Represents the pHPZC and pHIEP of some minerals, which has been modified from the data of Parks [13] and Kosmulski [14].
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-495-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-494-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-496-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"2d409a285bea682efb34a817b0651aba",bookSignature:"Dr. Saeed El-Ashram, Dr. Guillermo Téllez and Dr. Firas Alali",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11635.jpg",keywords:"PCR, Genotyping, ELISA, Cell Lines, 2D Culture, 3D Culture, PRRs, CD4 Responses, CD8 Responses, Behavior Manipulation, Parasite Cysts, Psychiatric Disorders",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 4th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. El-Ashram's research focuses on apicomplexan parasites, such as Toxoplasma and Eimeria. He has more than 96 SCI publications, he acted as an academic editor, reviewer, and he holds several registered patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Researcher in enteric health, most notably probiotics and their relationship to nutrition and disease protection in poultry as well as the design of avian enteric inflammation models for the study of the impact of diet and microbiome on growth and development.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"My research focuses mainly on apicomplexan parasites, such as Toxoplasma Cryptosporidium, Eimeria, and minor on nematodes. Prof.Alali has more than 30 publications and he acts as a reviewer in many journals.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"209746",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"El-Ashram",slug:"saeed-el-ashram",fullName:"Saeed El-Ashram",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/209746/images/system/209746.png",biography:"Dr. Saeed El-Ashram is a professor at Foshan University, China, and Kafrelsheikh University, Egypt, and a research professor at Zhaoqing Dahuanong Biology Medicine Co., Ltd., China. Dr. El-Ashram\\'s research focuses on parasitic diseases. He has more than 100 journal publications to his credit. He is currently an academic editor and reviewer and holds several registered patents. The primary focus of his research is to understand how the animal immune system recognizes and responds to parasitic infections with and/or without a microbial community. Some are the causative agents of significant diseases in humans, such as toxoplasmosis, cryptosporidiosis, alveolar echinococcosis, and fascioliasis. Others are a substantial financial burden to food producers because of the effects these parasites have on domestic animals, for example, coccidiosis and cryptosporidiosis (livestock and poultry).",institutionString:"Foshan University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Foshan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73465/images/system/73465.jpg",biography:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias received his DVM and MS in Veterinary Sciences from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), and his Ph.D. from Texas A&M University. He worked as a professor at UNAM for sixteen years, eight as head of the Avian Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine. Dr. Tellez was president of the National Poultry Science Association of Mexico and is a member of the Mexican Veterinary Academy and the Mexican National Research System. Currently, he works as a research professor at the Center of Excellence in Poultry Science, University of Arkansas. His research is focused on poultry gastrointestinal models to evaluate the beneficial effects of functional foods to enhance intestinal health and disease resistance.",institutionString:"University of Arkansas at Fayetteville",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Arkansas at Fayetteville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"437285",title:"Dr.",name:"Firas",middleName:null,surname:"Alali",slug:"firas-alali",fullName:"Firas Alali",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/437285/images/17927_n.jpg",biography:"Academic reviewer for many journals.\r\nAssociate Professor at University of Kerbala, Iraq. Firas Alali works at the Department of Veterinary Parasitology of Veterinary Medicine college, Kerbala University. Firas does research in Parasitology, Entomology, and Vector-Borne Diseases including zoonoses.",institutionString:"University of Kerbala",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"13",title:"Immunology and Microbiology",slug:"immunology-and-microbiology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3569",title:"Biodegradation",subtitle:"Life of Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb737eb528a53e5106c7e218d5f12ec6",slug:"biodegradation-life-of-science",bookSignature:"Rolando Chamy and Francisca Rosenkranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"67816",title:"Role of Surfactants in Mineral Processing: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85947",slug:"role-of-surfactants-in-mineral-processing-an-overview",body:'\nThe most innovative and ingenious process development of the century is the emergence of the froth flotation process for the treatment of low-grade ores. Froth flotation process, which uses the difference in hydrophobicity of minerals, is employed in several industries (mineral processing and others) for fines processing. It is a process of upgradation of minerals by taking advantage of differences in physico-chemical surface properties between valuable and gangue minerals of two different minerals.
\nFroth flotation process can be effectively applied to the system where more amount of fine liberated valuable and gangue mineral grains are present rather than of interlocked forms [1]. Froth flotation, being an established method, has been known in a century’s practice across the globe for its efficiency to eliminate impurities from different ores to produce good grade concentrate.
\nThe grade of mined ore is depleting day by day where as demand for metal and steel is increasing steeply. Improving the resource base and exploitation of iron ore resources through the processing and upgradation is the most important challenging task. A nation’s socio-economic development completely depends on effective and judicious utilization of its mineral resources.
\nProper utilization of wastes is achieved through balance between natural resource management and sustainable growth process to minimize the burden on ecological pyramid due to enormous growth of industrialization. With regard to the tailings management, reduction of tailing volume is feasible, if the maximum metallic content is extracted or recovered by a suitable technology [2]. The conventional ore processing and mining operations generate fines and slimes of huge quantities to the tune of 10–15% of run of mine which are generally of poorer grade and being discarded. These discarded tailing stockpiles occupy a huge space, which contain good metallic values, cause pollution to ground and surface water, and are having a negative impact to the environment. They need to be processed to recover metallic values for resource augmentation and to meet environmental stipulation.
\nThese fines and slimes cannot be utilized directly as feed to metallurgical plants due to size specification; besides these occupy a huge space and cause environmental and ecological problems, which need to be clearly assessed. The scarcity of high-grade ore is compelling the mineral processing industries to look for low-grade ore fines. Hence it is essential to beneficiate and to recover the additional mineral values from these fines, not only to earn additional revenue to the mineral industries but also from the point of view of conservation of mineral wealth. These low-grade slimes can be considered as national resource rather than a waste of nuisance.
\nIn the present days, the minerals liberated at extremely fine sizes, and in addition the ore typically consists of valuable mineral intergrowth with unwanted/gangue minerals making the mineral surface quite complex. This nature of particle characteristic compels to be separated by the technique that relies on surface properties. So the flotation technique is being developed to treat these low-grade ore and waste slimes.
\nLow-grade ores imply finer liberation size and cannot be upgraded by conventional gravity concentration techniques. Wet and dry low-intensity magnetic separation (LIMS) techniques are used to process ores that contain minerals with strong magnetic properties, such as magnetite and titanomagnetite. Wet high-gradient magnetic separators (WHGMS) and wet high-intensity magnetic separators (WHIMS) are used to separate the minerals having weak magnetic properties such as hematite, goethite and limonite from gangue minerals [3, 4]. Synchronically Xiong et al. [5] explained major problems about the WHIMS and WHGMS that when metallic ores are treated in these separators, matrix dogging and mechanical entrainment of nonmagnetic particles occur, because hematite ore contains a large amount of weakly magnetic particles along with it. The change from gravity-based separation to magnetic-based separation improved the iron grade by approximately 13%.
\nConcurrently, Pradip [6] examined that multigravity separation is the most effective technique for processing low-grade Indian iron ore slimes to decrease alumina content. However according to Roy and Das [7], this beneficiation method is not commercially successful due to its low capacity. Later on people combined two methods, i.e. magnetic separation and selective flocculation, and found good results. The gravity and magnetic methods, i.e. physical separation techniques, are restricted to coarse-grained sizes.
