\r\n\tWe accept scientific papers which can be presented as original research papers and review papers. The required length of the full chapters is 10-20 pages and the chapters should be original works (not republished). \r\n\tAs a self-contained collection of scholarly papers, the book will target an audience of practicing researchers, academics, Ph.D. students and other scientists. Since it will be published as an Open Access publication, it will allow unrestricted online access to chapters with no reading or subscription fees.
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He received his BSc in Science and MSc in Chemistry from the University of Allahabad, India, in 2004 and 2006, respectively. He received his Ph.D. in Chemistry from the same university in 2010. Dr. Sand is an editorial board member for Polymer Synthesis Journal by Cambridge Scholars Publishing UK and Journal of Polymer Science. He is an academic book editor and a reviewer for international journals including Carbohydrate Polymers, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, and Fibers and Polymers, among others.\r\nDr. Sand’s previous roles include assistant professor (guest faculty) in the Department of Chemistry, University of Allahabad; research associate at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) New Delhi; postdoctoral fellow at Gwangju Institute of Science & Technology (GIST), Korea; postdoctoral fellow at Karolinska Institutet, Sweden; junior researcher at the Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic; and researcher at Soongsil University, South Korea.\r\nHe has more than ten years of teaching and research experience. He is also a life member of the Indian Science Congress and Green Chemistry Network center. 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1. Introduction
An ostomy is a surgically created opening between a hollow organ and the body surface or between two hollow organs. The surgical interventions which result in ostomies are based on the need to modify the natural way of ingestion of food or excretion of waste products. The word ostomy comes from the Latin word ostium, meaning mouth or opening, plus the suffix -tomy, implying a surgical or injury state. The word stoma comes from the Greek word for mouth and is used interchangeably with ostomy.
Depending on the organ involved, an ostomy is further characterized by adding the name of the organ involved: gastrostomy to indicate an opening from the stomach to the skin, an ileostomy from the ileum to the skin, and a colostomy from the colon. In addition an anastomosis between the small bowel and colon is called ileocolostomy; between sigmoid colon and the rectum, a sigmoidorectostomy; and between the stomach and the jejunum, a gastrojejunostomy. A loop ostomy is built by bringing a loop of bowel through the skin and then dividing the antimesenteric border and maturing it so that there are two open lumens, the proximal and the distal.
An ostomy can be created virtually anywhere along the gastrointestinal tract. For diversion of the fecal stream, the most common ostomies involve the distal small intestine (ileostomy) and large intestine (colostomy).
Temporary or permanent fecal diversions by the creation of an ostomy, which is a purposeful anastomosis between a segment of the gastrointestinal tract and the skin of the anterior abdominal wall, may be needed to manage a variety of pathologic conditions, including congenital anomalies, colon obstruction, inflammatory bowel disease, traumatic disruption of the intestinal tract, or gastrointestinal malignancy, when restoration of intestinal continuity is contraindicated or not immediately feasible given the patient’s clinical condition. End ostomy is the name indicative of a hollow viscera pull to the skin as a terminal opening. In this way only one open lumen is viewed. The majority of ostomies today are created as a temporary measure, although the ostomies with a permanent intention are not rare. Construction of an ostomy should always be performed using a segment of healthy, well-vascularized bowel. Expected difficulties arise in morbidly obese patients or those with extensive adhesions.
This chapter will discuss ostomies brought to the surface of the body, focusing primarily on ileostomy and colostomy complications with the proposed treatment approach.
Even when the stoma is technically adequate, alterations on the corporal image, lifestyle, and sexuality, as well as the need for auto care may occur leading to social and psychological disturbances which difficult the individual social adaptation [1].
2. Ostomy planning
2.1 Counseling
The multiple aspects involved in rehabilitation of patients with an ostomy including the medical and nursing care must be initiated at the moment of the indication and extended until a complete adaptation of the patient with the new situation occurs.
