Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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1. Introduction
Even as we approach the third decade of the 21st century, cardiovascular disease continues to be the leading cause of death worldwide, accounting for one-third of deaths and being the leading cause of death in Europe [1, 2, 3, 4]. More specifically, 4 million Europeans die of cardiovascular disease (CVD) each year (45% of all deaths) [5, 6].
CVDs are a group of disorders that include the heart, blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, and veins), or both [7]. The most common CVDs that are also important for public health are ischemic heart disease, coronary heart disease, and vascular strokes. This category also includes peripheral arterial disease, congenital heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, cardiomyopathy, and cardiac arrhythmias. Gender, age, race, and family history are among the non-modifiable factors of CVDs, while clinical and behavioral factors are among the modifiable ones. Clinical factors include obesity, hypertension, dyslipidaemia, diabetes mellitus, and cholesterol. Behavioral factors include reduced physical activity, smoking, substance use, unhealthy eating habits and stressful lifestyle as well as the socio-economic level of individuals.
The treatment of these diseases is based mainly on medication of specialized drugs, specific medical invasive techniques, and specialized therapeutic exercises. Therapeutic exercise is one of the most documented approaches for functional rehabilitation of patients with CVD. There is ample research evidence that the recommended levels of exercise are sufficient to prevent ischemic heart disease, stroke, hypertension, and therapeutic exercise adjustments have been investigated to improve their effectiveness, quality of life, and function indicators as well as to reduce morbidity and mortality in patients with CVD [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
Based on the findings of the above research, patients with CVD could benefit significantly if they joined rehabilitation programs using therapeutic exercise. These patients often have low levels of cardiovascular function, muscle mass, and strength [14]. Aerobic exercise as well as low-resistance exercise have been suggested in cardiovascular rehabilitation therapies with positive results in improving the above parameters [15, 16]. Given that high-intensity exercise can cause unwanted cardiovascular adjustments, such as high blood pressure or arrhythmias, it should be avoided in specific patient groups [17, 18]; and low-intensity exercise is identified at levels not exceeding the anaerobic threshold [19].
Low-intensity aerobic exercise has been reported to enhance peripheral circulation, reduce heart attacks and the need for hospitalization, and improve cardiovascular function and quality of life in people with CVD by enhancing their ability to perform daily activities without symptoms or limitations [20]. However, low-intensity aerobic exercise cannot provide adjustments to increase muscle strength and mass [21]; which is why low-resistance exercise is essential and can improve muscle strength, endurance and mass, as well as bone density [22, 23, 24].
In recent years, research has demonstrated a novel exercise model, low-load BFRT, which is a therapeutic approach that could lead to significant myodynamic adjustments without the need to apply high tensions and high loads, allowing the implementation of exercise programs even in high-risk groups of patients, such as CVD patients.
BFRT is becoming very popular, and for some scientists it is considered ‘the state of art’. Restricting blood flow (not occluding) by itself, or in combination with exercise, results in beneficial adaptations to skeletal muscle and bones in various populations (old, young, trained, untrained). When BFRT is conducted, the blood flow to the exercising muscle is restricted by thin, computer-controlled, pressurized external constricting devices, such as pneumatic cuffs or inflated tourniquets, which are placed at the most proximal part of the arms or legs to reduce the amount of blood flowing back from the muscles in the extremities during a workout.
Historically, BFRT originated in Japan and involves the restriction of blood flow to exercising muscle. It was first described by Dr. Yoshiaki Sato, and the technique is based on blood flow moderation exercise (or vascular occlusion moderation training) involving compression of the vasculature proximal to the exercising muscles by specifically designed equipment. Dr. Sato evolved this technique called KAATSU, which is derived from the combination of the Japanese words for ‘additional’ (ka) and ‘pressure’ (atsu) [25]. KAATSU training is also known as vascular occlusion (VO) training. Dr. Sato evolved this technique during the period between 1973 and 1982 and developed various protocols that worked for people in different demographics (elderly, young, athletes, amateurs, etc.). The method was generalized for public use in the 1980s. Soon, the method was used by physicians, manipulative therapists, acupuncture therapists, moxa therapists, athletic trainers, and physio therapists all over the world.
According to the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), a standard conventional training conducted at an intensity of at least 65% + of one-repetition maximum (1RM) is needed to achieve adaptations for muscle hypertrophy.2 Nevertheless there are numerous studies that support low intensity exercise (20%–40% 1RM) combined with blood flow restriction could be beneficial for stimulating an increase of muscle strength, hypertrophy, and endurance [26, 27, 28]. At the same time, the suggested permissible levels of exercise intensity for cardiovascular patients is <30% 1RM, which makes it insufficient to make positive adjustments to increase muscle mass and strength [22, 29].
Approaching exercise with blood flow restriction could be a promising type of exercise for high-risk groups of patients, as research supports that with loads of 20–30% of 1RM, combined with blood flow restriction, it is feasible to yield hypertrophy responses comparable to that observed with heavy-load resistance training [30, 31, 32].
Especially in the case of cardiovascular patients where the American Heart Association recommendations currently suggest lower loads and intensity training, ‘occlusion exercising’ could be a valuable tool in the hands of therapists as it can accelerate patient rehabilitation by minimizing functional deficits in muscle mass and strength that arise during periods of reduced mobility and activity. Therefore, this chapter aims to review all recent literature regarding the impact of low-load BFR resistance training in patients with cardiovascular pathologies on muscle strength and hypertrophy, vascular function, safety, cardiovascular responses, and inflammatory markers.
1.1 Blood flow restriction mechanism of action
The definitive mechanism by which this kind of exercise provides stimulation for increased muscle strength and mass has not yet been elucidated; however, mechanisms of action of BFR have been reported. The potential physiological mechanisms underlying low-intensity exercise with BFR to improve muscle strength and mass include increased fiber type recruitment, decreased myostatin, stimulation of muscle protein synthesis, and cell swelling, an increase in metabolic stress, which theoretically activates systemic hormone production and fast-twitch muscle fibers, although it is likely that many of the aforementioned mechanisms work together [33]. Specifically, during BFRT, blood flow to the muscle being exercised is mechanically restricted by placing flexible compression cuffs or special straps proximally to the active extremity/extremities (at the upper extremities approximately peripherally at the point of deltoid insertion, at the lower extremities approximately at the top of the thighs peripherally of the gluteal line).
The restriction creates a kind of pressure that reduces blood flow to muscle fibers and, more specifically, to intracellular space. This alters the muscle’s biochemistry, increases lactate (lactic acid), and reduces pH, creating a low oxygen supply and intracellular swelling. All the above is thought to threaten the integrity of the cell membrane, which leads to the anabolic response and the increased release of growth hormones [34]. During BFRT, the external pressure applied is sufficient to maintain arterial inflow while occluding venous outflow of blood distal to the occlusion site. It has been suggested that cell swelling, induced by blood-pooling accumulation of metabolites and reactive hyperaemia, is detected by an intrinsic volume sensor, and may consequently lead to an activation of myogenic signaling pathways. This enhanced reperfusion and subsequent intracellular swelling are believed to threaten the structural integrity of the cell membrane, promoting an anabolic response [28]. In addition, during BFRT, there is a limited supply of oxygen to the muscles, which leads to the inactivation of the slow twitch muscle fibers (type I), which need oxygen as an energy source, while on the contrary it contributes to the activation of fast twitch fibers (type II) that have a higher hypertrophic potential than type I [28]. Type II muscle fibers have a relatively larger diameter and higher stimulation threshold. They receive energy mainly from the glycolytic pathway instead of oxidative metabolism, so they are preferentially recruited in a hypoxic environment. Tissue hypoxia from BFRT has been demonstrated to cause preferential recruitment of type II motor units, which typically are only recruited with high-load training [35]. Several studies have shown that the hypoxic intramuscular environment resulting from BFR leads to a high percentage of ATP hydrolysis, pH decrease, lactic acid increase, an increase of heat shock proteins (KSPAs) and protein S6, as well as in the inhibition of myostatin hormone, which inhibits the procedure of muscle mass hypertrophy. The above physiological responses significantly enhance the healing process and muscle hypertrophy [26, 32, 34, 35]. BFRT has also been shown to influence vasculature by promoting postexercise blood flow, oxygen delivery, and angiogenesis. Research indicates that it significantly increases vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression [36]; promotes vascular function [37]; enhances vascular conductance [52]; and partially alters hemodynamic parameters [38].
1.2 Cuff application
The main goal of the cuff used during BFRT is to provide sufficient pressure to restrict venous outflow while maintaining arterial inflow. Cuff width is a significant factor for determining safe BFRT pressures [39]. Furthermore, wider cuffs require significantly less pressure to achieve arterial occlusion pressure (AOP) [40]. Cuff pressures during BFRT were commonly greater than 200 mm Hg; but recent studies have found that similar positive outcomes could be achieved with pressures as low as 50 mm Hg, with less risk of adverse effects [35]. AOP is defined as the minimum pressure required to stop the flow of arterial blood into the limb. To calculate this, Doppler ultrasonography was placed on the radial or dorsalis pedis artery. The cuff is inflated until no pulse is detected, and then it is slowly released [41]. AOP can vary for each individual, even side-to-side, depending on limb circumference. Recent evidence reports two types of BFRT: personalized and practical. Personalized BFRT utilizes an advanced surgical tourniquet that allows the user to dial in a specific percentage of AOP and maintains this pressure throughout the training session. This has proven beneficial, especially in the research setting where it provides standardized results. On the other hand, practical BFRT includes a blood pressure cuff or elastic band to provide external pressure at a nonspecific value below AOP. Even though practical BFRT is not a standardized method as much as personalized BFRT, there is evidence that shows positive results when used for muscle hypertrophy [42, 43].
1.3 Safety
As far as safety is concerned, BFR training still requires further discussion, especially when performed with vulnerable people (patients, elderly). The idea of physically restricting blood flow to an extremity may raise red flags, especially regarding the cardiovascular system. It is well known that prolonged ischemia can cause necrosis of muscle tissue. Furthermore, a major concern with BFRT is the potential for thrombus formation [44]; because of the pooling of blood in the extremities. Of the evidence available, systematic reviews of BFR safety indicate it is not associated with additional cardiovascular stresses or morbidity [45, 46, 47, 48].
Muscle damage through ischemic-reperfusion injury also occurs when there is blood flow restriction during exercise. Although ischemia reperfusion injury is most associated with long durations of severe ischemia [49]; the combination of short duration BFR with muscle contraction could elevate the possibility of muscle damage with this type of exercise. The risk of muscle damage while using BFRT has been analyzed by several investigations. Creatinine kinase, myoglobin, and interleukin 6 have not been shown to be elevated after BFRT more than traditional exercise [50]. There are case reports where rhabdomyolysis has developed after training; however, it is not known whether BFRT is the causing factor in thrombus formation. A previous survey out of Japan reported a rhabdomyolysis rate of 1 of 12,642 patients [51]. Overall, it appears that muscle damage is a minor risk with BFRT. To date, evidence shows that BFRT is not more risky than high-load resistance training, although careful selection of suitable patients and professional supervision is necessary to reduce the risk of side effects [48].
2. BFRT in patients with cardiovascular comorbidities
Research examining the safety of BFR exercise and training has thus far concluded that BFR exercise is a safe and novel method not only for training athletes and healthy persons but also it could be a beneficial training method for athletes/patients (post-surgery or injury situations) and for vulnerable populations and individuals with varying comorbidities where exercise options are limited [34, 52].
Furthermore, Abe et al. [53]; and Conceição et al. [54]; reported positive effects of BFRT regarding muscle strength, mass, and cardiorespiratory capacity when it is combined with low intensity walking or cycling. Abe et al. examined the acute and chronic effects of walk training with and without KAATSU on MRI-measured muscle size and maximum dynamic (one repetition maximum) and isometric strength, along with blood hormonal parameters. Eighteen healthy men volunteered to participate in this study. Nine men performed BFR-walk training, and nine men performed walk training alone (control-walk). Training was conducted two times a day, 6 days/wk., for 3 wk. using five sets of 2-min bouts (treadmill speed at 50 m/min), with a 1-min rest between bouts. For the BFR-walk training group, a restriction pressure of 160–230 mmHg was selected for the occlusive stimulus, as this pressure has been suggested to restrict venous blood flow and cause pooling of blood in capacitance vessels distal to the restriction point, as well as restricting arterial blood flow [55]. They conclude that BFR with slow-walk training induces muscle hypertrophy and strength gain, despite the minimal level of exercise intensity. Moreover, Conceicao et al. assessed the effects of BFR endurance training compared with conventional endurance training and resistance training in functional, morphological, and molecular responses. They examined 30 healthy men who were randomly assigned to the endurance BFR group, to the endurance conventional training group, and to the resistance conventional training group. All the groups performed eight weeks of training protocol. The endurance BFR group underwent 30 minutes cycling at 40% of VO2max, four days per week, while the conventional group performed 30 minutes cycling at 70% of VO2max, four days per week. In the BFR endurance group, cuff pressure was set at 80% of the maximum tibial arterial pressure (approximately 95 mmHg). The resistance training group performed four sets of ten leg press reps at 70% of 1RM with 60 seconds rest, four days per week. They suggest that BFR endurance training could increase muscle strength and induce similar hypertrophy stimulation to resistance training, while cardiorespiratory capacity could be improved even with a significantly lower workload compared to conventional endurance training. Altogether, this suggests that BFRT could be a potentially safe training method, particularly for older adults or clinical cohorts incapable of exercising at high training loads.