\nSo, when the size is extremely fine, in case of slimes, the physico-chemical properties start dominating over physical properties; hence these methods are unable to give satisfactory results.
\nHence, froth flotation is the single most important unit operation, which is the root solution to all these problems and used for the recovery and upgradation of valuable mineral, especially below 150. Froth flotation which uses the difference in physico-chemical surface properties of minerals is employed in several industries for fines processing. This chapter addresses how flotation has been and can be helpful in recovering the metallic values from the tailings, through a review of basics and fundamentals, efforts made earlier and future directions for research.
\nThe most important factor in froth flotation process is the selectivity, which means the choice of a suitable reagent to selectively modify the surface of desired mineral to enhance its hydrophobicity. This implies a thorough knowledge of the particle surface property, the mechanism of particle surface-reagent interaction and the correct type and quantity of the reagent to create the best selectivity conditions. Surfactants play the most important role for a successful operation of flotation process. To make the mineral float, the surface of such minerals has to be modified by adsorption of suitable surfactants in order to reduce the Gibbs’ energy. Ensuring maximum floatability of desired minerals through maximum selectivity with the aid of reagents is the key element of flotation research and the driving force of flotation research efforts [8, 9]. From an early modest beginning to treat base metal sulphides, it has been established itself as the most versatile process for the treatment of oxide ores, carbonate ores, industrial minerals and fine coal. It is not an exaggeration to state that there is not a single mineral or ore system which cannot be treated by froth flotation (Figure 1).
\n(a) Schematic representation of flotation process and (b) flotation mechanism and role of contact angle [
In flotation of minerals, contact angle plays a major role in hydrophobicity as it is directly proportional to hydrophobicity. The more the contact angle, the greater is the hydrophobicity and the more is the floatability.
\nDespite numerous years of research and development work since 1900, flotation is still not fully interpretable and remains a challenge, as there is involvement of the major phases (macroprocesses) and the number of inter-related events (microprocesses) (Figure 2).
\nProcess and phases in flotation [
Ensuring maximum floatability of desired minerals (with good grade and high recovery) through maximum selectivity with the aid of reagents/surfactants is the key element and driving force of a successful flotation research.
\nFlotation of different minerals is broadly divided into three main types:
Salt-type flotation
Sulphide flotation
Oxide flotation
Salt-type minerals include carbonate, phosphate, sulphate, tungstate and some halide compounds. They are known for their ionic bonding and moderate solubility in water. Salt-type minerals are difficult to float because they contain common cations; hence modifying agents, e.g. ammonium phosphate, calcium sulphate, sodium sulphate, nickel chloride, zinc chloride, sodium chromate, barite, celestite, gypsum, etc., are used to obtain the selectivity.
Sulphide minerals are less electronegative than oxide minerals; hence it forms fewer ionic bonds than oxygen. Sulphur has greater tendency to form covalent bonds, especially S-S linkages, e.g. chalcopyrite, cuprite, pyrite, sphalerite, galena, etc.
Oxide minerals include metal oxides, carbonates, silicates and fatty acids having saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbon chains that are used to float it, e.g. hematite, magnetite, goethite, quartz, malachite, etc.
Generally flotation is practised in two different ways around the globe:
When mineral is suspended in water, charged species/ions (potential determining ions) are transferred upon the surface which develops an electric charge or electric double layer. In the case of oxide minerals, H+ and OH− ions are the principal potential determining ions, and they interact with water and produce surface hydroxyls [12]:
\nDue to the charge inequality, a double layer around the particle’s surface is created. The potential difference between the stern layer and diffused layer is known as
At certain pH, an equal number of positive and negative surface sites are created, where the surface is having no specific charge, termed as
These two terms have great influence on the flotation performance of mineral at specific pH.
\nZeta potential denotes charge properties of particles and in turn implies adsorption, penetration and adherence of certain substances. Processes such as adsorption, particularly surfactants or macromolecules, can alter the interfacial behaviour of the solids markedly. Adsorption and desorption of potential determining ions (H+ and OH− ions) play an important role in accounting the surface charge:
\nIn Eqs. (1) and (2),
In the case of iron ores, the isoelectric point of natural hematite varies in between 5.98 and 7.01, depending upon the association of gangues. If the hematite particles are not liberated completely, then isoelectric point will be closer to quartz. The zeta potential of quartz depends on the hydroxylation of quartz surface at different pH values and the interaction of amine species. The pHPZC and pHiep values for various oxides and hydroxides of alumina vary widely (pH 5–9.6) depending upon the association of other minerals [11]. The pHiep of quartz is at pH = 2.5, below which it acquires a positive charge, and above this pH, the quartz surface acquires negative charge (Table 1).
\nMinerals | \npHPZC | \npHIEP | \n
---|---|---|
Quartz, SiO2 | \n<5 | \n2.5 | \n
Cassiterite, SnO2 | \n<5.5 | \n2.0–55 | \n
Sulphides, MeS | \n— | \n2.1–7.0 | \n
Diamond, C | \n— | \n3.5 | \n
Rutile, TiO2 | \n4.8–5.3 | \n5.5 | \n
Ilmenite, FeTiO3 | \n5, 6 | \n— | \n
Hematite, Fe2O3 | \n6.5–8.5 | \n5.98–7.01 | \n
Barite, BaSO4 | \n— | \n6.0–8.1 | \n
Tenorite, CuO | \n6.5–8.5 | \n6.0–7.6 | \n
Dolomite, (Ca, Mg)CO3 | \n— | \n7.5 | \n
Alumina, Al2O3 | \n8–9.1 | \n5–9.6 | \n
Magnesite, MgCO3 | \n— | \n7.5 | \n
Periclase, MgO | \n— | \n12.0 | \n
The reagents are added to the system in order to create proper environment for the particles to adhere to the air bubbles and recovered. The minerals are characterized by the functional groups as non-polar minerals, polar minerals and heteropolar minerals. The non-polar minerals are those whose surface is predominantly of weak molecular bonds with very little polarity. The group of minerals, which consist of both polar and non-polar groups, are termed as heteropolar and constitute a large group of minerals, e.g. gibbsite (consisting of aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3), bauxite (consisting of aluminium hydroxide), hematite (Fe2O3), etc. The polarities of heteropolar minerals vary according to the proportion of polar minerals. Those groups of minerals, whose surface is predominantly of strong covalent bond or ionic bond, are termed as polar minerals and are hydrophilic.
\nCollectors can be classified into ionizing and nonionizing based on their reaction with water. The nonionizing compounds do not dissociate into ions when contacted with water, while the ionizing compounds dissociate into ions in water. To float minerals, hydrophobicity/enhanced hydrophobicity has to be imparted to them, which is obtained by adding a special type of surfactants known as collectors to the pulp, which is further agitated or conditioned for adsorption to take place. Collectors are the chemical compounds which render hydrophobicity through adsorption and are further divided into ionizing compounds (dissociate into ions in water) and nonionizing compounds (which are practically insoluble and render the mineral water-repellent by covering its surface with a thin film) [15].