Preoperative preparation prior to planned ostomy creation includes stoma site selection, emotional support, and patient education, as well as early planning for subsequent discharge, ongoing rehabilitation care for the patient and family, and outpatient follow-up.
Patients who require an ostomy for fecal diversion often experience physical, psychological, and emotional stress related to misconceptions and fears regarding social acceptance, sexuality, and economic burden. To allay these fears, preoperative education, counseling, and ostomy site selection should be undertaken, whenever possible, from a skilled ostomy nurse specialist. Several aspects going from the initial patient’s approach with clarification of doubts about diagnosis, familiar history, intestinal habit, medicines, social activities, emotional state, psychomotor skills, and schooling to skin conditions’ evaluation are important to provide a proper knowledge about the medical condition and adequately educate the patient. To achieve the autonomy about the ostomy care, the patient should be oriented toward maintaining a well-recognized standard of care, with decrease of complications. In addition to improved overall quality of life, preoperative counseling is associated with decreased stoma-related postoperative complications, improved postoperative patient stoma proficiency, and earlier discharge from the hospital [2, 3].
2.2 Site selection and marking
Proper site selection is essential for minimizing postoperative complications and achieving a good postoperative quality of life. A poor site selection is more likely in patients undergoing emergency surgery compared with elective surgery. Obesity, scars, type of surgery (emergency or elective), underlying disease, abdominal wall contour (sitting and standing), prior abdominal incisions, bony prominences, occupation, clothing style, and physical activity impairment can be cited as factors which difficult the adequate site of an abdominal stoma [4] (Figure 1A and B).
Once selected the ostomy site, laparoscopic approach is a safe and effective alternative to laparotomy for creating a loop ostomy. The advantages of the laparoscopic approach are that it provides an excellent view of the abdominal cavity and minimizes the risks and complications of an open procedure. Whatever surgical approach is used, the goal is to obtain a stoma technically in good conditions in order to prevent complications (Figure 1C).
Figure 1.
Stoma site demarcation. This is an important step to achieve a technically good result after ostomy confection allowing adequate pouch adaptation, especially in obese patients with skin folds (A), permitting the natural wear of belts and cloths (B). The ideal appearance of an ostomy is depicted at C.
3. Intestinal ostomies: routine care
Many pouching systems are available, as either one- or two-piece systems. The main functions of ostomy pouches are to contain the ostomy effluent, contain odor, and protect the peristomal skin. The patient should be taught strategies that can help promote pouch adherence to the skin and minimize leakage. Occasional leakage is common and is nothing to be concerned about. However, if the leak is constant, a double check of the stoma bag is advisable. A stoma leakage usually results from a stoma bag that has not been fitted correctly leaving gaps in the wafer and the hole does not fit snugly around the stoma. If this happens an ostomate nurse should be contacted for advice and eventual adjustments [5].
3.1 Protecting the peristomal skin
The protection of peristomal skin is better achieved with simple measures such as:
Selecting a bag system that conforms to the abdominal contour at the stoma location
Sizing the opening of the barrier ring to minimize the amount of exposed skin
Using adjunctive products to improve the fixation of the pouch (adhesive agents, Skin Prep) and to prevent irritation and injury of the skin (skin barrier paste and powder)
The abdominal skin around the stoma should always look the same as the skin anywhere else on the abdomen. Ostomy output can make this skin tender or sore. To prevent skin dermatitis, the American Cancer Society recommends:
Use the right size pouch and skin barrier opening. An opening that’s too small can cut or injure the stoma and may cause it to swell. If the opening is too large, output could get to and irritate the skin.
Change the pouching system regularly to avoid leaks and skin irritation.
Do not rip the pouching system away from the skin or remove it more than once a day unless there’s a problem.
Clean the skin around the stoma with water, and dry the skin completely before putting on a skin barrier or adapting the pouch.
Watch for sensitivities and allergies (to the adhesive, skin barrier, paste, tape, or pouch material).
Patch testing different products for skin sensitivity or allergies.