Moreover, Cezar et al. showed that eight weeks of wrist flexion exercise training with 30% of maximum dynamic force with vascular occlusion (70% of the resting SBP) was sufficient to reduce blood pressure in medicated hypertensive subjects [56]. Twenty-three women were randomly assigned to three groups: one was the control group and the other two underwent eight weeks of training performed twice a week, including three series of wrist flexion exercises with or without vascular occlusion. Blood pressure was assessed before each session and based on that measurement (blood pressure at rest), occlusion pressure was determined for use during exercise in the BFRT group. The cuff pressure was equivalent to 70% of the subject’s resting systolic pressure (maintained from the beginning of the exercise period until the end of the last series). The exercised with occlusion group showed a pre- to post-test reduction in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, mean arterial pressure, and double product, whereas the other groups showed no significant hemodynamic changes.
Despite the positive adjustments of low-intensity aerobic exercise with BFR techniques, no research has been done to evaluate the effects of this type of exercise program on cardiovascular patients. Only one study has looked at short-term hemodynamic adjustments after low-intensity aerobic BFR in elderly hypertensive women, highlighting the potential benefits of this type of exercise in hypertensive patients [57]. Specifically, Barili et al. examined the acute responses of cardiorespiratory and oxidative stress parameters to low intensity aerobic exercise (LIAE) with blood flow restriction (BFR) in hypertensive elderly women. Each subject performed in random order three experimental protocols: (a) high intensity aerobic exercise (HIAE): 50% of the estimated maximum oxygen consumption; (b) low intensity aerobic exercise (LIAE): 30% of the estimated maximum oxygen consumption; and (c) low intensity aerobic exercise with blood flow restriction (LILIAE+BFR): 30% of the estimated maximum oxygen consumption and occlusion pressure equivalent to 130% of the measured systolic blood pressure at rest. Blood samples were collected at three different times: at rest, immediately after each exercise protocol, and after 30 min of recovery. The findings support the indication of low-intensity aerobic exercise with BFR, with potential benefits for the hypertensive elderly population.
Only five research attempts have examined the effect of low resistance BFRT in cardiovascular patients with positive results in terms of muscle strength, mass, and hypertrophy as well as the functionality of these patients [52, 58, 59, 60, 61]. However, three of these studies are characterized by serious methodological problems as they are pilot studies and do not draw definitive conclusions [58, 59, 60]. In particular, they reported positive results in improving muscle strength and functionality without increasing the risk of adverse effects through hemostatic and inflammatory responses. Madarame et al. [60] investigated the haemostatic and inflammatory responses to BFR exercise in nine stable patients with ischaemic heart disease. The patients performed four sets of bilateral knee extension exercises with a load of 20% 1RM either with or without BFR. In each exercise session (total two separated at least by one week), one set of 30 repetitions was followed by three sets of 15 repetitions with 30 seconds of rest between each set. During the BFRT, the cuff was attached to the proximal portions of the thighs and compressed at a pressure of 200 mmHg. The cuff was kept throughout the session, including rest periods between sets, and was released immediately after the session. Blood samples were obtained before, immediately after, and 1 hour after the exercise. They suggest that low-intensity resistance exercise with BFR would be relatively safe for stable IHD patients, at least in terms of haemostatic and inflammatory responses.
Similar results were reported by Kambic et al. [58], who assessed the safety and efficacy of BFR resistance training in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) compared to usual care. Twenty-four participants were included in this study: 12 (control group) performed conventional care (aerobic exercise training), while in the intervention group (n = 12), BFRT was added on usual care. Subjects in the BFR resistance training group trained for eight weeks, performing a total of 16 unilateral leg extension exercise sessions. During each week, two exercise sessions were performed with a 48-hour rest period in between. Each training session consisted of three sets of 8, 10, and 12 repetitions in the first, second, and third sets, respectively, with a 45-second inter-set rest interval. The load was set at 30% of 1RM. The cuff was inflated between 15 and 20 mmHg greater than resting brachial systolic pressure, and the pressure was maintained throughout the entire training session and was released at the end of the last set. Findings report that BFR resistance training is safe and associated with significant improvements in muscle strength and may therefore be provided as an additional exercise option to aerobic exercise to improve skeletal muscle functioning in patients with CAD.
Nakajima et al. [52]; also showed improvement in muscle strength and endurance in patients with cardiovascular disease after a low-resistance BFR program for three months with two workouts per week, while Fakuda et al. [61]; evaluated muscle activation in the biceps using low-resistance BFR compared to low-resistance exercise and showed that the BFR subgroup showed statistically significantly greater activation than the low-resistance exercise subgroup, suggesting that BFR could be a valuable tool for improving muscle hypertrophy in cardiovascular patients. However, it should be noted that the last two studies have been published in a newspaper dealing only with BFR (Int. J. KAATSU Training).
3. Conclusion
Prevention of muscle atrophy and enhancement of muscle strength and hypertrophy can facilitate and accelerate the rehabilitation process and prevent further re-injury. Blood flow restriction training has been shown to be an especially promising tool in the recovery of injured and postoperative patients. The loss of skeletal mass in vulnerable patients, such as elderly or cardiovascular disease patients, is accompanied by a decline in physical function and activities of daily living. Given the fact that these patients are often unable to tolerate high-load routines, BFRT may be used in these individuals to prevent muscle weakness and improve their daily living.
As far as cardiovascular patients are concerned, daily exercise is necessary to improve the quality of their lives. However, exercise in its classic form may be prohibitive in such groups (e.g., it is impossible to exercise high resistance to increase muscle strength). Hemostatic and inflammatory responses are the major concerns for patients with CVD when performing an exercise. However, recent literature [60]; proposed that BFRT with low load resistance will be safe as well as effective for this group of patients. In conclusion, we could assume that the innovative type of exercise with blood flow restriction could be a safe and effective tool in improving daily life in vulnerable groups, but further research is needed in order to determine the long-term adverse effects and the optimal training routines.
\n',keywords:"blood flow restriction training, exercise, cardiovascular patients",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75207.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75207.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75207",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75207",totalDownloads:375,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:68,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"January 15th 2021",dateReviewed:"January 18th 2021",datePrePublished:"February 11th 2021",datePublished:"November 24th 2021",dateFinished:"February 11th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Over the past two decades, blood flow restriction training (BFRT) has gained popularity not only in athletic performance training, but also with many researchers and physical therapists as an innovative rehabilitation tool. Blood flow restriction (BFR) exercise is a novel exercise modality in clinical settings, which induces muscle hypertrophy and increases strength with low to moderate training intensity through increased anabolic processes mediated by BFR (usually with cuff inflation). BFR limits arterial and venous blood flow and leads to blood pooling, which could increase the effects of exercise-induced training. Strength training at lower intensities (20–40% of maximum strength) in combination with BFR showed similar effects on muscle hypertrophy as training at 70% strength level without BFR. In this context, considering that periods of immobilization (or reduced functionality) due to pathology, injury, or surgery cause harmful effects on muscle mass and strength in both young and old people, muscular adaptations of occlusion exercise could be beneficial to the elderly and post-operative patients in rehabilitation regarding muscle regeneration. Furthermore, as this type of exercise does not require high loads, it might be a feasible method in cardiac rehabilitation. Therefore, this chapter aims to review all recent literature regarding the impact of low-load BFR resistance training in patients with cardiovascular pathologies on muscle strength and hypertrophy, vascular function, safety, cardiovascular responses, and inflammatory markers.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75207",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75207",book:{id:"10615",slug:"contemporary-advances-in-sports-science"},signatures:"Pavlos Angelopoulos, Konstantinos Mylonas, Grigorios Tsigkas, Elias Tsepis, Evdokia Billis and Konstantinos Fousekis",authors:[{id:"337834",title:"Dr.",name:"Elias",middleName:null,surname:"Tsepis",fullName:"Elias Tsepis",slug:"elias-tsepis",email:"tsepis@upatras.gr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Patras",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"338450",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Pavlos",middleName:null,surname:"Angelopoulos",fullName:"Pavlos Angelopoulos",slug:"pavlos-angelopoulos",email:"konfousekis@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"338451",title:"MSc.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:null,surname:"Mylonas",fullName:"Konstantinos Mylonas",slug:"konstantinos-mylonas",email:"konstantinosmylonas@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Patras",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"338452",title:"Dr.",name:"Grigorios",middleName:null,surname:"Tsigkas",fullName:"Grigorios Tsigkas",slug:"grigorios-tsigkas",email:"gregtsig@upatras.gr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Patras",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"338453",title:"Dr.",name:"Evdokia",middleName:null,surname:"Billis",fullName:"Evdokia Billis",slug:"evdokia-billis",email:"billis@upatras.gr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Patras",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"338454",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:null,surname:"Fousekis",fullName:"Konstantinos Fousekis",slug:"konstantinos-fousekis",email:"kfousekis@ergontechnique.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Patras",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. 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Br J Sports Med. 2017 Dec;51(23):1688-1694. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2016-096329w'},{id:"B42",body:'Wilson JM, Lowery RP, Joy JM, Loenneke JP, Naimo MA. Practical blood flow restriction training increases acute determinants of hypertrophy without increasing indices of muscle damage. J Strength Cond Res. 2013 Nov;27(11):3068-75. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31828a1ffa.'},{id:"B43",body:'Luebbers PE, Fry AC, Kriley LM, Butler MS. The effects of a 7-week practical blood flow restriction program on well-trained collegiate athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 2014 Aug;28(8):2270-80. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000385.'},{id:"B44",body:'Manini TM, Clark BC. Blood flow restricted exercise and skeletal muscle health. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2009 Apr;37(2):78-85. doi: 10.1097/JES.0b013e31819c2e5c.'},{id:"B45",body:'Clark, B. C., et al. “Relative safety of 4 weeks of blood flow-restricted resistance exercise in young, healthy adults.” Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports 21.5 (2011): 653-662.'},{id:"B46",body:'Heitkamp HC. Training with blood flow restriction. Mechanisms, gain in strength and safety. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2015 May;55(5):446-56.'},{id:"B47",body:'Loenneke JP, Wilson JM, Wilson GJ, Pujol TJ, Bemben MG. Potential safety issues with blood flow restriction training. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2011 Aug;21(4):510-8. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01290.x.'},{id:"B48",body:'Patterson SD, Hughes L, Warmington S, Burr J, Scott BR, Owens J, Abe T, Nielsen JL, Libardi CA, Laurentino G, Neto GR, Brandner C, Martin-Hernandez J, Loenneke J. Blood Flow Restriction Exercise: Considerations of Methodology, Application, and Safety. Front Physiol. 2019 May 15;10:533. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00533.'},{id:"B49",body:'Blaisdell FW. The pathophysiology of skeletal muscle ischemia and the reperfusion syndrome: a review. Cardiovasc Surg. 2002 Dec;10(6):620-30. doi: 10.1016/s0967-2109(02)00070-4. PMID: 12453699'},{id:"B50",body:'Fujita S, Abe T, Drummond MJ, Cadenas JG, Dreyer HC, Sato Y, Volpi E, Rasmussen BB. Blood flow restriction during low-intensity resistance exercise increases S6K1 phosphorylation and muscle protein synthesis. J Appl Physiol. 2007 Sep;103(3):903-10. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00195.2007'},{id:"B51",body:'Nakajima T, Kurano M, Iida H, et al: Use and safety of KAATSU training: Results of a national survey. Int J KAATSU Train Res 2006;2:5-13'},{id:"B52",body:'Nakajima T, Kurano M, Sakagami F, Iida H, Fukumura K, Fukuda T, Morita T. Effects of low-intensity KAATSU resistance training on skeletal muscle size/strength and endurance capacity in patients with ischemic heart disease. International Journal of KAATSU Training Research. 2010. 6(1), 1-7. doi:10.3806/ijktr'},{id:"B53",body:'Abe T, Kearns CF, Sato Y. Muscle size and strength are increased following walk training with restricted venous blood flow from the leg muscle, KAATSU-walk training. J. Appl. Physiol. 2006. 100, 1460-1466. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01267.2005'},{id:"B54",body:'Miguel S Conceição, Edson M M Junior, Guilherme D Telles, Cleiton A Libardi, Alex Castro, André L L Andrade, Patrícia C Brum, Úrsula Urias, Mirian Ayumi Kurauti, José Maria Costa Júnior, Antonio Carlos Boschero, Cláudia R Cavaglieri, Donny M Camera, Mara P T Chacon-Mikahil. Augmented anabolic responses after 8-wk cycling with blood flow restriction. Medicine and science in sports and exercise 51.1. 2019: 84-93.'},{id:"B55",body:'Burgomaster KA, Moore DR, Schofield LM, Phillips SM, Sale DG, Gibala MJ. Resistance training with vascular occlusion: metabolic adaptations in human muscle. 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Therapeutic Exercise and Sports Rehabilitation Lab, Physiotherapy Department, University of Patras, Greece
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1. Introduction
Catalysts have a significant impact on contemporary chemical processes. The role of nano-catalysts in the form of metal nanoparticles (MNPs), such as nanoparticles of transition metals and particularly the group VIII metal elements in the fourth period with d-band center electronic structure, is rising significantly in the heterogeneous catalysis, due to their high active surface areas and special electronic properties [1, 2]. For instance, Fe-, Co-, Ni-, Pt-, Rh-, and Pd-based catalysts have been extensively utilized in various processes to produce varieties of fuels and chemicals, consisting of Fischer Tropsch Synthesis, steam and dry reforming, methanation, and CO oxidation [1]. MNPs expose influential activities in various catalytic reactions. One of the main difficulties in using the MNPs is their weak stability in the practical catalytic processes. In recent years, an exquisite and effective strategy has been applied to optimize the performance of MNPs by encapsulating them that provides unique advantages toward catalysis, particularly under harsh conditions by restricting the aggregation and sintering of MNPs. The concept of the encapsulated metals nanoparticles that improve a wide range of catalytic reactions, especially under rough environments has been presented as “chainmail nano-catalyst” in some of the literatures [3].