\nIonizing collectors have been used widely in flotation era, e.g. sodium ethyl xanthate, potassium isopropyl xanthate, etc. They are composed of complex molecules asymmetric in structure and are heteropolar, i.e. the molecule contains a non-polar hydrocarbon group and a polar ionic group. The non-polar part of the molecule is a hydrocarbon radical which has pronounced water-repellent properties, and the polar part has the property of reacting with water.
\nExamples of nonionizing compounds are kerosene, creosote, grease, etc., which possess inherent hydrophobic property and do not dissociate in any polar liquids.
\nBased on classification of ionized groups, the collectors have been classified as shown in Figure 3.
\nClassification of collectors.
Till now six main types of collectors are used in the mineral industry:
Anionic collector
Cationic collector
Mixed collector
Amphoteric collector
Bio-collector
Ionic liquids
(a) Anionic collector
\nAnionic collectors are opted for minerals when the surface bears a net positive charge and these collectors ionize in the solution to give negative charge. Floatability assessments of oxide and carbonate ores are generally carried out by using highly soluble collectors consisting of organic molecules varying 10–18 carbon chain length [16]. Fatty acids (a distilled tall oil containing ∼91% oleic and linoleic acid, 6% resin acid and 3% unsaponifiables) are used as collectors for mineral oxides with dosages in the range of 0.45–0.67 kg/ton [17]. Fatty acids, resin acids, soaps, alkyl sulphates and sulphonates are generally used to float iron oxide bearing minerals.
(b) Cationic collector
\nCationic collectors are opted for minerals when the surface bears a net negative charge and these collectors ionize in the solution to give positive charge. Organic bases containing a hydrocarbon group and salts of these bases are generally chlorides and acetates. This group includes the primary aliphatic amines, diamines, quaternary ammonium salts and ether amine products. Longer amphipathic linear chain molecules are more confirmatively adsorbed at the liquid/gas interface, as they are more hydrophobic through van der Waals interactive forces.
(c) Mixed collector
\nThe use of surfactant mixture was studied by several researchers and found that the surfactant mixtures can have an advantage over the use of single surfactant [18, 19, 20].
Mixed collectors provide increased flotation selectivity and increased recovery with reduction in reagent consumption. The adsorption of single surfactants at the solid-liquid interface has been comprehensively studied, but the study of adsorption of mixed surfactant solutions has been limited.
(d) Amphoteric collector
\nAmphoteric collectors are the surfactants having good acidic and basic group in their molecular structure and can function as a cation, anion and neutral molecules depending on the pH of the aqueous medium. The effect of cationic group is accentuated most in acidic media, while the anionic group is accentuated in alkaline media.
(e) Bio-collector
\nMicrobial flotation reagents are currently gaining attention as natural bacteria can be used in place of toxic chemicals from the environmental point of view, e.g.
(f) Ionic liquids
\nIonic liquids are the salts having poorly coordinated ions and exist in liquid state below 100°C, but these liquids are gaining the attention of researchers due to their easier handling properties, interesting electrochemical properties, low vapour pressure, low volatility and flammability, high viscosity, dual natural polarity, good thermal stability, low surface tension and wide range of miscibility with water and other organic solvents and most importantly their environment-friendly nature.
Ionic liquids are more suitable surfactants than conventional classical salts because of their versatility to switch their role as anionic and cationic part as per the requirement, which is due to the presence of large organic cations with a variety of associated anions.
Sahoo et al. [21, 22] experimented the flotation of pure quartz as well as low banded hematite quartzite (BHQ) having quartz as major impurity using tricaprylmethyl ammonium salicylate (TOMAS), an ammonium-based ionic liquid, Aliquat 336, tetrahexylammonium chloride (THEX) and dodecylammonium chloride as collectors and found that ionic liquids performed better than conventional surfactants. Due to the chaotropic character of anions of ionic liquids, they easily pair with ions of mineral surfaces, thus inducing increased hydrophobicity compared to conventional surfactants. It was observed that with lower concentration of ionic liquids, higher recovery and grade were achieved, and the reverse condition was observed in the case of conventional surfactants.
\nAdsorption between mineral surface and reagents occur by various means, which is represented in Figure 4.
\nTypes of bonding adsorption between mineral surface and reagents.
Frothers are organic compounds, which dissociate into ions and decrease the surface tension at the air-water interface, thus stabilizing the froth consisting of a multitude of mineral-laden air bubbles and inducing buoyancy effect on the mineralized surface.
\nWhen brought into contact with water, the water dipoles readily associate with the polar group while virtually having no affinity to the non-polar group. The non-polar group is projected into the air phase which leaves the polar group on the air surface orienting towards the water. A frother is required to provide conditions amicable to the formation of froth that is stable enough to prevent undesirable froth breakage. The stability of bubble attachment to hydrophobic particles is further stabilized by the action of frother. A good frother should have negligible collecting power, should not affect the state of the particle surface and should act entirely in the liquid phase to produce froths which are just stable enough to retain the floated particles [15].
\nFrothers are consisted of aliphatic, aromatic, cyclic and polyglycol alcohol groups, e.g. methyl isobutyl carbinol (MIBC), cresylic acid or cresol, pine oil, etc. When surface-active groups of frother react with water, the water dipoles combine with the polar groups and hydrate them, but there is practically no reaction with the non-polar hydrocarbon group. Thus, the heteropolar structure of the frother molecule enhances its concentration at the air-water interface, with the non-polar groups oriented towards the air and the polar groups towards the water.
\nHence, the frothing action is due to the ability of the frother to reduce the water surface tension, thus stabilizing the air bubbles. Frothers are generally soluble in water; otherwise they would be distributed very unevenly in the water, and their surface-active properties would not be fully effective.
\nOrganic acids, amines and alcohols are the most common types of frothers. The alcohols are the most widely used because they have practically no collecting properties and in this respect are preferable to other frothers. The presence of collecting and frothing properties in the same reagent may make selective flotation difficult [16].
\nThese are chemical compounds added to the flotation pulps to enhance collector-mineral adsorption, that is, to improve the selectivity. This may be achieved by either (a) creating an environment or revitalizing the floatability of the desired mineral, (b) by suppressing the flotation activity of the undesired mineral (at a particular stage of flotation operation), (c) by removing the deleterious elements which hinder effective flotation of desired minerals or (d) by providing the proper pulp nature for the selective adsorption between the mineral and collector.
\nThese chemicals are added, prior to collector addition, to react with the mineral surface and produce compounds on the surface which are highly responsive to collector adsorption, e.g. the use of ‘sulphidisers’ in activation of oxidized minerals of base metal sulphides. The deleterious effect of oxidation is overcome by the creation of a pseudo-sulphide surface to oxidized mineral, which would then respond favourably with the sulphydryl collector added, e.g. copper sulphate, cyanide, lime, etc.
\nThese are used to suppress the floatability of a mineral when it is not desired in case of multimineral system. Several natural polymers and their derivatives have been suggested as depressants for iron oxide in reverse flotation due to the presence of large number of hydroxyl groups and large molecular sizes. The depression mechanism is may be due to the blocking of surface sites for collector adsorption, resulting in hydrophilic surface and forming bridges of hydroxyl groups.
\nFor example, in reverse flotation of iron ore, starch is used as depressant for iron ore and zinc sulphate as depressant for ZnS in Pb-Zn flotation.