Loop ileostomies are typically more difficult to manage than end ileostomies because the stoma frequently empties close to the skin surface [6].
3.2 Emptying and changing the ostomy pouching system
It is important that the patient be taught how to change and empty the pouching system before leaving the hospital. The use of sterile supplies is not necessary. Toilet paper, facial tissue, or paper towels can be used to clean around the stoma instead of sterile gauze pads.
3.3 How to empty the pouch
Odor and gas are common concerns for any individual with an ostomy.
The patient should be assured that ostomy pouches are odor-proof, but when the pouch is emptied, odor is normal. Simple strategies can help reduce odor.
To keep bulging and leaking, it’s recommended emptying the ostomy pouch when it is about 1/3 full. To empty the pouch, the patient should adopt the following steps:
Sit as far back on the toilet as you can or on a chair facing the toilet.
Place a small strip of toilet paper in the toilet to decrease splashing.
Hold the bottom of the pouch up and open the clip at the end or tail of the pouch.
Slowly unroll the tail over the toilet.
Gently empty the contents.
Clean the outside and inside of the pouch tail with toilet paper.
Roll up the end of the pouch and clip.
Change the pouch one to two times weekly and as needed for any signs of leakage, itching, or burning of the peristomal skin.
Keep the tail of the pouch clean so that it does not become a source of odor. This can be accomplished by everting the tail of a pouch prior to emptying it.
Use a room spray or pouch deodorant to minimize odor associated with emptying.
3.4 Time to change the pouching system
Different pouching systems are made to last different lengths of time. Some are changed every day, some every 3 days or so, and some just once a week. It depends on the type of pouch used. There may be less bowel activity at certain times of the day. It’s easiest to change the pouching system during these times. Every patient establishes its own preference about the proper time to change the pouch. Some prefer early morning before breakfast and some allow at least 1 h after a meal. Right after surgery, ostomy output may be thin and watery and the bowel discharges unpredictable. As the output gets thicker, it becomes easier to select the best time for changing.
3.5 The pouching system seal
The pouching system must stick to the skin. It’s important to change it before it loosens or leaks. The length of time a pouch will stay sealed to the skin depends on many things, such as the weather, skin condition, scars, weight changes, diet, activity, body shape near the stoma, and the nature of the ostomy output.
Other factors may affect how long a pouch sticks to the skin. Among them it can be cited:
Sweating will shorten the number of days the pouching system can be worn.
Body heat and outside temperature cause skin barriers to loosen more quickly than usual.
Moist, oily skin may reduce wearing time.
Weight changes will affect how long you can wear a pouch. Gaining or losing weight after stoma surgery can change the abdominal shape with need for use of an entirely different system.
Diet may affect the seal. Foods that cause watery output are more likely to break a seal than a thicker discharge.
Physical activities may affect wearing time. Swimming, very strenuous sports, or anything that intensifies sweat may shorten wear time [7].
3.6 Bathing
To take a shower is possible with or without a pouching system in place. Normal exposure to air or contact with soap and water will not harm the stoma. Water will not flow into the stoma. Soap will not irritate it, but soap may interfere with the skin barrier sticking to the skin. Taking a bath without the pouching system is however highly impractical for the most obvious of reasons, primarily the risk of fecal output while bathing, which cannot be controlled. It’s best to only use water while cleaning the skin around your stoma. If soap is used, one must be sure to rinse the skin well.
3.7 Shaving hair under the pouch
Having a lot of hair around the stoma can make it hard to get the skin barrier to stick well and may cause pain when the pouch is removed. It is advisable whenever possible to trim instead of shaving with a blade the skin hairs around the stoma to prevent skin scarification and inflammatory reaction. However if the hair density is high and shaving is indicated, it is recommended a dry shave of the skin around the stoma with stoma powder, since soap and shaving creams have lotions and oils that may impair the skin barrier sticking. After shaving, the skin must be rinsed well and dried before applying a pouch.