In addition, Encapsulation adjusted the energy distinctions between the highest occupied molecular orbital to the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital [4]. In fact, inside the encapsulated structure of MNPs, the electron of MNPs can penetrate through the shell to enhance the catalytic performance on the external surface. Therefore, the shell is able to restrict the medium of reactants and products from direct contact by the MNPs and protect the MNPs from damage in harsh conditions. Overall, these encapsulated MNPs represent impressive catalysts that can be applied in numerous catalytic reactions under harsh conditions and also propose a tunable structure alongside unique electronic properties [3].
In this chapter, a comprehensive and compressed presentation of the encapsulated MNPs advantages, a categorization of the encapsulating layers, and some methods of encapsulated nano-catalysts preparation are reported, respectively.
2. Advantages of encapsulated MNPs
In view of an increasing range of recent research, implementing an encapsulated structure for nano-catalysts is the efficient way to protect these catalysts’ properties from any deactivation agents and prevent them from the decrease of catalytic activity. The advantages of encapsulated structure can be expressed as follows and in going into detail their effective specifications and involved parameters in this structure will be explained.
Provide effective metal-support interactions (MSI)
Prevent from the coalescence nanoparticles
Protect from catalyst deactivation by stabilizing the active metal species in catalysts against sintering
Tandem reactions can be enabled and promoted by encapsulated configuration
Improvement of catalytic selectivity
One of the most crucial characteristics of the encapsulated nano-catalysts is the strong interaction between the MNPs and the encapsulating materials. Interactions between MNPs and support materials, metal-support interaction (MSI), can profoundly enhance the catalytic activity and tunability to selective reactions and products [5]. MSI can modify electronic properties, geometric morphologies, or chemical compositions of MNPs to make active sites have specific properties and catalytic activities [6, 7]. The geometric result of MSI is the decoration of the metal surface, partial coverage or total encapsulation of the metal can be conducted by the support. Since morphological modifications can take place on the catalyst as a result of the MSIs and encapsulated structure paves the way to enhance them by contributing a maximal interfacial area through participating the MNPs in close contact with the encapsulating materials [6, 7, 8]. Furthermore, strong metal-support interaction (SMSI) has been mostly applied to develop bifunctionality at the interface of metal–metal oxides systems. The bifunctional outcome leads to a synergistic effect through an improvement of catalyst activity and selectivity by creating new reaction sites at the interface between the metal and the support, and the spillover phenomenon occurs at the interface by transferring reactants from metal or support to the interface, which all of these phenomena are soared at encapsulated structure [6, 7, 8]. Therefore, the optimized catalytic performance can be gained by the unique MSI among the MNPs and the encapsulating materials [5].
Metal nano-catalysts have a high surface-to-volume ratio, which leads to coalescence during catalysis, especially at high reaction temperatures where this is prone to modification, resulting in a noticeable decrease in active surface areas and, eventually, a reduction in catalytic activity and selectivity [2]. In contrast, encapsulation by encasing of MNPs in nano-shells or nanopores prohibits them from coalescence, therefore, the efficiency of the active nano-catalysts surface area is preserved remarkably.
Catalyst deactivation is a principal difficulty in the heterogenous catalytic processes since the catalyst activity and selectivity will be reduced with time on stream and the catalyst regeneration or replacement will be included at a noticeable rate of time and resources [8, 9]. Therefore, a great number of researches have been conducted to gain long-term stability in heterogeneous catalysis, particularly by applying an optimized structure that includes the maximized performance. In the midst of the principal reasons of catalyst deactivation, sintering of MNPs, which occurs by an irreversible mechanism that significantly reduces catalyst recyclability, has attracted more attention toward preventing it from happening. Catalyst sintering reduces the metal’s active surface area and can occur via particle coalescence or Ostwald ripening [10, 11]. Not only may the MNPs engage in migration and coalescence particularly when they are exposed to severe conditions, but also the deactivation of catalysts via sintering can be intensified. Nevertheless, by encapsulating MNPs in a highly nanopores support, this spatial confinement can dramatically suppress their migration and coalescence and can prevent sintering without limiting the catalysis and thus stabilize MNPs under harsh reaction conditions [2, 8, 9, 10, 11].
Chemical processes are conducted by multiple steps. To minimize energy consumption and economic cost, integrating multiple steps of reactions can be a crucial solution. A tandem catalysis reaction engages sequential reactions within one condition through the coupling of appropriate catalysts in which sequential transformation of the substrate is conducted via two or more mechanistically distinct reaction steps [12, 13, 14]. The encapsulated structure of MNPs provides an integration of various interfaces in one nanostructure in a controllable manner that converts them as effective and principal catalysts in the tandem catalysis reactions. Moreover, encapsulating MNPs in porous shells could promote tandem reactions via modifying the reaction sequences or the molecular-sieving effect [2, 15].
Due to preventing the formation of unwanted products, increasing the waste of chemicals, reducing the essential refinement stages, and optimizing the selective products, it is critical to control the chemical reactions. The heart of a chemical reaction is its catalysts so it is crucial to design an appropriate catalyst to enhance the selectivity. The activity and particularly selectivity of heterogeneous catalysts depend on their surfaces structure and their active sites. First of all, the encapsulated structures in various catalysts support by providing their unique morphology and can act as sieves for molecules that allow the transfer of molecules with selective sizes, resulting in high shape selectivity. In addition, catalytic selectivity of the encapsulated nano-catalysts can be improved by utilizing suitable functional groups in their materials that have a significant influence on the reactant adsorption and reduce the mass transfer limitations by increasing their coefficient diffusions. In addition to the controlled porosity of the encapsulated structures, owing to high active surface areas of the encapsulating materials, there are more sites to involve the suitable functional groups to enhance the selectivity of the catalysts [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
Although each one of mentioned nano-catalysts encapsulated structure benefits are effective separately, there is a remarkable relationship among their impacts. Indeed, each of them causes the other one or implements it in parallel and intensifies each other.
In contrast, although the encapsulation structures can enhance the catalytic performances, mass transfer may be restricted by this structure to some extent, which is disadvantageous to the catalytic process. This issue should be modified by the precise sketch through the choice of materials and methods synthesis of the catalysts with encapsulation structures [1]. In this chapter, the classification of the encapsulation of catalysts is undertaken with the type of encapsulating materials because some of them can form into two distinct groups of morphologies or exhibit with an individual structure, such as organic materials. Thus, in follow firstly describe each type of morphology and then the encapsulation of catalysts is presented in three comprehensive parts from the view of encapsulating materials: (1) Inorganic Materials, (2) Metal–Organic Frameworks (MOFs), and (3) Organic Materials as it is depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Encapsulation of MNPs as catalyst.
3. Encapsulating structures
Encapsulation provides a unique catalyst immobilization technique that by encapsulating of MNPs with porous layers creates an impressive porosity for the reactants to be able to reach the metal surface. Various strategies and materials have been utilized to make these layers. An encapsulated structure can conduct by designing and fabricating the unique chainmail catalyst via a wide range of shells [3]. As a result, a vast majority of structural designs and strategies in such encapsulated catalysts have been thrived. Although a large range of various materials, such as metallic state of metals, alloys of metals, metal carbides, metal oxides, metal phosphides, and metal nitrides, can be encapsulated, a variety range of coating layers can be utilized for the shells that contain various forms, such as shells, tubes, sheaths, matrices, and films. In this chapter, the encapsulated catalysts structures on the basis of the morphology are categorized into two main groups: (1) Yolk/Core-Shells, and (2) Mesoporous Structures [1, 2, 3], as shown inFigure 1.
3.1 Yolk/core-shell structures
Encapsulation compels the complex of support and MNPs to implement a nonplanar geometry, which leads to a higher reactivity. The core-shell morphology is allocated to the encapsulated structure that encases nanoparticles in a confined case by an outer shell [1]. In contrast, another approach to encapsulate MNPs inside an individual architecture shell which is a state of eggs with a void space between the MNP “yolk” and the porous coating “shell,” this structure has added profits due to their specific role as nanoreactors [19]. Although Yolk-shell is a “core-void-shell” structure, which is similar to the core-shell structure, a void space between the core and the shell depicts the distinction between these two structures [1]. Recently, yolk-shell materials have attracted interest due to their particular combination of high thermal stability with monodisperse and narrow particle-size distributions that convert them to an effective catalyst for heterogeneous catalysis. Not only do these specifications have a significant role in catalyst performance, but also they can facilitate kinetic and mechanistic researches [20].
In these yolk/core-shell catalysts, the vast majority of the catalytic attributes of the throughout catalyst are the same and may include a tiny alteration through the change from active particle to active particle. Thus, in these structures the resulting catalytic activity of the system can be the same all over the surface of the catalysts, in comparison, in traditional solid catalysts there are no homogenous sites and to evaluate the activity of the catalysts, an average of all possible morphologies should be considered. Furthermore, the yolk/core-shell structures provide catalytic particles with a uniform size that leads to an effective SMSI for all the particles. They contribute to the new catalytic sites at the interface of themselves and MNPs and modify their actual catalytic characteristics of them. Therefore, these features cause these kinds of encapsulation structures to be placed at the noticeable position as support of MNPs catalysts and remarkable efforts have been done in synthesizing base-metal yolk/core-shell catalysts in recent years [1, 21]. In addition, there are some significant ways toward the improvement of the design and fabrication, in particular, yolk-shells to produce effective catalysts:
3.1.1 Enhance the porosity by etching
Although the encapsulation of nanoparticles by applying an additional coating layer may decline the adsorption of the reactants on the active phase, the porosity of the shells exhibits a crucial role in the improvement of mass transfer across the shells. Therefore, porosity is an essential specification that should be considered when synthesizing yolk/core-shell catalysts. Various methods to make porose yolk/core-shell, such as layer-by-layer deposition techniques and sacrificial templating procedures, in particular for yolk-shells, have been reported that provide adequate stability even under harsh reaction conditions. Moreover, the “surface-protected etching” is a contemporary strategy that outputs catalysts with porous shells and enhanced stability simultaneously. This process protects the oxide shells, in particular the inner part of the shells, by utilizing a suitable layer of the polymeric ligand as an etching agent. Thus, the oxide shells would have their original size and the selective etching of the interior creates the porous structure [22]. On the other hand, this procedure may have a noticeable restriction in which the metal loading of the catalyst in most cases is placed at a low level. To dispel this drawback, first of all, an inert chemical linker should be utilized to fix the MNPs onto the surface of the initial support with another layer of these inert chemical linkers. Next, the surface-protected etching procedure would be utilized to modify the outer shell into a mesoporous shell that exposes the MNPs to the reactant active species. Silica is one of the most popular inert chemical linkers [22, 23, 24, 25].