\nThese are used to minimize the deleterious effect of undesired slime coating (Tables 2 and 3), e.g. sodium silicate and sodium metasilicate.
\nReagents | \nApplication | \nClassification | \nComposition | \nFunctioning process | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Collectors Collectors | \n1. Hematitic ore 2. Hematitic ore 3. Ultrafine hematite particles Goethite | \nAnionic collectors 1. Fatty acids 2. Alkyl sulphates and sulphonates (C12-C16) 3. Oleic acid and lauric acid 4. Hydroxamates Amphoteric collectors 5. Hexanoic acid, octanoic acid, decanoic acid, dodecanoic acid, tetradecanoic acid, stearic acid Sarcosinates and sulphosuccinates 1. Dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide 2. Sodium oleate fatty acid | \nTall oil containing 91% oleic acid, 6% resin acid and 3% unsaponifiables 10−3 molar, 10−4 molar concentration 70–100 mg/L Liquid emulsion 5–20% solution | \nChemisorption on hematite surface, surface precipitation Chemisorption Classical chemisorption Microbial strain Form hydrophobic floccules of hematite particles Chemisorption | \n
Collectors | \n1. Silica (quartz) 2. Both alumina and silica 3. Alumina | \nCationic collector 1. Etheramine and etherdiamines 2. Fatty amine (dodecylamine, decyletheramine) 3. Quaternary ammonium compounds 4. Gemini surfactant Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide SOKEM (503C, 504C, 520C, 521C, 522C, 523C, 524C, 525C, 701C, 720C) Cationic, anionic and nonionic polyacrylamide | \nIn kerosene 5–10% solution Undiluted 20–30% neutralization degree with acetic acid or NaOH | \nElectrostatic adsorption Hydrogen bonding with the surface exhibiting low interaction with collectors | \n
Collectors | \nSilica | \nAnionic collectors Fatty acids | \nActivation by Ca2+ ions | \nStrong chemical bonding between mineral surface and collector | \n
Collectors | \nMagnetite | \n1. Maleic acid 2. Ethyl oleate 3. Polyethylene glycol monooleate 4. Maleic acid ester 5. Quaternary ammonium surfactant | \n10–50 mg/L | \nElectrostatic adsorption High solubilization capacity, stronger biological activity | \n
Collectors | \nPhosphorous | \nAnionic collectors 1. Carboxylate surfactants 2. Fatty acid 3. Flotigam EDA manufactured by Clariant | \n\n | Surface chemisorption | \n
Mixed collectors | \nSilica Iron oxides | \n1. Blending diamines and monoamines 2. Amalgamation of ammines with kerosene 3. Conjunction of diesel oil and ether amine 4. Non-phenol ethoxylated with ethylene oxide and etheramine 5. Mixture of amine and hydrochloric acid 6. 7. Mixture of primary ether monoamine, oxyethylated nonylphenol and oxyethylated fatty alcohol 1. Non-polar oils emulsified with fatty acids 2. Fatty acids (anionic collectors) and amphoteric collectors | \n20–30% blending Mass ratio of 1:4 Mass ratio of 1:2 Mass ratio of 4:1 ether monoamine to nonylphenol | \nCo-adsorption of collector on silicate surface by hydrocarbon tail-tail interaction increasing hydrophobicity Decreased surface tension at liquid-gas interface and reduce froth depth | \n
Frothers | \nAll iron oxides, silica, alumina, phosphorus | \n1. Pine oil (alpha-terpineol) 2. Cresylic ‘acid’ (cresols) 3. Polypropylene glycols 4. DF (Dow Froth) 200, DF 250, DF 450 5. Fuel oil 6. Aliphatic alcohols, 7. MIBC | \nThe reagents are used as undiluted and also prepared as solution in H2O | \nProvides most viscous, stable froth, have collecting action Less viscous but stable froth, have collecting action Fine, fragile froth; inert to rubber Slightly stable froth Slightly stable froths Fine-textured froth; frequently used with ores containing slimes | \n
Modifying agents | \nDirect and reverse iron ore flotation | \n1. Lime (CaO) or slaked lime Ca(OH)2 2. Soda ash, NaOH Caustic soda, NaOH Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 3. Ca2+ (CaCl2), Mg2+ (MgCl2) 4. Na2SiO3 5. Starch, dextrin Quebracho, tannic acid, gaur gum, PAM | \nSlurry Dry 5–10% solution 10% solution Solution Solution of 0.30–0.80 kg/ton Solution of 0.5–1.2 kg/ton | \npH regulator; disperses gangue slimes Activates silica with fatty acid collectors Disperses siliceous gangue slimes; Fragile froth Depress iron-bearing minerals | \n
Reagent types used in mineral oxide industries (specifically for iron ores).
Classification of collectors | \nType | \nComposition and dosages | \nMethod of adsorption | \n
---|---|---|---|
\n
| \n\n
| \nConsists of sulphydryl groups \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Optimum ratio 2:3 | \nForms dixanthogen on pyrite surface and then hydrophobicity is generated Hydrophobic chain interactions \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Co-adsorption of xanthate and dixanthogen Hydrophobic chain interaction of dixanthogen and reduction of electrostatic repulsion between ionic head groups of xanthate that are shield from each other by dixanthogen molecules | \n
Reagent types used in mineral sulphide industries.
The pH regulators help in maintaining adequate pH of the pulp, which determines the selective separation of minerals. These are achieved by variety of bases and acids.
\nIn industries froth flotation is a continuous process involving a regular flow of feed pulp and separation of minerals into the regular respective product streams. The major elements of flotation operations are:
Feed preparation
Mode, quantity and point of reagent addition
Flotation circuit configuration and flexibility
Product removal and dewatering
As the choice of specific reagent for a given ore is difficult and challenging, so is the selection of quantity, mode and time of addition of the reagents. The selection of reagent quantity does not pose much problem as a more or less precise reagent type and quantity for a specific ore system are available through reagent manufacturers and practising personnel. Whether the total quantity is to be added at different stages is a matter of difficult choice and is to be based upon carefully laboratory investigation regarding the case of floatability of minerals.
\nAdsorption of surfactant is in direct correlation with the solid-water-air interfaces as the main role of surfactants is to modify the properties of interfaces for increased adsorption of reagents and enhanced flotation process. Modified starches and blended polymers can be better alternatives to normal starches due to their higher solubility and better flocculation action.
\nApplication of flotation has been envisaged in other areas besides mineral engineering. Some of the examples are:
Deinking of paper in paper recycling
Flotation of wastewater treatment
Processing of oil sands
\n
There is a trade-off between the pH of the slurry, surfactants and the mineral surface for maximum flotation performance. It can thus be concluded that the length of alkyl chain, arrangement of atoms, nature and type of bonds present within the surfactants and regulation of pH in the flotation pulp are solely for an effective and successful flotation.
Mineral surface and collector chemistry interaction is the first and critical step in flotation. The larger the electronegativity of the group, the stronger is the acting solid intensity, and the larger the radical section of collector, the stronger the selectivity of collector.
Surfactants containing alcohol group and amine group have inherent frothing property along with their collecting capability.