3.8 What to wear when having a colostomy
No special clothes for everyday wear are needed. Ostomy pouches are fairly flat and hard to see under most clothing. The pressure of elastic undergarments will not harm the stoma or prevent bowel function.
If the ostomate gains weight after the ostomy surgery, this can affect the clothes he was used to more than the pouching system itself.
Snug undergarments such as cotton stretch underpants, T-shirts, or camisoles may give an extra support, security, and help conceal pouches. A simple pouch cover adds comfort by absorbing body sweat and keeps the plastic pouch from resting against your skin. Men can wear either boxer or jockey-type shorts.
4. Ostomy problems and complications
The construction of an intestinal stoma should not be considered a trivial undertaking. Serious complications requiring immediate reoperations can occur, as can minor problems that will subject the patient to daily and nightly distress. Intestinal stomas undoubtedly will dramatically change lifestyles. Patients will experience physiologic and psychologic detriment with stoma-related problems [8].
Activities
A common concern for many patients is the impact of the stoma on activities of daily living. The patient can be reassured that most activities can be safely resumed with minimal, if any, modifications. As an example, bathing and showering can be performed with the pouch on or off, and clothing modifications are generally not required. Most sports activities can be resumed as well, with the exception of extreme contact sports, which could potentially damage the stoma. The addition of a belt or binder is helpful in maintaining a pouch seal during vigorous activity and with perspiration.
Sex
Sexual activity is a particular concern for many patients with an ostomy. Patient counseling should address questions regarding sexual activity and partner response. The ostomy by itself does not affect organic sexual function; however it is advised to empty the pouch and assure an intact pouch seal before engaging in sexual activity [9].
Travel
Patients who are traveling should be advised to take extra ostomy supplies, to avoid exposing ostomy pouches and adhesives to extreme temperatures, which may alter the adhesive quality, and drink only bottled water if tap water is not known to be safe.
4.1 Risk factors for stomal complications
The main risk factors for the occurrence of stoma complications are:
Stoma type—ileostomies are more prone for the complication occurrence than colostomy or gastrostomy.
Stoma protrusion.
Type of surgery—emergency surgery is more likely to evolute with complication.
Stoma site—lack of preoperative demarcation leading to inadequate stoma placement.
Quality of stomal bag devices.
Inadequate stoma care—the ideal care is provided by specialized nurse.
4.2 Functional complications
Output
Patients with colostomy or ileostomy experiment physiologic changes related to the loss of continence and reduced ileal and colonic absorptive surface area with consequent fluid and electrolyte balance disturbances and lifestyle adaptation but generally with little effect on nutrition. It should be emphasized that if more than 50 cm terminal ileum is resected, nutritional consequences are likely to occur [10].
Ostomy output is related to the location of the opening in the bowel, as the more proximal the ostomy, the less surface area is available for water and electrolyte absorption and so the more liquid the stools. Right-sided colostomies, for example, not only produce a high volume but also have the additional disadvantage of a malodorous output because of the effects of colonic bacteria.
The type and volume of output (effluent), and therefore fluid loss, are determined by the location of the stoma relative to the ileocecal valve. Ileostomies, cecostomies, and ascending colostomies typically produce output (effluent) >500 mL/day that contains digestive enzymes, which is irritating to the mucosa and skin, while descending/sigmoid colostomies produce stool that does not contain digestive enzymes.
The output from an ileostomy tends to be fairly watery and green or bilious in color. Within a few weeks of resumption of a regular diet, the material becomes thicker and more yellow-brown, with a watery porridge or applesauce consistency. Depending on the amount of small bowel removed, the output is looser, and the patient is more prone to dehydration. Most ileostomates notice little odor from the output, but, certain foods (e.g., eggs and fish) may produce an offensive smell.