3.1.2 Surface-protected calcination
In most cases, the various yolk/core-shells that are prepared through the sol–gel deposition method are amorphous. Due to the remarkable effects of the crystalline phases on the performance of catalysts, it is essential to enhance shell crystallinity. The effective pathway to modify the amorphous shells to their crystallized counterparts is calcination at high temperatures. Although calcination would improve the crystalline phases of the shell, it might reduce the porosity of the original amorphous shell considerably. Therefore, to prevent this difficulty, first of all, it is important to conduct another inert chemical layer (such as silica layer) on the top of the shell through a sol–gel process, then the calcination treatment should be applied. Eventually, the final porous morphology that will be a yolk-shell structure can be achieved by scarifying the inert chemical layers through chemical etching [22, 23, 24, 25]. Figure 2 depicts the procedure of fabrication of a porous yolk-shell through employing sacrificed layer, calcination, and etching treatment. Two TEM images of a core-shell (a1) and yolk-shell (a2) are also illustrated in Figure 3 [26].
Figure 2.
Synthetic procedure of MNP@Void@M’O2 (M’O2: TiO2, CeO2, ZrO2, …) Yolk-Shell in four steps; 1: Encapsulation with sacrificed shell (m-SiO2) nanoparticles, 2: Encapsulation with exterior shell (M’O2), 3: Calcination, and 4: Etching.
Figure 3.
TEM images of (a1) MNP@SiO2 core-shell and (a2) MNP@Void@M’O2 Yolk-Shell. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [26]. Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society.
3.2 Mesoporous structures
Mesoporous materials are special types of nanomaterials with ordered arrays of uniform nanochannels that are fabricated by participating self-assembly of surfactants and framework precursors. Mesoporous materials include pores with diameters in the range of 2–50 nm that by dispersion of MNPs into this porous matrix a range of heterogeneous catalysts can be formed [2]. These structures by supplying a great surface area provide a dramatic spatial dispersion of the MNPs that leads to stability enhancement in contrast to nanoparticle aggregation and coalescence in a catalytic process. In addition, the prominent porosity of these structures in catalysts paves the way to prepare an effective mass transfer that improves the catalytic performance by facilitating the contact of reactants with the MNPs as active sites of catalysts. Furthermore, the appropriate pore size distribution puts the MNPs adjacent to the mesoporous material, which leads to the enhancement of catalytic activity and stability through boosting the strong MSIs. The mesoporous materials have pores with an adequate size that cause the adsorption of pre-synthesized MNPs with small sizes directly [1, 2]. Meanwhile, the size and volume of the mesopores or in overall the size of the whole mesoporous matrix, and metal charge have a significant impact on the immobilization of metals [27]. Eventually, the specific morphology of the pores in these structures exposes the sites of active metals, which leads to facilitating the catalytic process [1, 2]. Thus, these features of mesoporous materials convert them to outstanding supports that can encapsulate the MNPs in catalysts.
Although the incipient wetness impregnation is a popular strategy for the encapsulation of MNPs in the mesoporous materials as heterogeneous catalysts, the self-assembly-based approach is the other useful strategy [2].
4. Encapsulating materials
4.1 Encapsulation of MNPs in inorganic materials
In recent decades, noticeable progress in synthesizing various inorganic nanomaterials to encapsulate the nanoparticles with unique catalytic performance, owing to their principal advantages, such as simplicity of fabrication, tunability of formation, and cost-effectiveness, converts them to popular supports. Although inorganic oxides (SiO2, TiO2, CeO2, ZrO2, etc.) are mostly applied as shell structures in the yolk/core-shell morphology, some of them, in particular silica, exist in mesoporous in some cases. In contrast, zeolite mesoporous structures are the common morphology beside the yolk/core-shell structure of them.
4.1.1 Silica
4.1.1.1 Silica nano-shells
Silica has attracted an increasing number of researcher attention owing to its inimitable physicochemical properties, such as tunable morphology, extensive surface area (≈1500 m2 g−1) and pore volume, adjustable sizes (50–150 nm), shapes (hexagonal, wormhole-like, cubic, and lamellar) and morphologies (spheres, helical fibers, tubules, gyroids, crystals), ease of surface functionalization (both interior as well as exterior), unique topology, colloidal and thermal stabilities, and high dispersity [27]. Silica with each of these desirable features can be achieved through tuning the synthesis conditions, such as the temperature, pH, stirring speed, and type of silica source, and particularly the surfactant [27]. Therefore, these unique attributes of silica besides the simplicity in controlling the SiO2 precursors convert it to a principal and useful inorganic shell for the encapsulation of MNPs. Moreover, owing to SiO2 inert chemical features, its structure would be resistant under harsh conditions that lead to the protection of the size of MNPs under this condition. Furthermore, not only would not the chemical inertness of silica that encapsulates MNPs is influenced by the metal-oxide interactions but also intensify their catalytic properties [1, 3]. Although silica supports due to their chemical inertness have a tiny interaction with reactants that may reduce the adsorption of the reactive molecules, their porosity can restrict the effects of their weakness by intensifying their diffusion across the capsule [1]. Moreover, stability of the metal-silica nanoparticles is an outstanding challenge, particularly in catalytic applications that deal with diverse physicochemical properties especially the features of the final catalyst compounds, such as the type of MNPs, particle size, degree of silica condensation, and chemical functionalization [27].
The principal method to form the silica shells is the sol–gel. The synthesis of the silica shell is conducted through a modified Stober procedure, in which the hydrolysis and condensation of tetra ethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) take place in aqueous ethanol in the presence of a base as a catalyst, such as ammonia, to control the growth of silicate on the surface of the MNPs [1, 2]. To coat some unstable metals, such as Ag, with silica, it is essential to utilize the amines, such as dimethylamine or di-ethylamine, instead of ammonia as the base catalyst [2]. Overall, as opposed to mesoporous silica materials to encapsulate the MNP in the shell spheres of mesopores silica, firstly the metal precursors should be dispersed and the surfactant alongside the silica precursor (TEOS) should be added. This core-shell strategy contributes the best results in encapsulating some metal oxides, such as Mn, Co, and Ni [27].
Although the general configuration of silica shells achieved through the sol–gel process is microporous, the mesopore textures could also be formed that are more appropriate for catalysis applications because this shape of texture rectifies the mass transfer limitations [1, 4]. The encapsulated metal-silica nanostructure gaining through the sol–gel pathway makes a thin shell of silica which owing to the high interfacial energy a fragile interaction exists between silica shell and MNPs. Nucleation of silica prevents from occurring a suitable interaction between silica and MNPs. However, to pave the way and achieve an improved interfacial interaction, utilizing some bridging agents as surface primers is essential [4]. Generally, the surface primers are applied for encapsulation of silica over large MNPs (>10 nm) that can refer to some of them, such as amino propyltrimethoxy silane (APS), methoxy poly (ethylene glycol) thiol (MPEG-SH), and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). PVP is applied for the smooth coating of silica on the MNPs [1, 2]. Despite the fact that surface primers have a critical role to create a stable and homogeneous silica coating, in some cases, they can provide a selective silica coating on the surface [4, 28]. Furthermore, the type of the silica source and the added surfactants have a crucial impact on the size of MNPs and the thickness of the SiO2 shell in yolk/core-shell structures. Although some surfactants, such as PVP, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, and chloride (CTAB and CTAC), could not be influential on the dispersion of the MNPs, they could have an enhancement effect on the porosity of the SiO2 shells [1, 4].
On the other hand, ultrasmall MNPs (<10 nm) are unstable and have an aggregate tendency in alcoholic solutions. As a result, the formation of a coating of silica cannot be implemented by an appropriate outcome. To get rid of this imperfection, the silica coating should be conducted in a reverse micelles (or microemulsion) system by using polyoxyethylene nonylphenyl ether (Igepal CO-520) as a surfactant [2]. Mostly, owing to there not adequate interaction between silica and the metal surface this technique of coating may have some weaknesses that may lead to an undesirable and imperfection coating. Liu et al. [29] presented an effective procedure, ship-in-a-bottle, to fabricate a robust thin silica coating on the sub-3 nm MNPs in reverse micelles. In this method, the synthesis of MNPs and silica coating in the presence of water/cyclohexane/reverse micelle system will participate simultaneously. The combination of microemulsion system and ship-in-a bottle technique pave the way to achieve a range of various metal-silica core-shell composites [2].
4.1.1.2 Mesoporous framework of silica
Mesoporous silica nanoparticles are presented as effective support for the encapsulation of MNPs due to their outstanding specifications, such as well-ordered framework, tunable pores, high surface area, stability, and thermally toughness. In addition, they contribute a well-made 3D matrix that provides a monotonous distribution of MNPs and confinement them from aggregating there that lead to noticeably protect against the sintering of them. Moreover, in contrast to the other inorganic supports through the encapsulation of MNPs, the mesoporous silica nanoparticles can represent a wide range of applicable characteristic surfaces in both the exterior (on the surface) and interior (in the mesopore) space, where MNPs can be organized by a chemical linkage or physically immobilized by electrostatic interactions [27].
The mesoporous silica nanoparticles can be synthesized through cooperative self-assembly of surfactant and silica species. The morphology and dimensions of mesoporous silica nanoparticles are significantly influenced by the factors of reaction kinetics of sol–gel chemistry, such as assembly kinetics, silica condensation, nucleation, growth rates, and surfactant-silica interactions, in addition to pH value of the reaction medium, water content, and temperature. Mobil composition of matter (MCM)-41, and the Santa Barbara amorphous type material (SBA)-15 are the famous mesoporous silica nanoparticles that are synthesized by applying quaternary ammonium salts and Pluronic copolymer-based surfactants, respectively [27].
There are two common techniques to encapsulate the MNPs in mesoporous silica materials. First of all, in the way of an incipient wetness impregnation method dealing with the encapsulation of MNPs, a solution of the metal salt is exposed to a powder of mesoporous silica including the same pore volume as the volume of the metal salt solution. Then, the MNPs are transferred from the metal salt solution into the mesopores by utilizing the capillary force. Finally, the implementation of the calcination and reduction in H2 subsequently will pave the way to achieve a mesoporous silica matrix that encapsulates MNPs. In some cases of the incipient wetness impregnation procedures, electrostatic interactions are the main force to conduct the diffusion of MNPs through the meso-channels that can be implemented by modifying the mesopore surface by positively charged quaternary ammonium groups [2].
The other procedure is the participation of self-assembly of the MNPs and silica precursors with a surfactant-mediated condensation technique. Firstly, a dilution of the silica precursor is mixed with the aqueous ammonia including the CTAB surfactant molecules for initial nucleation and on the contrary of the core-shell silica architecture then the desired metal precursor is subsequently added to the mixture. Eventually, to achieve the desired mesoporous silica material, the surfactant can be eliminated by either calcination procedure at high temperatures (550°C) or a variety of chemical solutions, such as acidic ethanol or ammonia in ethanol/isopropanol. Although isopropanol, as a solvent for ammonium nitrate, can be utilized to extract the surfactant, it is able to save the well-order of the mesostructures and create a dramatic impact on the surface area and pore volume of mesoporous silica nanoparticles. Hence, not only there is not any essential tuning in the pore size or volume of the mesoporous silica nanoparticles, but also there is no noticeable change in the final particle size or pore sizes in the presence of the encapsulated MNPs in the siliceous frameworks that leads to uniform encapsulating of metals in mesoporous silica nanoparticles at the basic PH [2, 27].
4.1.2 Titania nano-shells
Among the non-silica coating materials, titania is the most popular metal oxide. Despite the fact that TiO2 is utilized as a coating layer of MNPs in a wide range of catalysts, this combination has illustrated noticeable synergy in various catalytic reactions. The synthetic routes and precursors are the main effective agents to produce a specific architecture of yolk/core-shell. The encapsulation of MNPs in titania nano-shells is the outcome of the direct coating of TiO2 on them. Similar to the method of silica coating, sol–gel procedure is the major process of titania coating. Thus, through this method by applying titanium alkoxides like tetraisopropoxide (TTIP) in a nonaqueous solution while the existence of water, the TiO2 coating will be implemented. Due to titanium alkoxide hydrolyze in water immediately, applying chelating agents like acetylacetone, which is a chelating agent of titanium butoxide (TBOT), controlled hydrolysis can be provided that leads to fabricate a core-shell nanostructure with a stable coating of titania [2].
