by the vertices of G having minimum monophonic eccentricity is the monophonic center of G, and it is proved that every graph is the monophonic center of some graph. Also it is proved that the monophonic center of every connected graph G lies in some block of G. With regard to convexity, this monophonic distance is the basis of some detour monophonic parameters such as detour monophonic number, upper detour monophonic number, forcing detour monophonic number, etc. The concept of detour monophonic sets and detour monophonic numbers by fixing a vertex of a graph would be introduced and discussed. Various interesting results based on these parameters are also discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"P. Titus and A.P. Santhakumaran",authors:[{id:"198301",title:"Dr.",name:"P.",middleName:null,surname:"Titus",slug:"p.-titus",fullName:"P. Titus"},{id:"199035",title:"Prof.",name:"A. P.",middleName:null,surname:"Santhakumaran",slug:"a.-p.-santhakumaran",fullName:"A. P. Santhakumaran"}]},{id:"71501",title:"Accelerating DNA Computing via PLP-qPCR Answer Read out to Solve Traveling Salesman Problems",slug:"accelerating-dna-computing-via-plp-qpcr-answer-read-out-to-solve-traveling-salesman-problems",totalDownloads:783,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"An asymmetric, fully-connected 8-city traveling salesman problem (TSP) was solved by DNA computing using the ordered node pair abundance (ONPA) approach through the use of pair ligation probe quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (PLP-qPCR). The validity of using ONPA to derive the optimal answer was confirmed by in silico computing using a reverse-engineering method to reconstruct the complete tours in the feasible answer set from the measured ONPA. The high specificity of the sequence-tagged hybridization, and ligation that results from the use of PLPs significantly increased the accuracy of answer determination in DNA computing. When combined with the high throughput efficiency of qPCR, the time required to identify the optimal answer to the TSP was reduced from days to 25 min.",book:{id:"8241",slug:"novel-trends-in-the-traveling-salesman-problem",title:"Novel Trends in the Traveling Salesman Problem",fullTitle:"Novel Trends in the Traveling Salesman Problem"},signatures:"Fusheng Xiong, Michael Kuby and Wayne D. Frasch",authors:[{id:"14757",title:"Prof.",name:"Wayne",middleName:null,surname:"Frasch",slug:"wayne-frasch",fullName:"Wayne Frasch"},{id:"317054",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Kuby",slug:"michael-kuby",fullName:"Michael Kuby"},{id:"317055",title:"Dr.",name:"Fusheng",middleName:null,surname:"Xiong",slug:"fusheng-xiong",fullName:"Fusheng Xiong"}]},{id:"72027",title:"Identification of Eigen-Frequencies and Mode-Shapes of Beams with Continuous Distribution of Mass and Elasticity and for Various Conditions at Supports",slug:"identification-of-eigen-frequencies-and-mode-shapes-of-beams-with-continuous-distribution-of-mass-an",totalDownloads:904,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In the present article, an equivalent three degrees of freedom (DoF) system of two different cases of inverted pendulums is presented for each separated case. The first case of inverted pendulum refers to an amphi-hinge pendulum that possesses distributed mass and stiffness along its height, while the second case of inverted pendulum refers to an inverted pendulum with distributed mass and stiffness along its height. These vertical pendulums have infinity number of degree of freedoms. Based on the free vibration of the above-mentioned pendulums according to partial differential equation, a mathematically equivalent three-degree of freedom system is given for each case, where its equivalent mass matrix is analytically formulated with reference on specific mass locations along the pendulum height. Using the three DoF model, the first three fundamental frequencies of the real pendulum can be identified with very good accuracy. Furthermore, taking account the 3 × 3 mass matrix, it is possible to estimate the possible pendulum damages using a known technique of identification mode-shapes via records of response accelerations. Moreover, the way of instrumentation with a local network by three accelerometers is given via the above-mentioned three degrees of freedom.",book:{id:"8142",slug:"number-theory-and-its-applications",title:"Number Theory and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Number Theory and Its Applications"},signatures:"Triantafyllos K. Makarios",authors:[{id:"69418",title:"Prof.",name:"Triantafyllos",middleName:"Konstantinos",surname:"Makarios",slug:"triantafyllos-makarios",fullName:"Triantafyllos Makarios"}]},{id:"57940",title:"Graph-Based Decision Making in Industry",slug:"graph-based-decision-making-in-industry",totalDownloads:1693,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Decision-making in industry can be focused on different types of problems. Classification and prediction of decision problems can be solved with the use of a decision tree, which is a graph-based method of machine learning. In the presented approach, attribute-value system and quality function deployment (QFD) were used for decision problem analysis and training dataset preparation. A decision tree was applied for generating decision rules.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Izabela Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz",authors:[{id:"218951",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz",slug:"izabela-kutschenreiter-praszkiewicz",fullName:"Izabela Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1399",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
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Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. 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