Though the cost of hydroxamate is higher than fatty acids, its superiority over fatty acids in flotation of the fine-grained oxide ore deserves further attention for industrial application. Research is geared at (a) developing alternate cheaper reagents with similar performances as hydroxamates, (b) modifying the structure of fatty acids for similar or better results than hydroxamates, (c) application of other chelating agents for enhanced flotation response, (d) successfully using flotation of silicated ores and other minerals, and (e) using green surfactants and solvents given their advantage of biodegradability and sustainability. However their high cost at present continues to be a barrier preventing their use although their benefits have been well realized.
For cationic surfactants, another cationic group can be inserted, which can be further upgraded to dicationic and tricationic surfactants, which will work out well for reverse flotation process.
For the use of depressants, more kosmotropic ions can be added to existing polymers to enhance their depressing action.
As discussed earlier, froth flotation has the ability to treat any mineral and thus reigns supreme as it is the most versatile concentration process for ore fines. A universal solution for all minerals is not possible but it depends on a case-by-case basis as each mineral ore has different compositions. The challenging aspect of the interaction of value and gangue minerals of any ore could be overcome by specifically improved reagents. A universal specific reagent recipe cannot be proposed for any ore flotation due to variation of mineralogical composition of different ores, tailings and slimes. The knowledge and research about surfactant chemistry have to be given due recognition and used judiciously through encouraging innovative, simple and customized reagent regimes for given ore deposits.
\nNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Ciliates (Alveolata: Ciliophora) comprise free-living and symbiotic species. According to Corliss, [1] 2,600 species of ciliates have been described as symbionts, mainly of individuals of metazoan phyla. This is equivalent to 33% of all the known species of the phylum. They belong to eight classes (Armophorea, Heterotrichea, Litostomatea, Nassophorea, Oligohymenophorea, Plagiopylea, Phyllopharyngea and Spirotrichea), 31 orders, 151 families, and almost 700 genera [2]. These symbiotic ciliates have been reported in aerobic and anaerobic environments and from aquatic and terrestrial habitats [2, 3].
The term symbiosis can be defined as a sustained relationship between at least two individuals from different species, either living in direct contact or close enough to each other during a part or the whole life cycles of the partners. This interaction is transmitted vertically (from one generation to the next) or horizontally (acquired
Due to the diversity of symbioses, a classification system for symbiotic associations has been developed. This classification is based on several features: i) the dependence, where symbionts can be obligate or facultative; ii) specificity of the symbionts; iii) nutrients obtention, then biotrophic and necrotrophic symbionts are distinguished on the basis of whether nutrients are obtained from a living or dead partner, and iv) location of the symbionts, ectosymbionts or endosymbionts [5]. The symbiotic relationships can be categorized into mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasitic [2, 6]. The boundary between these categories sometimes is not clear, and there are frequent transitions between them.
Several papers have been focused on providing taxonomic reports for symbiotic ciliates, some of them as general works, and a few directed to certain groups [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16], and some were focused on certain geographic areas [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. Critical reviews of some species as
Also, very different topics about ciliates and their hosts have been developed as shown: symbiotic interactions [epibiotic, hyperepibiotic, commensals, parasites (obligates and facultatives)], codiversification: [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37]. Morphology (variation, molecular characterization): [38], clevellandellid,
Symbiotic systems between ciliates/animals are present in a broad spectrum of kingdom Animalia, and some examples are the following (animal group alphabetically arranged, different taxonomic levels): acari: [75]; amphipods: [76]; antilope: [77]; anuran: [78]; Asian elephant: [79]; baboon: [80]; bryozoans: [81]; buffaloes: [82]; capybara: [83, 84, 85]; cattle: [86]; chimpanzees: [87]; cirripedians: [88]; crustaceans: [89]; ctenophores: [90]; cuttlefish: [91]; dromedary camels: [92]; elephants: [93]; fishes: [94, 95]; frogs: [96]; great apes: [97]; horses: [98, 99]; humans: [100, 101]; polyps of hydras: [102]; insects: [103]; isopods: [104, 105]; kinorhynchs: [106]; llamas: [107]; maccacus: [108]; mammals: [109]; mollusks: [71, 76]; nematodes: [29, 110]; nemerteans: [13]; oligochaetes: [111, 112]; ostracods: [113]; polychaetes: [114, 115]; rhinoceroses: [116]; sea urchins: [117]; thoroughbreds: [118]; turbellarians: [119]; wood-feeding roaches: [120].
Some examples of ciliate taxa that include symbiotic species are the following:
Ophryoscolecidae and Cycloposthiidae include species as endosymbionts of ruminants and equids, respectively [126]. Entodiniomorphid ciliates of the genus
Suctorians, as a rule, reproduce by different modes of budding, produce one to several larvae, with a short swimming existence, and then lose their cilia and metamorphose into adults or trophonts [127]. The non-ciliated mature stages of suctorians are usually sessile, attached to the substrate by a non-contractile stalk, and reproduce by ciliary larvae called swarmers or migrators [129].
Thigmotrichids from several families were analyzed by Raabe [131, 132, 133, 134], where species of Hemispeiridae are symbionts of the mantle cavity and nephridia of molluscan, those of Ancistrocomidae, Sphenopryidae and Thigmophryidae are ectosymbionts of mantle cavity and gills of molluscan, and Hysterocinetidae species were categorized as endoparasites of the gut of prosobranch mollusks; life cycles include tomites.
The apostomes is a small group of oligohymenophorean ciliates, with four major life histories: 1-exuviotrophic, that remain encysted on the exoskeleton of a crustacean host, and excyst to feed on exuvial fluid, reproducing during the host ecdysis, 2-sanguicolous, penetrate the cuticle of the host, feed on the cells and fluid of the hemocoel and reproduces, 3-chromidinid, found in the renal organs and opalinopsids found in the liver and intestines of cephalopods ingesting fluids and cells, 4-histotrophs, such as
Pilisuctorian ciliates spend most of their lives perched on cuticular setae of crustaceans, and complete their life cycle on a single host, having the stages tomite, tomont and trophont [138].
In peritrichs, a significant character is the scopula which is the region that originates the stalk to attach the organism to the substrate and modifies to a highly complicated adhesive apparatus in mobiline [127]; two phases are known, the trophont and the dispersive telotroch.
Species of sessile peritrichs genera such
Epibiosis is a facultative association of two organisms: the epibiont, which colonizes the surface of live substrates, and the basibiont, which hosts the epibionts [145]. Some species of epibiotic communities show preferences for specific location sites on the host [76]. According to Wahl and Mark [146], when the effects associated with epibiosis are neutral or positive for a basibiont species and beneficial for an epibiont species, selection should favor the evolution of the epibiotic relationship, which tends to increase specificity through evolutionary history. Although many epibiont ciliates are not harmful to their basibionts, some studies have shown that the epibionts can cause deleterious effects on their hosts [147, 148, 149].
Historically, studies involving epibiont ciliates focus on the following interests: new records and checklists [27, 28], descriptions of new taxa using morphological and molecular data [150], possible deleterious effects on hosts [149, 151], distribution and preferred sites of epibiont populations and communities [152], spatial and temporal distribution of the epibiotic relationship [153], laboratory rearing and experimentation studies [154, 155, 156], and even investigations into extrinsic and intrinsic factors involved in the kinetics of epibiont ciliate populations [157, 158].