To develop stable yolk/core-shells of titania, utilizing appropriate precursors have a crucial role. As evidence, a chelated complex of titanium glycolate, which is formed by reacting titanium alkoxide with ethylene glycol and is much more stable than titanium alkoxide, can provide an outstanding precursor for the titania coating of MNPs that can undertake a very controllable sol–gel process to fabricate identical metal@TiO2 core-shell nanoparticles that are catalyzed by acetone. Moreover, this technique is applicable for a controlled coating of titania on small MNPs with a diameter from tiny sizes to 50 nm [2, 4]. Furthermore, to achieve a uniform and thin shell of titania that can be adjusted with the thickness ranging from 3 to 12 nm in the sol–gel process, an acid catalyst like citric acid to hydrolyze the TBOT at the presence of alcohol can be applied [2].
Another suitable precursor that can slow down the hydrolyze in water, titanium (IV) bis (ammonium lactate) dihydroxide (TALH), can provide the titania coating with shell thickness ranging from sub-50 nm on MNPs. Although the TALH in aqueous solutions at room temperature is stable, it can be hydrolyzed at high temperatures (approximately 65°C) that lead to control of the sol–gel process [2].
Although Zeng et al. [30] fabricated a yolk-shell nanostructure of the Au@TiO2 through the hydrolysis of TiF4 at high temperatures (180°C), the most popular pathway to obtain a metal/TiO2 yolk-shell nanostructure forms a coating layer of titania on metal/SiO2 composites, which the silica will be sacrificed [2]. The principal benefit of this procedure of MNPs encapsulation with titania at the presence of sacrificial silica is the easy formation on the contrary of the direct formation of titania nano-shell. In addition, owing to the chemical sympathy between the two oxides to achieve a suitable coating layer of TiO2, it is not essential to implement any rectification on the silica surface to set up the interactions between titanate species and silica. Despite this coating pathway being a successful process, to improve the coating of titania in this way, utilizing a surfactant such as hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) is presented that enhances the colloidal dispersion of silica nanoparticles [2].
Finally, similar to encapsulation of ultrasmall MNPs with silica nano-shells, titania coating will be conducted in the same way. First of all, in a reverse micelles system nanoparticles are formed and then a coating of silica on the nanoparticles at the presence of TEOS will be done and the last layer, which is titania, will be formed through applying TBOT. Eventually, the yolk-shell nano-capsule can be achieved by thermal reduction and etching of the silica templates [2].
4.1.3 CeO2 nano-shells
Another metal oxide that attracted significant interest is cerium oxide. The presence of oxygen vacancies at the terminating of its planes is affected considerably on the adsorption of reactant molecules in the catalytic reactions by controlling the energetics of the surface interactions [31]. Despite the fact that the encapsulation of MNPs in CeO2 nano-shells tackle the sintering of MNPs, it provides strong metal-support interactions (SMSI) that lead to enhancing the stability and the performance of the catalysts at the series of catalytic oxidation reactions, particularly at high temperatures [2].
The core-shell nanoparticles of metal@CeO2 could be synthesized based on the self-assembly procedure by applying a supramolecular [2]. Gorte et al. [32] implemented this strategy by applying a capping ligand of a thiolate (11-mercaptoundecanoic acid, MUA) to fabricate Pd nanoparticles that are mixed in tetrahydrofuran (THF) [2]. The carboxylic groups of MUA conducted the self-assembly of the cerium (IV) alkoxides around the Pd nanoparticles directly by exchanging the alkoxy group on the Ce (IV) salt with the carboxylic group on the surface of the Pd nanoparticles as a result of the presence of the carboxylic group, which is a stronger ligand for Ce (IV) than the alkoxy group. Furthermore, various ranges of metal@CeO2 core-shell nanoparticles can be fabricated by controlling and designing precisely the effective parameters of the self-assembly strategy and the sol–gel process, particularly by utilizing the appropriate chelating agent. So, some of these chelating agents and their role in the encapsulation of MNPs by CeO2 yolk/core shells are presented as follows [2].
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is applied as a chelating agent that chelates Ce (III) salt. Although EDTA slows down the hydrolysis of the Ce3+ ions, due to the negative charges of the EDTA-Ce (III) complex, the electrostatic interactions between the Ce complex precursor and MNPs have a significant role in the self-assembly strategy [2]. Moreover, triethanolamine as a chelating agent to achieve a cerium-atrane precursor has exhibited its effect on fabricating the desired metal@CeO2 core-shell nanoparticles by adjusting the sol–gel kinetics. Another chelating agent for the CeO2 coating on MNPs is citric acid. It puts its effects by controlling the self-assembly way through conducting the adsorption of Ce3+ ions on the MNPs that were gradually oxidized to CeO2 nanoparticles [2].
Another principal approach to synthesize metal@CeO2 core-shell nanoparticles is the auto-redox strategy, which is based on the reduction of the high valence metal species and the oxidation of low-valence Ce (III) species. Some of metal@CeO2 core-shell nanoparticles that are synthesized by utilizing this mechanism depict a “rice-ball” shape-like Ag@CeO2. In addition, to encapsulate the ultrasmall MNPs and construct the uniform metal@CeO2 core-shell nanoparticles, the auto-redox strategy could be undertaken in a reverse micelle system. Furthermore, due to any surfactants not engaged in the auto-redox methods, multicore-shell nanospheres with a diameter larger than 85 nm could be formed. Although CeO2-encapsulated bimetallic MNPs can be formed by applying the auto-redox strategy, the self-assembly approach and the salting-out effect can be influenced the formation of these core-shell nanoparticles [2].
Another ideal encapsulation nanostructure with a hollow space between the metal core and the outer porous CeO2 shell is the yolk-shell architecture that has an effective impact on tackling the aggregation and sintering of tiny noble MNPs in catalytic reactions [2]. To implement this kind of encapsulation, a templating method should be conducted by coating a layer of silica firstly, and then the layer of CeO2 could participate on the MNPs through a sol–gel process. Eventually, the metal@SiO2@CeO2 nanospheres can be modified into multi-yolk-shell metal@CeO2 nanospheres by eliminating the silica template. In addition, through this process, multi-yolk-shell structured nano-catalysts can be formed, for instance, Pd@hm-CeO2, which is presented by Zheng et al. [2, 33]. Despite silica being the most popular sacrificial template, polystyrene (PS) fibers and resorcinol-formaldehyde (RF) can be utilized as a removable template [2].
4.1.4 ZrO2 nano-shells
Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) is a metal-based inorganic material that is presented as an insulator in some applications. Due to the chemical inert feature of ZrO2, it has outstanding resistance to acids and alkalis environments that convert it to crucial catalyst support at harsh reaction conditions. In addition, it has significant heat stability that is suitable for a high thermal catalytic reaction to encapsulate and support the MNPs. Although it has low thermal conductivity and is utilized as thermal barrier coatings, it has a high refractive index, which is well-suited for various optical applications [34].
Recently, zirconia as catalyst support, particularly in the encapsulation shape, attracts numerous interests. In most cases, MNPs are encapsulated in zirconia nano-shells in the form of yolk-shell [25, 35, 36, 37]. Similar to the other yolk-shell nano-catalysts, metal@ZrO2 yolk-shell can be synthesized which this catalyst with robust zirconia shells illustrates noticeable catalytic activity and outstanding anti-aggregation features during the time of the catalytic process and upon thermal treatment or reduction.
4.1.5 Carbon nano-shells
Apart from inorganic oxide shells, encapsulating MNPs in carbon nano-shells participated in numerous investigations. Although the core-shell nanostructures manufactured from inorganic oxide have noticeable advantages, in some conditions they illustrate some weaknesses, for instance, the dissolution of silica coatings at strong basic conditions. In contrast, carbon yolk/core-shells can tackle these difficulties and additionally demonstrate some outstanding specifications, such as high physical and chemical stability under harsh conditions, high surface area, tunable electronic structures, high electrical conductivity, good biocompatibility, and relatively low manufacturing costs. Therefore, they can be one of the best materials to encapsulate the MNPs [1, 2, 38]. With regard to the type of crystallinity of carbon shells, this section is allocated into metal @amorphous carbon and metal @graphitic carbon.
4.1.5.1 Metal @amorphous carbon
Metal @amorphous carbon can be fabricated by encapsulated MNPs through a polymer coating layer. Due to their low cost, rich chelating groups, and high compatibility with MNPs, these polymers are presented as leading carbon precursors that include resorcinol-formaldehyde (RF) resin, tannic acid, and polydopamine (PDA) [2]. To fabricate a noticeable-performance M@carbon catalysts, carbon precursors should be utilized through a suitable controlled sol–gel process to provide the target coating layer and then carbonization should be implemented which the output would be a carbon shell with appropriate thickness and tunable pore structure. For instance, the carbon nano-shell with 63 wt% would be formed during the carbonization of the RF coating shell under an inert atmosphere [1, 2]. In addition, to adopt the congruity between the inorganic cores and the RF shells, it is essential to modify the surface with CTAB or 3-aminopropyltriethxoysilane (APS) in the coating process [2].
On the other hand, although conducting the coating process after synthesizing MNPs will be yielded a controllable shell, implementing this process through a one-pot in which the formation of MNPs and the polymer coating will be done in a single step leads to achieving a more convenient pathway to synthesis M@RF core-shell nanospheres in the absence of surfactants. Through this procedure first of all, MNPs are formed from metal salts by adding formaldehyde. Next in the presence of the other precursor, ammonia, the polymerization of the RF precursors on the surface of MNPs will be undertaken. The concentration of resorcinol and formaldehyde can control the size and thickness of the RF shells. Moreover, resorcinol can reduce the surface activity of MNPs and prevent them from aggregating. Eventually, M@carbon core-shell nanospheres with a wide range of metals can be obtained after carbonization [2].
Furthermore, impregnation is another principal approach to synthesizing encapsulated MNPs in amorphous carbon. Overall, in this method firstly metal ions could be adsorbed at the sites of amino groups in pre-synthesized mesoporous aminophenol formaldehyde (APF) nanospheres. To create hollow carbon shells which, encapsulate MNPs before conducting carbonization a mesoporous silica layer should be done. Moreover, yolk-shell structures with MNPs can be achieved by coating another layer of APF on the APF@SiO2 nanospheres. This mechanism is flexible and can be used to fabricate monometallic Au, Pt, Rh, and Ru and bimetallic Au-Pt, Au-Rh, and Pt-Rh nanoparticles [2]. What is more, some other sources of carbon such as D-glucose, saccharides including fructose and sucrose, and dopamine can be involved. Dopamine owing to its catechol and amine groups and the ability to self-polymerize on various substrates is considered as a remarkable carbon source, particularly in synthesizing yolk-shell structures containing MNPs in the yolk that encapsulated with carbon nano-shells [1, 2].
4.1.5.2 Metal @graphitic carbon
Although amorphous carbon represents significant specification in catalysis applications, graphitic carbon has further conductivity and stability, particularly in electrocatalysis. The high-temperature pyrolysis promotes the crystallization of carbon through the process of fabrication of MNPs encapsulated in graphitic carbon nano-shells (M@GC). One of the most common procedures to fabricate the M@GC is the pyrolysis of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) in an inert or reductive atmosphere directly. During the pyrolysis of MOFs which are the assembly of metal ions as nodes that are linked together through organic ligands as linkers, MNPs are achieved by the reduction of metal nodes, and then these MNPs can catalyze the generation and configuration of graphitic carbon from organic linkers on their surface. In addition, bimetallic alloy nanoparticles could be encapsulated in graphitic carbon through pre-encapsulating noble MNPs or metal salts in MOFs and subsequent pyrolysis [2].
Graphene is a solo layer of graphitic carbon atoms that bonded together in a honeycomb crystal lattice, which this unique structure intensifies its specifications much higher than the other carbon material and converts it to an outstanding material for encapsulating MNPs to improve their catalytic activities. As a result of diffusion restriction and chemical inertness of graphene to a various oxidizing gas, it conducts as a passivation layer to intercept some metal (Cu, Ni, etc.) from oxidation. Although the potential energy surface of graphene can transfer from 0.15 to 1 eV on various metal substrates (Ni, Co, etc.), the principal metal has an influential impact on the electronic structure of the graphene coating layer. The electronic specification of graphitic carbon can exhibit its critical role on the catalytic activity when the shell includes no more than three to four carbon layers. Hence, it is crucial to fabricate carbon encapsulated catalysts with a controllable number of graphene layers which one of the usable procedures is the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique [39].
Although through CVD techniques a thin film can be formed on the substrate surface which has a dramatic influence on the fabrication of carbon nano-shells, these methods have multistep synthesis processes, which lead to being complex, expensive, and difficult to implement large-scale commercialization. In addition, to achieve a graphene shell on MNPs through the CVD procedure, it is essential to provide a high temperature above 800°C, this condition may lead to melting the MNPs and gathering them together [39, 40]. Thus, it is essential to utilize a functional synthesis pathway that is presented by an arc-discharge method. Through this technique, MNPs encapsulated in graphene shells have large sizes and extensive distribution of particle sizes, in some cases empty carbon cages and CNTs were achieved simultaneously. To tackle this difficulty, applying a long pulse laser in methane or a mixture of methane and helium at room temperature are presented, the efficiency of this approach is the formation of an ordinary size of 5 nm and appropriate size distribution of 3–10 nm of core-shell structure M@GC [39, 40, 41].