The ostomy output is also affected by diet, fluid intake, medications, and organic problems such as Crohn’s disease or adhesions. Diarrhea, frequent loose or watery bowel movements in greater amounts, than expected, is a warning that something is not right. It can come suddenly and may cause cramps. The causes of diarrhea are variable: diet, emotional stress, intestinal infection, antibiotics, and short bowel syndrome.
Volume
In a healthy individual, 1000–2000 mL of fluid passes through the ileocecal valve daily. This volume is reduced to 100–200 mL in normal stool as it passes through the colon. So a left-sided colostomy output is similar in volume and composition to the feces that would be passed transanally. The volume of ileostomy output varies fairly widely among patients but only mildly from day to day in a single individual. In the early postoperative period, the ileostomy output is 1000–1500 ml/day. In a few days, this volume is reduced to about 500 ml, even with no dietary restrictions; however it is known that fatty food and large amounts of liquid increase transit and the fluidity of the effluent.
Transit
Resection of anus and/or colon affects the function of the proximal GI tract and the integration of endocrine and neuroenteric activities. It seems that small bowel transit time decrease after ileostomy due to adaptation to the new condition whose mechanisms are not yet well understood.
Microbial flora of an individual is fairly stable over time, whereas there is great variability among individuals. After creation of an ileostomy, the distal ileum is rapidly colonized with a variety of bacteria.
Nutrition
The colon has little role in the maintenance of normal nutrition, working primarily to absorb fluid and to store feces. Thus, removal of the colon has little effect on nutrition. However, loss of part of the terminal ileum may result in loss of bile acids and poor absorption of fat and fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamin B12 may also not be adequately absorbed in patients with terminal ileal loss that may result in pernicious or macrocytic anemia requiring monthly administration of vitamin B12. Absorption may also be impeded by ileal bacterial overgrowth. Kidney stones may be a consequence of chronic dehydration and acid urine. Adding sodium bicarbonate to the diet and increasing fluid intake may help to prevent uric acid stone formation.
4.3 Technical and anatomic stoma-related complications
Proper creation, management, and closure of ostomy are critical both for the treatment of specific disorders and for the peace of mind of the patient. A poor site selection contributes to the rate of stomal complications and is more likely to occur in patients undergoing emergency surgery compared with elective surgery. Other risk factors for stomal problems include:
The rates for stomal complications range from 14 to 79%. Peristomal dermatitis is the most common complication. Other complications include poor stoma siting, high output, ischemia, retraction, parastomal hernia formation, stomal stenosis, bleeding, and prolapse. Surgeons should be cognizant of these complications before, during, and after stoma creation, and adequate measures should be taken to avoid them [11].
Stomal and peristomal complications can occur in the early postoperative period or many years later. Complications occurring in the course of days after surgery are often related to technical issues. Those occurring within 3 months of stoma construction—necrosis, bleeding, retraction, and mucocutaneous separation—are more frequently related to suboptimal stoma site selection. Late stomal complications are generally described for permanent ostomies and include parastomal hernia, stomal prolapse, and stenosis. The site of closure of the ostomy can be associated with complications such as delayed healing, infection, and hernia formation.
Loop ileostomies have higher complication rates when compared to end colostomy or end ileostomy and with loop colostomy. The most common problems of end and loop ileostomies are dehydration, skin irritation, and small bowel obstruction. Prolapse can occur in all types of stomas but is more prevalent in loop colostomies, especially those constructed using the transverse colon.
4.4 Time-related complications
Immediate—occurring up to 24 h after stoma placement. The more common immediate complications are edema, bleeding, ischemia, and necrosis.
Early—occur 1–15 days after surgery. The more common are retraction, mucocutaneous detachment, peristomal evisceration, and peristomal fistula.
Late—occur from 15 days to months after surgery. Retraction, stenosis, prolapse, granuloma, and peristomal hernia are examples of the more important late complications.