Mutualism is a relationship with high metabolic dependence, where both organisms, ciliate and their hosts, obtain benefits [159, 160]. In the phylum Ciliophora, this type of relationship is seen, mainly in the subclass Trichostomatia, which includes the ciliates of the digestive tract of herbivorous mammals [161]. The symbiont ciliates represent approximately 2,600 of the described organisms, of which around 1000 species belong to the subclass Trichostomatia [2]. This subclass comprises ciliated protists, mostly mutualists of the digestive tract of several vertebrate hosts, with only one species showing parasitism in humans,
Ruminant ciliates and the host have a fundamental symbiosis relationship for the digestion and absorption of large amounts of plant material by the ruminant [164, 165]. On the one hand, the host provides an ideal environment for the survival of the symbiotic microbiota. The rumen is a strictly anaerobic environment, with temperatures ranging from 38 to 41° C, redox potential around 250 to 450 mV (millivolts), osmolarity ranging from 260 to 340 mOsm (millivolts), and pH levels between 5.0 and 7.5. Maintaining these characteristics is essential for microbial enzymatic activity to occur. In return, symbionts provide energy, protein, and vitamins to the host [166]. In energy terms, about 50–70% of the energy obtained by the host comes from the absorption of volatile fatty acids (VGAs) (eg. acetate, butyrate, and propionate), which are absorbed after the breakdown and fermentation of plant fiber by ruminal microorganisms [165]. Ciliates also represent a great source of protein for the ruminant (about 2 to 5%). Still, the ruminal microbiota also synthesizes B and K vitamins in sufficient quantities for the maintenance and growth of the animal. Due to the important participation in the physiology of the ruminant, the evolutionary dynamics of ruminal ciliates has been suggested as closely associated with the radiation of their hosts [167, 168, 169].
Commensalism occurs when the symbiont inhabits in the host with no evident benefit or harm [170].
Parasitism, which is less common in ciliates, involves the parasites that usually cause disease being pathogens. They may be localized or spread throughout a host, defined as the independent and dominant member of the symbiotic pair. Here, the parasite inhabits on or inside the host to obtain resources and to harm it [171].
From an evolutionary point of view, there are species that are entirely free-living, those which can live equally well both free or as symbionts, species that are almost entirely symbiotic with only occasional periods of “free” existence during their life cycles (facultative symbionts), and species which are entirely symbiotic (obligate symbionts). Most of the well documented associations between Ciliophora and Metazoa are the ones leading to a certain degree of metabolic dependence. We will use in this topic the idea of metabolic dependence to define the ecological relationships: “free-living” (no metabolic dependence), “epibiont” (facultative metabolic dependence), “mutualistic” (mutual metabolic dependence) or “parasitic” (unilateral metabolic dependence, including commensalism).
For many years the evolutionary studies for Ciliophora were based only on morphological data, mainly those related to the ultrastructural characterization of its complex infraciliature [2]. However, in recent years this scenario has been modified with the implementation of modern tools that use multidisciplinary methods to integrate morphological, phylogenetic, molecular, and ecological data [161, 172, 173, 174]. A reliably dated phylogeny is fundamental to infer a broad macroevolutionary scenario for Ciliophora [172]. The inference of diversification rates from molecular phylogenies has increasingly been used to derive macroevolutionary patterns of lineages. Understanding how the different ecological relationships evolve in Ciliophora along time is a complex task that has been developed for many years. Different hypotheses about the origin and evolution of parasitic life have been proposed. Parasitologists suggest that the symbiotic way of life probably descended from free-living lineages that subsequently adapted to life in special habitats. Besides this, several authors suggest multiple origins of parasitism based on a comparison of morphological and ultrastructural aspects between them and their free life co-specifics [175], however, the processes that lead to its emergence are still imprecise [176, 177, 178].
Concerning the phylum Ciliophora, the vast majority of ciliates are categorized as free-living, and studies suggested that symbiosis apparently arising independently among various classes [179]. For genus
Previous studies aimed to test these hypotheses based on phylogenetic analyzes of small groups within Ciliophora [174, 182, 183]. The macroevolutionary analyzes from the whole Ciliophora phylogeny presented Figure 1 suggested that the ancestral way of life of the ciliates originated from a free-living organism and that the parasitic way of life arose numerous times and independently in Ciliophora, which was induced by two types of ancestors, free life and mutualistic (Figure 1). The transition to the parasitic way of life was recovered from two different origins: 1) a free-living ancestor evolved into a mutualistic organism and, later, to a parasitic organism, and 2) a free-living ancestor evolved into an organism parasite (highest number of cases). There are also cases where there has been a regression in the ciliate’s way of life, where parasite clades evolved to free-living clades (Figure 1).
Ancestral habit reconstruction for Ciliophora showing the main routes of transitions. Blue: Free-living. Yellow: Mutualism. Red: Parasitism/commensalism.
The analytical improvement for morphological, ultrastructural, molecular, and evolutionary characterizations in Ciliophora culminated in an “Age of Integration”, which several disciplines interact to infer patterns of biodiversity [184]. Although it is an age in full expansion, several gaps often prevent a study of diversity in its diverse areas in a complete way.
We are in a period of the paradigm shift, where Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) techniques have been applied exponentially, and, therefore, it is expected that new discoveries will emerge and new panoramas will be drawn on the diversity of the strains, as well as their respective ecological interactions. The transition from phylogenetic studies to phylogenomics is based on technological progress combined with exponential sequencing of molecular sequences (DNA, RNA), reduced associated costs, increased computational capacity, and improved analytical protocols. It is important to make efforts in studies to expand such technologies to lineages with little sampling in databases. For example, the classes Prostomatea, Oligohymenophorea, Litostomatea, and Phyllopharyngea, which present several examples of symbiosis, do not have available molecular sequences which prevents the evolutionary inferences of these lineages, requiring in the future more studies to refine the evolutionary hypotheses about the phylum. Efforts to expand metataxonomy using metagenomics and metatranscriptome methods have fed the databases exponentially in several lineages, revolutionized the analysis of environmental microbial diversity [175, 185, 186]. In fact, the generation of data for the target sequencing of phylogenetic, metagenomic, and metatranscriptomic markers is now reasonably well established, and several DNA sequencing platforms based on different technologies are currently available as well as different bioinformatics programs for each level of data extraction. However, due to the limited size of the molecular sequences produced by the platforms (~ 500 bp), phylogenetic estimates may be inadequate. With longer readings comes an improved phylogenetic signal, and we show that it is possible to employ a complete phylogenetic signal approach to taxonomically classify sequences and obtain a robust evolutionary structure of environmental diversity. New sequencing technologies such as nanopore sequencing, which offer long reads, improved the phylogenetic signal and more robust taxonomic patterns, can be an alternative in future studies [187].
With the significant increase in the number of available sequences from NGS sequencing, more effective and less subjective methodologies have been proposed to define the limits and number of independent evolutionary entities, to accelerate the biodiversity assessment process. In the last two decades, the field of species delimitation has intensified in relation to the number of methods available. For this, several methodologies have been proposed, based on biological [188], ecological [189], and molecular data [190], in addition to combining phylogenetic theory and population genetics [191, 192, 193]. The use of these methodologies in ciliates performed very recently to delimit organisms of free life, as species of the genus
Finally, several authors have emphasized the lack of studies on the distribution and occurrence of ciliates associated with Metazoa in natural conditions and the the lack of information on the ecology and interactions between epibionts and hosts. Few studies are exploring the natural history and complexity of life cycles, which makes it difficult to characterize optional and mandatory relationships. The absence of the characterization of the ciliate at the stage it is in the host, most studies, only in the environment, making it difficult to characterize the life cycle. Relevant information about habitat, life cycle, infection site is rare for Ciliophora [160, 196, 197].