On the other hand, the metal alloy can be encapsulated in highly nitrogen-doped graphene layers by one-step annealing under a nitrogen flow without adding any other carbon sources by utilizing bimetallic complexes with CN- group linkers in the form of metal–organic framework (MOF) precursors [39]. In addition, electrostatic interactions between negatively charged graphene oxide and positively charged metal oxide nanoparticles can be applied for encapsulating metal oxide in graphene shells, which this method can be followed by chemical reduction. First of all, amino propyl-trimethoxy silane (APS) paves the way for the metal oxide nanoparticles to exhibit an oxide surface positively charged. Then, electrostatic interactions put the modified metal oxide nanoparticles with negatively charged graphene oxide together. Eventually, the accumulation of them will chemically be reduced with hydrazine to gain the metal oxide nanoparticles encapsulated in graphene. Because this mechanism can provide all the applicable features, such as simplicity of operation, low cost, and optimal efficiency, it can be a functional strategy to produce a variety of graphene-encapsulated catalysts on a large scale [39, 40].
4.1.6 Zeolites
Zeolites are presented as highlight catalyst supports due to their highly crystalline, well-distributed pore structure and adjustable acidity. In general cases, the zeolite structure embodies TO4 tetrahedra (T defines Si, Al, and P, etc.). Due to adjusting the T-O-T linkage a wide range of zeolite structures can be formed via tuning the synthesis conditions such as the composition of the gel, the nature of the structure-directing agent (SDA), or the temperature [42, 43].
Although the catalytic activity of the catalysts often depends on the host nanoparticles, it can be modified by the zeolite framework features. In particular, the modification of local geometry around active sites which is derived from steric constraints affected by the size of zeolite cavities can effectively influence the reactivity of catalysts [43]. Zeolites based on the size of their pores can be classified into small, medium, large, and extra-large pores. The catalytic activities of zeolites deeply depend on the structural and compositional features, consisting of pore sizes, channel types, and framework compositions. In comparison with the other catalyst supports, zeolites are presented as a shape selective that can selectively interact with reactants, products, and transition-states that this attribute has a significant impact on the catalytic performance of zeolites [42]. Due to zeolites being composed of tetrahedrally [SiO4]4− and [AlO4]5− primary units, to balance the overall electric charge of the zeolitic skeleton, some free cations are accommodated into the channels of the 3D framework, which can be substituted by other cations. Al content in the zeolite framework has the main effect on the ion exchange capacity of zeolites when the cations of zeolites are exchanged by protons, zeolites conducted as solid Brønsted acid catalysts [44]. In addition, the existence of charges in the zeolite framework, as well as extra-framework cations, can have a significant impact on the electronic and redox properties of the encapsulated complex [43]. Despite the fact that zeolites can apply as a shell through the coating of MNPs with layers of zeolite, in some cases, the encapsulation of MNPs can operate in the regular cavities and nanochannels of zeolites [42]. Hence, the encapsulation of MNPs in zeolites is considered in two parts—yolk/core-shells and mesoporous structures.
4.1.6.1 Yolk/core-shell structures of zeolites
In the approach of nanotechnology, zeolites can be utilized to make novel nanostructure synthetic materials, zeolite core-shell structured materials being the outstanding structure among them [45]. The capability to synthesize core-shell zeolite composites has depicted the principal importance of chemical adaptability and structural likeness between core and shell crystals, as well as their close crystallization conditions [46]. On one side, a core-shell structure of zeolite can be formed via crystal overgrowth in which an aluminum-free zeolite (core) was coated with aluminum-containing zeolite (shell). Fluoride ions as mineralizers can conduct the accomplished passivation of acid sites on the external surface to minimize the imperfections of the core-shell zeolite structure, so applying them is essential [47]. To increase the selectivity and catalytic activity of the core-shell zeolite with TON structure, a novel high silica zeolite, for skeletal isomerization of n-tetradecane, it is essential to break needle-like particles for the formation of new acid sites on the pore mouths of smaller broken particles since, the acid sites on the side surface of the needle-like particles, which principally catalyzed the cracking of alkanes, were passivated [47]. In addition, through utilizing the techniques of layer by layer self-assembly of polyelectrolyte the core-shell zeolite-zeolite composites consisting of single-crystal core and polycrystalline shells of various zeolite structure types can be fabricated. This approach occurs based on the coulombic forces that lead to enhancing the surface charge of the core particles by coating the layers of zeolite [45]. Moreover, core-shell structures of zeolites can perform as a multi-purpose catalyst that have several impacts in various functions simultaneously. For instance, the shape-selective attribute of zeolite shell provides this ability that a catalytically active nano/micro-sized core encapsulated with a thin selective zeolite shell can be potentially utilized as a tiny membrane reactor. To achieve this purpose, first of all, the catalytic active materials such as metal oxides will be replaced in the core. Then secondary growth will be conducted through a precursor solution to coat a layer of zeolite, subsequently, the growth of this layer can continue until a dense and well-intergrown zeolite shell is formed that can also play its role as a highly efficient zeolite membrane. Not only does this zeolite shell provide a prominent selective mass transfer between the encapsulated core and the extension, but also the participating catalytic reaction on the core can promote each of such zeolite core-shell structured particles into a tiny membrane reactor which can present appropriate potential in a wide range of reaction systems [45].
On the other hand, the other nano-shell catalyst structure of zeolite which can be pointed to it is the yolk-shell zeolite-based catalysts. This structure can be achieved by silica-zeolite core-shell materials. First of all, silica particles are partially dissolved under high pH conditions, then through controlling the recrystallization of the surface of silica spheres by the zeolite, new agglomerated zeolite nanocrystals can be formed which depict hollow capsules. MNPs prior to recrystallization can be located at the core [43]. Overall, to synthesize spherical hollow zeolitic structures should apply the sacrificial templates such as organic polymers or silica whose particles within the core can be removed in the final step respectively by calcination or etching [45].
4.1.6.2 Mesoporous framework of zeolites
Zeolites with a mesoporous matrix are a family of porous materials with an effective crystalline framework containing a finite number of well-defined and small cavities with sub-nanometer to 2 nm size. The most interesting attribute of their structures is the possibility to tune and choose the similar size of their micropores with the size of MNPs that would be encapsulated in them. In addition, it can intensify the catalytic selectivity due to enhance the efficiency of reactants and products diffusions [2]. Meanwhile, by encapsulating the MNPs inside the micropores of the zeolite framework they would be effectively enclosed through their interconnected cavities [42, 48]. Not only can mesoporous zeolites perform as an immobilize or stabilize framework to encapsulate the nanoparticle catalysts, but also they represent as a molecular sieve via molecular selecting with the proper size and shape or as a hybrid catalyst for transforming products formed firstly [43].
There are various procedures to implement the encapsulation of MNPs through the zeolite pores which are selected on the basis of nanoparticle size and their nature [43]. Although the formation of MNPs and the growth of zeolites are two parallel pathways, in most synthesis strategies both of them are simultaneously conducted in one process synthesis, due to the pore sizes of most zeolites being too small, less than 2 nm, which is not appropriate for directly encapsulating MNPs [1, 2]. Here some popular approaches to undertake the encapsulation of MNPs in zeolites are presented.
4.1.6.2.1 Hydrothermal strategy
Hydrothermal synthesis strategy is a common procedure that is done under a thoroughly alkali condition. In this technique the metal precursor is directly added to the synthetic solution, to prevent premature reduction or precipitation of the metal salt through the crystallization of the zeolite, a mercaptosilane ligand like 3-mercaptopropyl tri-methoxy silane (MPTMS) should be applied into the hydrothermal synthetic system. Despite the mercapto groups supporting the metal precursors from reducing untimely through the alkaline synthetic solution, the other group of MPTMS that is alkoxysilane prepares an appropriate condition to fabricate crystalline frameworks with silicate and aluminate. Thus, the MPTMS paves the way to conduct the encapsulation of the MNPs in the mesoporous framework of zeolite monotonously. Eventually, the crystalline framework of metal precursor-zeolite which is gained by this procedure should be calcined in air to eliminate the organic agents and reduced in H2 to create novel MNPs through the micropores of zeolite. In addition, LTA-type zeolites including micropores with the approximate size of 0.41 nm are the appropriate option to encapsulate the MNPs through this hydrothermal synthesis strategy. To enhance this hydrothermal procedure with the highest efficiency (>90%) of zeolite-encapsulated MNPs, initially, alcohol is added to eques mixture of the mercaptosilane and metal salt, then a pre-hydrolyze at low temperature will be performed to achieve a uniform gel [2, 48].
4.1.6.2.2 Solvent-free crystallization
Solvent-free crystallization is another popular strategy to encapsulate MNPs in mesoporous zeolites. By exposing a metal/silica/alumina hybrid in the vapor of water at a high temperature the solid-phase transformation of the amorphous silica and/or alumina into a crystalline zeolite that encapsulates MNPs is initiated. Furthermore, this synthesis method can provide a pathway to fully encapsulate the pre-synthesized MNPs inside the zeolite single crystals more reliably [2]. FAU- and MFI-type zeolites are the main mesoporous zeolite types that are applied for this procedure [2, 43]. In particular, Chen et al. [49] utilized nanocrystals of MFI-type zeolite (silicate-1 or S-1) in a strong alkaline environment. The outstanding feature that promoted the crystallization involved the Kirkendall effect which led to growing the pore size of mesoporous inside the S-1 crystals to around 3 nm and may impact on the enhancement of the mass transfer in catalytic applications [2].
4.1.6.2.3 Secondary growth of zeolite on metal/zeolite seeds
The encapsulation of MNPs in zeolites can be involved in the seeded growth of zeolites on zeolite seeds that already include MNPs. This synthetic strategy is implemented in two steps—first of all, the impregnation of the zeolite seeds with a metal salt is implemented, then desiccated the mixture to achieve a dry powder, and next conducted the reduction process at a high temperature in H2 to convert the metal salts to the MNPs, eventually the achievement products are the zeolite seeds included the MNPs. In the second step, a hydrothermal system in the presence of aluminosilicate or silicate gels and the zeolite seeds including the MNPs are involved. Consequently, the encapsulation of MNPs such as Pt, Pd, Rh, and Ag in zeolites like MFI, MOR, and BEA, particularly at the interface between the zeolite seed and sheath could be effectively conducted. Moreover, a great core-sheath interface can enhance the loading amount of MNPs which can be obtained by employing a zeolite type with a high surface area when providing the metal-containing seeds through the synthesis process [2, 48].
4.2 Metal: Organic frameworks (MOFs)
Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are outstanding microporous materials including two major components: bridging organic linkers and inorganic secondary building units (SBUs) of metal ions or oxo-clusters (3d transition metals, 3p metals, or lanthanides). MOFs provide an exceptional combination of inorganic and organic components with synergistic interactions among them which create great usability for a myriad of purposes. These microporous materials are fabricated by gathering metal ions with organic ligands together in appropriate solvents often during a self-assembly strategy. In addition, the organic linkers are di-topic or polytopic organic ligands like carboxylate, nitrogen-donor groups, sulfonate, or phosphonate that are able to bind with metal-containing SBUs to form crystalline framework structures with open pores. Although MOFs present crystalline structures with dramatic large and uniform internal surface areas, their porosity and chemical features can adjust respectively by tuning the pore size and modifying the organic linkers according to our requirements on various catalytic applications. Moreover, the functional groups of organic ligands such as -NH2, -NO2, -SO3H, -Cl, and -OCH3 groups can be linked on the pore walls through the one-step assembly or post-synthetic modification which can impact on the catalytic performance. As a result, more than 20,000 MOFs with various compositions and topologies have been reported in recent decades. Meanwhile, metal nodes can present Lewis acidity features which are emerged by utilizing transition metals, additionally, they can engage in redox catalysis or support the progression of coupling reactions. Furthermore, metal nodes make various coordination positions by the participation of solvent molecules which can be eliminated through a thermal approach while saving their frameworks [50, 51, 52, 53].