4.4.1 Peristomal skin complications
Dermatitis
Venous varices
Pseudoverrucous lesions
Bacterial and fungal infections
4.4.2 When the ostomate should call the doctor or ostomy nurse
Cramps lasting more than 2 or 3 h
Continuous nausea and vomiting
No ostomy output for 4–6 h with cramping and nausea
Severe watery discharge lasting more than 5 or 6 h
Bad odor lasting more than a week (this may be a sign of infection.)
A cut in the stoma
Injury to the stoma
Bad skin irritation or deep sores (ulcers)
A lot of bleeding from the stoma opening (or a moderate amount in the pouch that you notice several times when emptying it)
Continuous bleeding where the stoma meets the skin
Unusual change in your stoma size or color
Anything unusual going on with your ostomy
The complication occurrence in intestinal stomas might be related to factors such as lack of demarcation of the skin site, surgical technique itself, or to postoperative care. Each type of complication deserves a different treatment approach. For sure a prompt intervention is advisable to avoid or to minimize the complication occurrence.
5. Illustration of more common ostomy complications
The more common type of ostomy complications are:
Mucosal edema
Peristomal dermatitis
Retraction
Ostomy prolapse
Mucosal/skin detachment
Hematoma
Necrosis
Parastomal hernia
Stenosis
The following pictures are illustrative examples of these complications.
5.1 Mucosal edema
On the practical settings, edema may not be considered as a true complication as it can result from a normal physiological response after manipulation of intestinal loop. It is normal for the stoma to be edematous postoperatively looking swollen within 4–6 hours. The swelling progresses for the first 2 days and by the fifth day subsides markedly. The edema continues to decrease for the first 6–8 weeks after surgery. While edematous, the stomal mucosa is pale and translucent and the stoma tissue remains soft. The main approach to treat an ostomy edema is observation plus the care with manipulation and correct application of pouch, to avoid mechanical trauma. It should be reminded that if the edema is caused by technical problems, e.g., a narrowed abdominal wall opening, it may be advisable to reoperate in order to correct the problem [11] (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Ileostomy edema. Usual appearance; (B) care to apply the bag avoiding trauma. The stoma measurement selected for the pouching system should allow for an opening 1/8 inch to prevent stoma necrosis.
5.2 Peristomal dermatitis
Peristomal dermatitis is the most common stoma complication. It is characterized by skin irritation around the stoma, caused by several factors: irritation of the skin by feces, contact or products used in ostomy care which may be corrosive, contact allergy due to the nature of the chemical component of the pouch in contact with the skin, mechanical infection by pouch withdrawal-induced trauma or by compression of the fixation belt, and bacterial or fungal skin infection caused by humidity and effluent from gut making the peristomal skin more vulnerable to microorganisms’ proliferation. The most common symptoms are itching, burning sensation, and pain. Diabetic, immunocompromised, and long-term use of antibiotics increase the risk of infectious dermatitis in patients with intestinal stomas [12, 13] (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Peristomal dermatitis. Irritation caused by the effluent in an inadequate pouch adaptation to the skin allowing the prolonged feces/skin contact (A) and an early pouch detachment (B). Blister at the adhesive area in the periphery of pouch resin itself (C). Dermatitis caused by both pouch resin and peripheral adhesive (D). Dermatitis due to contact of feces with skin (E). Fungal dermatitis (F).
5.3 Retraction
A stoma normally protrudes slightly above the skin level being more evident in ileostomies than in colostomies. A retraction of the stoma occurs when the stoma lays flat to the skin or below the skin surface level. Retraction has been reported to occur in as many as 10–24% of all ostomates, can be partial involving the skin and subcutaneous tissue or complete when the stoma is below the level of the fascia, can occur early or late after ostomy, and may result from a poor surgical stoma construction with consequent exteriorization of intestinal loop under tension, insufficient stomal length, poor fixation of the loop to the abdominal wall, or lack of ostomy support. It can also be secondary to abdominal structure anomalies such as thick abdominal wall related to edema, distention, or obesity. The premature removal of the loop device to support the intestine outside the abdominal wall may also contribute to this complication as well as the later scar formation secondary to healing of a mucocutaneous separation or of a necrotic stoma or even chronic peristomal irritation that healed with scar or adhesion at the mucocutaneous junction.