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This chapter aims to cover these topics and also introduce the reader to the concept of AI, the theories behind AI programming and the various applications of AI in the medical domain.",book:{id:"6653",slug:"ehealth-making-health-care-smarter",title:"eHealth",fullTitle:"eHealth - Making Health Care Smarter"},signatures:"Sandeep Reddy",authors:[{id:"230704",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sandeep",middleName:null,surname:"Reddy",slug:"sandeep-reddy",fullName:"Sandeep Reddy"}]},{id:"43798",doi:"10.5772/55216",title:"Laser-Scanning in vivo Confocal Microscopy of the Cornea: Imaging and Analysis Methods for Preclinical and Clinical Applications",slug:"laser-scanning-in-vivo-confocal-microscopy-of-the-cornea-imaging-and-analysis-methods-for-preclinica",totalDownloads:4141,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:null,book:{id:"3538",slug:"confocal-laser-microscopy-principles-and-applications-in-medicine-biology-and-the-food-sciences",title:"Confocal Laser Microscopy",fullTitle:"Confocal Laser Microscopy - Principles and Applications in Medicine, Biology, and the Food Sciences"},signatures:"Neil Lagali, Beatrice Bourghardt Peebo, Johan Germundsson, Ulla Edén, Reza Danyali, Marcus Rinaldo and Per Fagerholm",authors:[{id:"163672",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Neil",middleName:null,surname:"Lagali",slug:"neil-lagali",fullName:"Neil Lagali"},{id:"164155",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Bourghardt Peebo",slug:"beatrice-bourghardt-peebo",fullName:"Beatrice Bourghardt Peebo"},{id:"164156",title:"Dr.",name:"Johan",middleName:null,surname:"Germundsson",slug:"johan-germundsson",fullName:"Johan Germundsson"},{id:"164157",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulla",middleName:null,surname:"Eden",slug:"ulla-eden",fullName:"Ulla Eden"},{id:"164158",title:"MSc.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Danyali",slug:"reza-danyali",fullName:"Reza Danyali"},{id:"164159",title:"Prof.",name:"Per",middleName:null,surname:"Fagerholm",slug:"per-fagerholm",fullName:"Per Fagerholm"},{id:"167392",title:"Mr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:null,surname:"Rinaldo",slug:"marcus-rinaldo",fullName:"Marcus Rinaldo"}]},{id:"56615",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69792",title:"Computer Aided Diagnosis - Medical Image Analysis Techniques",slug:"computer-aided-diagnosis-medical-image-analysis-techniques",totalDownloads:3100,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Breast cancer is the second leading cause of death among women worldwide. Mammography is the basic tool available for screening to find the abnormality at the earliest. It is shown to be effective in reducing mortality rates caused by breast cancer. Mammograms produced by low radiation X-ray are difficult to interpret, especially in screening context. The sensitivity of screening depends on image quality and unclear evidence available in the image. The radiologists find it difficult to interpret the digital mammography; hence, computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) technology helps to improve the performance of radiologists by increasing sensitivity rate in a cost-effective way. Current research is focused toward the designing and development of medical imaging and analysis system by using digital image processing tools and the techniques of artificial intelligence, which can detect the abnormality features, classify them, and provide visual proofs to the radiologists. The computer-based techniques are more suitable for detection of mass in mammography, feature extraction, and classification. The proposed CAD system addresses the several steps such as preprocessing, segmentation, feature extraction, and classification. Though commercial CAD systems are available, identification of subtle signs for breast cancer detection and classification remains difficult. The proposed system presents some advanced techniques in medical imaging to overcome these difficulties.",book:{id:"5926",slug:"breast-imaging",title:"Breast Imaging",fullTitle:"Breast Imaging"},signatures:"Bhagirathi Halalli and Aziz Makandar",authors:[{id:"202101",title:"Mrs.",name:"Bhagirathi",middleName:null,surname:"Halalli",slug:"bhagirathi-halalli",fullName:"Bhagirathi Halalli"},{id:"202105",title:"Prof.",name:"Aziz",middleName:null,surname:"Makandar",slug:"aziz-makandar",fullName:"Aziz Makandar"}]},{id:"43810",doi:"10.5772/55995",title:"Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy as a Tool for the Investigation of Skin Drug Delivery Systems and Diagnosis of Skin Disorders",slug:"confocal-laser-scanning-microscopy-as-a-tool-for-the-investigation-of-skin-drug-delivery-systems-and",totalDownloads:5306,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:null,book:{id:"3538",slug:"confocal-laser-microscopy-principles-and-applications-in-medicine-biology-and-the-food-sciences",title:"Confocal Laser Microscopy",fullTitle:"Confocal Laser Microscopy - Principles and Applications in Medicine, Biology, and the Food Sciences"},signatures:"Fábia Cristina Rossetti, Lívia Vieira Depieri and Maria Vitória Lopes Badra Bentley",authors:[{id:"164997",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Vitoria",middleName:null,surname:"Bentley",slug:"m.-vitoria-bentley",fullName:"M. Vitoria Bentley"}]},{id:"43823",doi:"10.5772/55653",title:"Applications of Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) in Foods",slug:"applications-of-confocal-laser-scanning-microscopy-clsm-in-foods",totalDownloads:5465,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3538",slug:"confocal-laser-microscopy-principles-and-applications-in-medicine-biology-and-the-food-sciences",title:"Confocal Laser Microscopy",fullTitle:"Confocal Laser Microscopy - Principles and Applications in Medicine, Biology, and the Food Sciences"},signatures:"Jaime A. Rincón Cardona, Cristián Huck Iriart and María Lidia Herrera",authors:[{id:"164484",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Herrera",slug:"herrera",fullName:"Herrera"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63955",title:"Creative Haptic Interface Design for the Aging Population",slug:"creative-haptic-interface-design-for-the-aging-population",totalDownloads:1166,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Audiovisual human-computer-interfaces still make up the majority of content to the public; however, haptic interfaces offer unique advantage over the dominant information infrastructure, particularly for users with a disability or diminishing cognitive and physical skills like the elderly. The tactile sense allows users to integrate new, unobstructive channels for digital information into their sensorium, one that is less likely to be overwhelmed compared to vision and audition. Haptics research focus on the development of hardware, improving resolution, modality, and fidelity of the actuators. Despite the technological limitations, haptic interfaces are shown to reinforce physical skill acquisition, therapy, and communication. This chapter will present key characteristics intuitive tactile interfaces should capture for elderly end-users; sample projects will showcase unique applications and designs that identify the limitations of the UI.",book:{id:"6714",slug:"assistive-technologies-in-smart-cities",title:"Assistive Technologies in Smart Cities",fullTitle:"Assistive Technologies in Smart Cities"},signatures:"Eric Heng Gu",authors:[{id:"237761",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Eric Heng",middleName:null,surname:"Gu",slug:"eric-heng-gu",fullName:"Eric Heng Gu"}]},{id:"59880",title:"Molecular Diagnostics of Pulmonary Diseases Based on Analysis of Exhaled Breath Condensate",slug:"molecular-diagnostics-of-pulmonary-diseases-based-on-analysis-of-exhaled-breath-condensate",totalDownloads:1731,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Measurements of biomarkers in exhaled breath condensate (EBC) extend a novel route for monitoring lung physiology and provide a beneficial insight into the pathophysiology of a specific disease. From the medicinal point of view, biomarkers present in EBC depict rather the processes occurring in lungs than those in the entire system. Therefore, particular profiles of