Encapsulating guest particles into MOFs provides a wide range of potential for various applications, particularly in catalysis. A great number of particles can be encapsulated such as inorganic MNPs, coordination complexes, quantum dots, polyoxometalates, enzymes, and polymers through a pre- and post-synthetic strategy. In comparison with the other encapsulating materials, MOFs exhibit confinement effects and shape selectivity in a more effective route, and their synthesis conditions are more moderate. In addition, owing to the existence of a wide range of MOF structures, it is simple to adopt a suitable MOF as the encapsulating material. Hence, the encapsulation of MNPs in MOFs converts them to prominent catalysts that attract considerable attention, due to they present the unique attributes of MOFs alongside the chemical and physical properties of MNPs simultaneously. In addition, this combination of active nanoparticles and functional organic linkers of MOFs can facilitate the charge transfer interactions with active components by coordination or π···π forces, which lead to present a significant enhancement in their catalytic performances [50, 51, 52, 53]. The composites of nanoparticles encapsulated in MOFs can be fabricated through two main strategies—(1) stabilizing pre-synthesized nanoparticles in organic or inorganic agents as core and then enclosed in the shell of MOFs which generate a core-shell structure; (2) utilizing MOFs as mesoporous templates to encapsulate nanoparticles within their cavities [50].
4.2.1 Yolk/core-shell structures of MOFs
Despite the outstanding attributes of the composites of nanoparticles encapsulated in MOFs being able to conduct the effective catalytic activity, some restricting issues still exist that should be noticed. First of all, the pores can be blocked by the encaged nanoparticles during their growth, thus restricting the diffusion of the reaction medium in the catalytic process. Secondly, the loading of guest particles is limited to them which are smaller than the pore dimensions. Furthermore, the other specifications of guest particles like shape and morphology may not have adequate adoption with the host cavities. Moreover, it is not possible to control the deposition of guests mostly and eventually the guest nanoparticles may leach in liquid phase. To tackle these difficulties, the core-shell encapsulation strategy is offered [53].
The core of a core-shell MOFs-based composite can consist of inorganic nanoparticles like metal oxides, carbon materials, and polymers or other MOFs which are encapsulated in a MOF shell. Although the shape, size, morphology, and composition of the core have a significant effect on the catalytic performance of the catalyst, this structure provides effective encapsulation due to the integration of chemical/physical properties of two distinct materials that lead to the synergetic effects. Recently, the yolk-shell or hollow structures attracted further attention because the properties of core-shell MOF-based architecture are optimized in this type of structure that presented added conductivity, hierarchical porosity, and effective diffusion. These structures can be achieved through a controllable etching of the core materials based on core-shell structures. Although carbonizing techniques at high temperature can destroy the MOFs, by employing this approach yolk-shell or hollow structures can be generated in which their porosity and active sites have been maintained [53].
4.2.1.1 Growth of MOFs on pre-synthesized MNPs
Growth of MOFs on pre-synthesized MNPs is the main approach to encapsulate MNPs in shell of MOFs which are implemented in three main strategies that are presented in follow. Although the prominent benefit of this approach is the participation of MNPs with various sizes and shapes, the control of the assembly of metal-support interface is a noticeable attribute. In addition, the principal role in fabricating an appropriate core-shell MOFs-based composite in this strategy belongs to the consistency and conformity between the MNP core and the MOF shell [2].
4.2.1.1.1 Capping agent-assisted synthesis (CAAS)
First of all, the pre-synthesized core materials and capping agents/surfactants like PVP which is an amphiphilic nonionic polymer, are simultaneously provided earlier the growth of MOF shell around them due to prevent the aggregation of active NPs and/or the self-nucleation of MOF particles [53]. In addition, capping agents intensify the compatibility between the MNPs and the MOF shell. While PVP is the most popular capping agent for encapsulation of inorganic materials in MOFs, depending on the design process of core materials can be utilized the other type of surfactants like cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), tetradecyltrimethylammonium bromide (TTAB), cetylpyridinium bromide (CPB), and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). The CTAB is the optimal surfactant in terms of shape/overgrowth control, as well as PVP, owing to the sizes and shapes of the final composite can be adjusted by changing the growth time and the quantity of CTAB in solution. Overall, despite CAAS being a popular method due to the ability to control the shape, size, and chemical nature of the encapsulated core, the multiple steps of this method restricted its utilization [53].
In this method, firstly, the core material is coated by employing an inorganic material like SiO2 as binding sites for shell MOF, or metal oxide as the metal source for the shell MOF growth, and then synthesis of MOF will be implemented. Although in contrast CAAS procedure applying metal oxide prepare some advantages due to their act as metal source or protection of reactive nanoparticles in the core, there are some restrictions to fabricate wrapped nanoparticles owing to the shell MOF chemical stability will be endangered through the etching of the sacrificing metal oxide. Despite the fact that SiO2 can play as a useful protective layer, it can represent as a sacrificial layer to fabricate a yolk-shell structure by conducting selective etching of SiO2. In addition, in some cases, metal oxide/metal(0) nanoparticles have also been utilized as sacrificing agents to fabricate core-shell architectures [53].
4.2.1.1.3 Epitaxial growth synthesis (EGS)
EGS is a synthetic strategy to encapsulate MOF particles as a core with the second layer of MOF. In addition, in most cases, the shell MOF topology is similar to the core MOF and active nanoparticles would be placed at the interface of the two layers prior to the epitaxial growth. Overall, this approach leads to effective integration of MOFs because synergies of various MOFs properties are simultaneously presented by an exceptional composite of MOFs @MOFs. Despite this method presenting a wide range of similarities to the CASS strategy, it can enhance the diffusion of the reaction medium toward the active sites due to the ability to fabricate a super-thin shell with a thickness size less than 10 nm [53, 54].
4.2.2 Encapsulation of the MNPs in the micropores of MOFs
Not only would MOFs provide a fully available pore space to optimize the diffusion of the reaction medium, but they also support the MNPs by enclosing them in their mesoporous matrix that increases the accessibility of active sites and enhances the catalytic activity [53]. Due to MOFs can play the role of host materials and be able to provide confined spaces for nucleation of MNPs, the encapsulation of MNPs into the cavities or channels of MOF matrix can be conducted by impregnating metal precursors in the pre-synthesized MOFs and subsequent reduction of the metal precursors in the micropores of MOFs [2]. Although the precise control of this encapsulation type of MNPs in MOFs seems to be difficult, the most effective pathway can be achieved by the double-solvent procedure prior to the reduction step. As a result of this double-solvent approach, the capillary force intensifies the mass transfer of metal precursors into the micropores of MOFs, which prevents from aggregation of MNPs and minimizes the dispersion of them on the outer surface of MOF [52].
The effective route to utilize noble metals (Pd, Ru, or Pt) in the MOFs-based catalysts is in the form of alloys with low-cost transition metals (Cu, Co, or Ni) owing to decreasing the essential amount of expensive noble metals during the catalyst’s fabrication. Furthermore, the atomic and electronic specifications of their structures can be adjusted which leads to improved catalyst activity. In this approach, firstly low-cost transition MNPs are impregnated in the pre-synthesized MOFs and then are reduced by NaBH4. In the next step, the salts of noble metals were exposed into a solution of MOF in which the galvanic replacement reaction with the transition MNPs with the help of an excitement process like sonication can be started. Finally, it leads to the fabrication of alloy nanoparticles like Co-Ru which is encapsulated in MOF [2, 55].
4.3 Encapsulation of MNPs in organic materials
One of the most effective approaches of ultrasmall MNPs encapsulation with meticulously composed sizes in catalysts is the encapsulation of them in organic materials, which is presented in two parts as follows [2]:
4.3.1 MNPs @organic capsules
Organic capsules, such as dendrimers, which are a family of hyperbranched polymers, have a spherical structure, which is compressed on the exterior and creates hollow space in the interior. By applying organic groups, such as tertiary amines, the interior cavity can be put into particular operation, such as interception of metal ions from the solution through encapsulating them. In addition, the dendrimers can provide a monodic encapsulation of MNPs due to form mono dispersing of them with appropriate adjustment of ultrasmall sizes. Not only can dendrimers operate as effective encapsulating materials owing to the consuming amount of them being approximately the same as the metal ions amount, but also they are able to present a stable form that is unchanged for some months. Thus, these specifications convert them as useful stabilizers in the catalytic process to prepare a monotonous dispersion of nano-catalysts particles with suitable stability [2].
Polyamidoamine (PAMAM) is the most used dendrimer for encapsulating the ultrasmall MNPs. Not only can dendrimers, particularly PAMAM, provide homogeneous catalysis, but an effectual mass transfer will also happen at their exterior surface that leads to a significant improvement in the catalytic activity of the ultrasmall MNPs. To present applicable heterogeneous catalysts of encapsulated ultrasmall MNPs in dendrimers, it seems essential to utilize mesoporous supports, such as silica. Not only do they supply high surface area, but also they prepare constructive enclosures to intensify the stabilization of ultrasmall MNPs in harsh catalytic processes. When applying the silica mesoporous matrix as support, the electrostatic interaction and hydrogen bonding between silica molecules and dendrimers enforce MNPs@ dendrimers into the mesopores of the silica matrix. Not only do these supported catalysts without removing the dendrimer present highlighted stability, selectivity, and activity in a range of catalysis processes, they illustrate adjustable catalytic specifications that are possible to alter in order to enhance the catalyst activity by modifying the active groups on dendrimers, for instance, the tertiary amines can improve the activity of the catalyst due to their electron enrichment attributes. In addition, the unique spatial morphology of dendrimers in the shape of tree may have a significant impact on the reaction substrate stability, including reactant molecules or intermediate species that can lead to decrement of the level of activation energy and improve the turnover frequency [2, 19, 56]. Furthermore, click dendrimers consist of a great ratio of triazole rings, are the other type of dendrimers that can be fabricated from the azide-alkyne cyclo addition. Their rings provide an appropriate situation to accomplish the encapsulation by adsorbing metal ions and grafting the MNPs. In addition, by adding triethylene glycol (TEG) termini to the click dendrimer convert them to an effective soluble one in aqueous solutions which are suitable to fabricate the encapsulation of ultrasmall monometallic or bimetallic like Pt-Co in water solution. Thus, the yield of catalyst performance in an aqueous solution will dramatically enhance [2].
4.3.2 Porous organic cages (POCs)
POCs with intrinsic porosity have prominent attributes, such as high surface areas, shape durability, structural adjustability, and in particular including active practical groups in their cavities that lead them to encapsulate ultrasmall MNPs in an effective way. Moreover, POCs can exhibit either in a crystalline or an amorphous structure. Furthermore, the heterogeneous catalysts that are formed by encapsulating ultrasmall nanoparticles in these POCs would be homogenized in the solutions and have a significant influence on the enhancement of the performance of catalysts. Their specifications can be modified or developed through post-synthetic modification strategies, such as polymorph selection, modular co-crystallization, and the fabrication of composite materials. Not only does the cage wrapping significantly impact porosity, during this route by employing various crystalline polymorphs distinctive physical properties can be exhibited. In addition, to fabricate a cage in the correct form, at least it is essential to provide precursors with proper and precise geometry, for instance, a mild alter in bond angles of the precursors can lead to a distinct cage that might be in size and stoichiometry [2, 57, 58].
To fabricate POGs with polyhedral organic molecules, triamine is utilized to form the top and bottom prism that include a dialdehyde with a long alkyl chain and a thioether group at the three peripheral sides. Although the long alkyl chain provides a cage profoundly soluble in an oil phase due to thriving their hydrophobic properties, the thioether group leads the cage to adsorb the metal ions and prepare suitable sites to graft the MNPs. Therefore, these specifications develop POGs capability to utilize as promising catalysts, particularly in catalyzing organic reactions [2].
Acknowledgments
A very special thanks to Mohammadreza Joharkesh, who helped to depict schemes 1, and 2.