exhaled biomarkers (e.g. cys-LTs, LTB4, 8-isoprostane, etc.) apparently reveal information exclusively applicable to differential lung disease diagnoses. This chapter describes the developed analytical method being applied to a clinical study for differential diagnostics of various phenotypes of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, etc. In particular, having determined cys-LTs and LXs by the described method, and having applied them as biomarkers of bronchial asthma, their distinctive potential was demonstrated to differentially diagnose the specific disease, clearly suggesting this method to be reckoned as a beneficial alternative to existing diagnostic methods. Consecutively, the developed method was expanded to other asthma markers as aldehydes, nitrotyrosine, 8-isoprostane, PGE2, adenosine and finally, a supplementary study was carried out, engaging in detecting serotonin. The multi-marker screening and importance in the diagnostics of pulmonary diseases are referenced in the text as well.",book:{id:"6566",slug:"biomarker-indicator-of-abnormal-physiological-process",title:"Biomarker",fullTitle:"Biomarker - Indicator of Abnormal Physiological Process"},signatures:"Tereza Kačerová, Petr Novotný, Ján Boroň and Petr Kačer",authors:[{id:"190932",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Kačer",slug:"petr-kacer",fullName:"Petr Kačer"},{id:"197652",title:"Ms.",name:"Tereza",middleName:null,surname:"Kacerova",slug:"tereza-kacerova",fullName:"Tereza Kacerova"},{id:"207204",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Novotný",slug:"petr-novotny",fullName:"Petr Novotný"},{id:"207205",title:"Dr.",name:"Ján",middleName:null,surname:"Boroň",slug:"jan-boron",fullName:"Ján Boroň"}]},{id:"56615",title:"Computer Aided Diagnosis - Medical Image Analysis Techniques",slug:"computer-aided-diagnosis-medical-image-analysis-techniques",totalDownloads:3100,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Breast cancer is the second leading cause of death among women worldwide. Mammography is the basic tool available for screening to find the abnormality at the earliest. It is shown to be effective in reducing mortality rates caused by breast cancer. Mammograms produced by low radiation X-ray are difficult to interpret, especially in screening context. The sensitivity of screening depends on image quality and unclear evidence available in the image. The radiologists find it difficult to interpret the digital mammography; hence, computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) technology helps to improve the performance of radiologists by increasing sensitivity rate in a cost-effective way. Current research is focused toward the designing and development of medical imaging and analysis system by using digital image processing tools and the techniques of artificial intelligence, which can detect the abnormality features, classify them, and provide visual proofs to the radiologists. The computer-based techniques are more suitable for detection of mass in mammography, feature extraction, and classification. The proposed CAD system addresses the several steps such as preprocessing, segmentation, feature extraction, and classification. Though commercial CAD systems are available, identification of subtle signs for breast cancer detection and classification remains difficult. The proposed system presents some advanced techniques in medical imaging to overcome these difficulties.",book:{id:"5926",slug:"breast-imaging",title:"Breast Imaging",fullTitle:"Breast Imaging"},signatures:"Bhagirathi Halalli and Aziz Makandar",authors:[{id:"202101",title:"Mrs.",name:"Bhagirathi",middleName:null,surname:"Halalli",slug:"bhagirathi-halalli",fullName:"Bhagirathi Halalli"},{id:"202105",title:"Prof.",name:"Aziz",middleName:null,surname:"Makandar",slug:"aziz-makandar",fullName:"Aziz Makandar"}]},{id:"60562",title:"Use of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare Delivery",slug:"use-of-artificial-intelligence-in-healthcare-delivery",totalDownloads:2889,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"In recent years, there has been an amplified focus on the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in various domains to resolve complex issues. Likewise, the adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) in healthcare is growing while radically changing the face of healthcare delivery. AI is being employed in a myriad of settings including hospitals, clinical laboratories, and research facilities. AI approaches employing machines to sense and comprehend data like humans has opened up previously unavailable or unrecognised opportunities for clinical practitioners and health service organisations. Some examples include utilising AI approaches to analyse unstructured data such as photos, videos, physician notes to enable clinical decision making; use of intelligence interfaces to enhance patient engagement and compliance with treatment; and predictive modelling to manage patient flow and hospital capacity/resource allocation. Yet, there is an incomplete understanding of AI and even confusion as to what it is? Also, it is not completely clear what the implications are in using AI generally and in particular for clinicians? This chapter aims to cover these topics and also introduce the reader to the concept of AI, the theories behind AI programming and the various applications of AI in the medical domain.",book:{id:"6653",slug:"ehealth-making-health-care-smarter",title:"eHealth",fullTitle:"eHealth - Making Health Care Smarter"},signatures:"Sandeep Reddy",authors:[{id:"230704",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sandeep",middleName:null,surname:"Reddy",slug:"sandeep-reddy",fullName:"Sandeep Reddy"}]},{id:"61381",title:"Internet of Things in Emergency Medical Care and Services",slug:"internet-of-things-in-emergency-medical-care-and-services",totalDownloads:1954,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Emergency care is a critical area of medicine whose outcomes are influenced by the time, availability, and accuracy of contextual information. In addition, the success of emergency care depends on the quality and accuracy of the information received during the emergency call and data collected during the emergency transportation. The success of a follow medical treatment at an emergency care unit depends too on data collected during the two phases: emergency call and transport. However, most information received during an emergency-call is inaccurate and the process of information collection, storage, processing, and retrieval, during an emergency-transportation, is remaining manual and time-consuming. Emergency doctors mostly lack patient’s health records and base the medical treatment on a set of collected information including information provided by the patient or his relatives. Hence, the emergency care delivery is more patient-centered than patient-centric information. Wireless body area network and Internet of Technology (IoT) enable accurate collection of data and are increasingly used in medical applications. This chapter discusses the challenges facing the emergency medical care services delivery, especially in the developing countries. It presents and discusses an IoT platform for a patient-centric-information-based emergency care services delivery. The study is focused on a case of road traffic injury. Results of conducted experiments are discussed.",book:{id:"6655",slug:"medical-internet-of-things-m-iot-enabling-technologies-and-emerging-applications",title:"Medical Internet of Things (m-IoT)",fullTitle:"Medical Internet of Things (m-IoT) - Enabling Technologies and Emerging Applications"},signatures:"Thierry Edoh",authors:[{id:"234682",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thierry",middleName:null,surname:"Edoh",slug:"thierry-edoh",fullName:"Thierry Edoh"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"179",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"93",type:"subseries",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",keywords:"Social contract, SDG, Human rights, Inclusiveness, Equity, Democracy, Personal learning, Collaboration, Glocalization",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices"},{id:"38",title:"Pollution",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"