\n',keywords:"encapsulation, yolk/core-shell, mesoporous structures, catalyst, metal nanoparticles",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80929.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80929.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80929",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80929",totalDownloads:48,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 16th 2022",dateReviewed:"February 10th 2022",datePrePublished:"March 23rd 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"March 23rd 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Metal nanoparticles (MNPs) are the main agents in heterogeneous catalysis. Hence, utilizing the effective physico-chemical methods to engage them to achieve the highest catalysts performance with well-controlled size, shape, and surface properties seems to be essential. The encapsulation of metal nanoparticles is a promising approach that enhances the catalytic activity of the materials. Not only the encapsulating structures can adjust the catalytic properties of metal nanoparticles, particularly selectivity, but also prevents them from agglomeration and sintering. In this chapter, the various encapsulating structures consist of yolk/core-shell and mesoporous structures, and encapsulating materials that are divided into three parts, including inorganic materials, metal–organic frameworks, and organic materials are presented.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80929",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80929",signatures:"Masoud Safari and Valiollah Nobakht",book:{id:"10825",type:"book",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nanocomposite Materials",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ashutosh Sharma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10825.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-619-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-618-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-620-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"145236",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashutosh",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"ashutosh-sharma",fullName:"Ashutosh Sharma"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Advantages of encapsulated MNPs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Encapsulating structures",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Yolk/core-shell structures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Enhance the porosity by etching",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Surface-protected calcination",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Mesoporous structures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Encapsulating materials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Encapsulation of MNPs in inorganic materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.1.1 Silica",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_4",title:"4.1.1.1 Silica nano-shells",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"4.1.1.2 Mesoporous framework of silica",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.1.2 Titania nano-shells",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.1.3 CeO2 nano-shells",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.1.4 ZrO2 nano-shells",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.1.5 Carbon nano-shells",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_4",title:"4.1.5.1 Metal @amorphous carbon",level:"4"},{id:"sec_15_4",title:"4.1.5.2 Metal @graphitic carbon",level:"4"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"4.1.6 Zeolites",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_4",title:"4.1.6.1 Yolk/core-shell structures of zeolites",level:"4"},{id:"sec_18_4",title:"4.1.6.2 Mesoporous framework of zeolites",level:"4"},{id:"sec_18_5",title:"4.1.6.2.1 Hydrothermal strategy",level:"5"},{id:"sec_19_5",title:"4.1.6.2.2 Solvent-free crystallization",level:"5"},{id:"sec_20_5",title:"4.1.6.2.3 Secondary growth of zeolite on metal/zeolite seeds",level:"5"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"4.2 Metal: Organic frameworks (MOFs)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"4.2.1 Yolk/core-shell structures of MOFs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_4",title:"4.2.1.1 Growth of MOFs on pre-synthesized MNPs",level:"4"},{id:"sec_24_5",title:"4.2.1.1.1 Capping agent-assisted synthesis (CAAS)",level:"5"},{id:"sec_25_5",title:"4.2.1.1.2 Inorganic template-assisted synthesis (ITAS)",level:"5"},{id:"sec_26_5",title:"4.2.1.1.3 Epitaxial growth synthesis (EGS)",level:"5"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"4.2.2 Encapsulation of the MNPs in the micropores of MOFs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"4.3 Encapsulation of MNPs in organic materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31_3",title:"4.3.1 MNPs @organic capsules",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_3",title:"4.3.2 Porous organic cages (POCs)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_35",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Tian H, Li X, Zeng L, Gong J. 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DOI: 10.1002/anie.201602429'},{id:"B50",body:'Lu G, Li S, Guo Z, Farha OK, Hauser BG, Qi X, et al. Imparting functionality to a metal–organic framework material by controlled nanoparticle encapsulation. Nature Chemistry. 2012;4(4):310-316. DOI: 10.1038/nchem.1272'},{id:"B51",body:'Hu P, Morabito JV, Tsung CK. Core-shell catalysts of MNP core and metal-organic framework shell. ACS Catalysis. 2014;4(12):4409-4419. DOI: 10.1021/cs5012662'},{id:"B52",body:'Li G, Zhao S, Zhang Y, Tang Z. Metal-organic frameworks encapsulating active nanoparticles as emerging composites for catalysis: Recent progress and perspectives. Advanced Materials. 2018;30(51):1800702. DOI: 10.1002/adma.201800702'},{id:"B53",body:'Dai S, Tissot A, Serre C. Recent progresses in metal-organic frameworks based core–shell composites. Advanced Energy Materials. 2021. DOI: 10.1002/aenm.202100061'},{id:"B54",body:'Wu MX, Wang Y, Zhou G, Liu X. Core-shell MOFs@ MOFs: Diverse designability and enhanced selectivity. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. 2020;12(49):54285-54305. DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c16428'},{id:"B55",body:'Chen F, Shen K, Chen J, Yang X, Cui J, Li Y. General immobilization of ultrafine alloyed nanoparticles within metal–organic frameworks with high loadings for advanced synergetic catalysis. ACS Central Science. 2019;5(1):176-185. DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.8b00805'},{id:"B56",body:'Li B, Yang X, Xia L, Majeed MI, Tan B. Hollow microporous organic capsules. Scientific Reports. 2013;3(1):1-6. DOI: 10.1038/srep02128'},{id:"B57",body:'Tozawa T, Jones J, Swamy S, et al. Porous organic cages. Nature Materials. 2009;8:973-978. DOI: 10.1038/nmat2545'},{id:"B58",body:'Wang H, Jin Y, Sun N, Zhang W, Jiang J. Post-synthetic modification of porous organic cages. Chemical Society Reviews. 2021;50:8874-8886. DOI: 10.1039/D0CS01142H'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Masoud Safari",address:"masoud.safari@modares.ac.ir",affiliation:'
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Soifer",authors:[{id:"72613",title:"Prof.",name:"Svetlana",middleName:null,surname:"Khonina",slug:"svetlana-khonina",fullName:"Svetlana Khonina"}]},{id:"30963",doi:"10.5772/34176",title:"Microstructural and Mineralogical Characterization of Clay Stabilized Using Calcium-Based Stabilizers",slug:"microstructural-and-mineralogical-characterization-of-clay-stabilized-using-calcium-based-stabilizer",totalDownloads:6803,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:null,book:{id:"1505",slug:"scanning-electron-microscopy",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy",fullTitle:"Scanning Electron Microscopy"},signatures:"Pranshoo Solanki and Musharraf Zaman",authors:[{id:"20942",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranshoo",middleName:null,surname:"Solanki",slug:"pranshoo-solanki",fullName:"Pranshoo Solanki"},{id:"20945",title:"Prof.",name:"Musharraf",middleName:null,surname:"Zaman",slug:"musharraf-zaman",fullName:"Musharraf Zaman"}]},{id:"42033",doi:"10.5772/53897",title:"Photonic Crystals for Optical Sensing: A Review",slug:"photonic-crystals-for-optical-sensing-a-review",totalDownloads:6048,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:43,abstract:null,book:{id:"3486",slug:"advances-in-photonic-crystals",title:"Advances in Photonic Crystals",fullTitle:"Advances in Photonic Crystals"},signatures:"Benedetto Troia, Antonia Paolicelli, Francesco De Leonardis and Vittorio M. N. Passaro",authors:[{id:"83905",title:"Prof.",name:"Vittorio",middleName:"M. N.",surname:"Passaro",slug:"vittorio-passaro",fullName:"Vittorio Passaro"}]},{id:"38543",doi:"10.5772/48331",title:"Application of FTIR Spectroscopy in Environmental Studies",slug:"application-of-ftir-spectroscopy-in-environmental-studies",totalDownloads:27696,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:43,abstract:null,book:{id:"2397",slug:"advanced-aspects-of-spectroscopy",title:"Advanced Aspects of Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Advanced Aspects of Spectroscopy"},signatures:"Claudia Maria Simonescu",authors:[{id:"142381",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Simonescu",slug:"claudia-maria-simonescu",fullName:"Claudia Maria Simonescu"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52164",title:"An Overview on Quantum Cascade Lasers: Origins and Development",slug:"an-overview-on-quantum-cascade-lasers-origins-and-development",totalDownloads:3250,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"This chapter presents an introductory review on quantum cascade lasers (QCLs). An overview is prefaced, including a brief description of their beginnings and operating basics. Materials used, as well as growth methods, are also described. The possibility of developing GaN-based QCLs is also shown. Summarizing, the applications of these structures cover a broad range, including spectroscopy, free-space communication, as well as applications to near-space radar and chemical/biological detection. Furthermore, a number of state-of-the-art applications are described in different fields, and finally a brief assessment of the possibilities of volume production and the overall state of the art in QCLs research are elaborated.",book:{id:"5389",slug:"quantum-cascade-lasers",title:"Quantum Cascade Lasers",fullTitle:"Quantum Cascade Lasers"},signatures:"Raúl Pecharromán-Gallego",authors:[{id:"188866",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Pecharromán-Gallego",slug:"raul-pecharroman-gallego",fullName:"Raúl Pecharromán-Gallego"}]},{id:"49526",title:"Focused Ion Beams (FIB) — Novel Methodologies and Recent Applications for Multidisciplinary Sciences",slug:"focused-ion-beams-fib-novel-methodologies-and-recent-applications-for-multidisciplinary-sciences",totalDownloads:4321,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Considered as the newest field of electron microscopy, focused ion beam (FIB) technologies are used in many fields of science for site-specific analysis, imaging, milling, deposition, micromachining, and manipulation. Dual-beam platforms, combining a high-resolution scanning electron microscope (HR-SEM) and an FIB column, additionally equipped with precursor-based gas injection systems (GIS), micromanipulators, and chemical analysis tools (such as energy-dispersive spectra (EDS) or wavelength-dispersive spectra (WDS)), serve as multifunctional tools for direct lithography in terms of nano-machining and nano-prototyping, while advanced specimen preparation for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) can practically be carried out with ultrahigh precision. Especially, when hard materials and material systems with hard substrates are concerned, FIB is the only technique for site-specific micro- and nanostructuring. Moreover, FIB sectioning and sampling techniques are frequently used for revealing the structural and morphological distribution of material systems with three-dimensional (3D) network at micro-/nanoscale.This book chapter includes many examples on conventional and novel processes of FIB technologies, ranging from analysis of semiconductors to electron tomography-based imaging of hard materials such as nanoporous ceramics and composites. In addition, recent studies concerning the active use of dual-beam platforms are mentioned",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Meltem Sezen",authors:[{id:"176338",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Meltem",middleName:null,surname:"Sezen",slug:"meltem-sezen",fullName:"Meltem Sezen"}]},{id:"50866",title:"Effects of Different Laser Pulse Regimes (Nanosecond, Picosecond and Femtosecond) on the Ablation of Materials for Production of Nanoparticles in Liquid Solution",slug:"effects-of-different-laser-pulse-regimes-nanosecond-picosecond-and-femtosecond-on-the-ablation-of-ma",totalDownloads:6101,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:"Ultra-short laser pulse interaction with materials has received much attention from researchers in micro- and nanomachining, especially for the generation of nanoparticles in liquid environments, because of the straightforward method and direct application for organic solvents. In addition, the colloidal nanoparticles produced by laser ablation have very high purity—they are free from surfactants and reaction products or by-products. In this chapter, nanosecond, picosecond and femtosecond laser pulse durations are compared in laser material processing. Due to the unique properties of the short and ultra-short laser pulse durations in material processing, they are more apparent in the production of precision material processing and generation of nanoparticles in liquid environments.",book:{id:"5236",slug:"high-energy-and-short-pulse-lasers",title:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers",fullTitle:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers"},signatures:"Abubaker Hassan Hamad",authors:[{id:"183494",title:"Dr.",name:"Abubaker",middleName:"Hassan",surname:"Hamad",slug:"abubaker-hamad",fullName:"Abubaker Hamad"}]},{id:"49537",title:"Electron Diffraction",slug:"electron-diffraction",totalDownloads:10151,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Electron microscopes are usually supplied with equipment for obtaining diffraction patterns and micrographs from the same area of a specimen and the best results are attained if the complete use is to be made of these combined facilities. Electron diffraction patterns are used to obtain quantitative data including phase identification, orientation relationship and crystal defects in materials, etc. At first, a general introduction including a geometrical and quantitative approach to electron diffraction from a crystalline specimen, the reciprocal lattice and electron diffraction in the electron microscope are presented. The scattering process by an individual atom as well as a crystal, the Bragg law, Laue conditions and structure factor are also discussed. Types of diffraction patterns such as ring pattern, spot pattern and Kikuchi pattern, and general and unique indexing diffraction patterns are explained. The procedure for indexing simple, complicated and imperfect patterns as well as Kikuchi lines and a combination of Kikuchi lines and spots is outlined. The known and unknown materials are identified by indexing patterns. Practical comparisons between various methods of analysing diffraction patterns are also described. The basic diffraction patterns and the fine structure in the patterns including specimen tilting experiments, orientation relationship determination, phase identification, twinning, second phases, crystallographic information, dislocation, preferred orientation and texture, extra spots and streaks are described in detail. Finally, electron diffraction patterns of new materials are investigated.",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad and Mohammad Jafari Eskandari",authors:[{id:"176352",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Asadi Asadabad",slug:"mohsen-asadi-asadabad",fullName:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad"},{id:"177600",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Jafari Eskandari",slug:"mohammad-jafari-eskandari",fullName:"Mohammad Jafari Eskandari"}]},{id:"38543",title:"Application of FTIR Spectroscopy in Environmental Studies",slug:"application-of-ftir-spectroscopy-in-environmental-studies",totalDownloads:27691,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:43,abstract:null,book:{id:"2397",slug:"advanced-aspects-of-spectroscopy",title:"Advanced Aspects of Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Advanced Aspects of Spectroscopy"},signatures:"Claudia Maria Simonescu",authors:[{id:"142381",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Simonescu",slug:"claudia-maria-simonescu",fullName:"Claudia Maria Simonescu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"228",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"7",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. 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