The retraction can become problematic as it can affect the fit of the stoma bag and cause leaks, which can lead to sore and broken skin. This can be rectified by using a stoma bag with a convex wafer to push the stoma forward, an ostomy belt to help support the stoma, and/or barrier rings or a barrier paste to help keep the output off the skin. The depth of retraction may increase with sitting and can vary with peristalsis. Patients with retracted stomas present with effluent undermining the pouching system, persistent leakage, shortened pouch wear time, and resultant peristomal irritant dermatitis [11].
The proper care will depend on a close observation of peristomal area, to prevent worsening of the retraction. The goal of managing a retracted stoma is to maintain a secure seal between the pouch and the skin. Conservative treatment with convex devices attached to the belt and protective skin pastes to fulfill spaces and leveling the interface skin/stoma may solve most cases, but surgical revision should be indicated when a good pouching seal cannot be obtained and skin irritation persists. It should be reminded that complete circumferential mucocutaneous separation accompanied with stomal retraction below the fascia may be a surgical emergency as it can lead to peritonitis (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Ostomy retraction with light (A) and severe inflammatory reaction.
5.4 Prolapse
Prolapse is the term used to describe the telescoping out of the bowel through the stoma. As a consequence the stoma lengthens and becomes more susceptible to abrasion or infection. Prolapse can be partial or complete, and either the distal or the proximal segment of the loop ostomy may prolapse being the distal portion of the bowel the most frequent site to prolapse. The etiology can involve stoma construction difficulties including a weak abdominal wall with poorly developed fascial support; creation of excessively large opening in the abdominal wall; positioning the stoma out of the rectus abdominal muscle; postoperative increase of the abdominal pressure due to obesity, cough, or pregnancy; bowel edema; and inadequate fixation of the bowel to the abdominal wall [14].
Clinically the prolapse increases the size and the length of the stoma and makes the patient’s ability to conceal the stoma beneath clothing difficult. Also the edematous stoma bleeds and is more prone to trauma. A prolapsed stoma could also become obstructed making it impossible for feces to pass through what can lead to ischemia and alteration of the color that appears purple or cyanotic. Stomal irritation, bleeding, necrosis, and gangrene of the distal end of the prolapsed stoma may be seen in chronic prolapse. Conservative management includes tender manual reduction of the prolapse, appliance of a hernia type to exert a mild compression, cold dressing to induce vasoconstriction, use of sugar to induce osmotic force to decrease the amount of liquid into the intestinal layers, and ostomate lying down position. The goal of care is to provide a leak-proof pouching system applied while the patient is supine and the prolapse reduced. Surgical correction of prolapse is indicated for definitive ostomies with prediction of long permanence time and involves resection of the prolapse and stoma reconstruction. Temporary prolapse is best treated at the time of reconstruction of intestinal transit [15] (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Stoma prolapse. Note the abnormal length of the stoma. If left untreated the ostomate is more susceptible to abrasions or infection.
5.5 Mucocutaneous detachment
Mucocutaneous detachment is the separation of the stoma from the peristomal skin. It can be partial with area of separation shallow or deep or circumferential. Usually it is caused by factors such as (a) secondary to retraction or necrosis; (b) sequel of poor healing from an underlying disease process, more commonly in the immunocompromised patient related to malnutrition, corticosteroid therapy, diabetes, infection, or post-radiation therapy that result in superficial infection and poor healing; and/or (c) iatrogenic, e.g., creating an oversized opening in the skin when forming the stoma or excessive tension on the suture line, causing a separation of the mucocutaneous junction in the immediate postoperative phase of healing. The ostomate may complain of pain or burning. Assessing the tissue type at the base of the separation often reveals fibrin slough that produces mild to moderate amount of drainage. Stool or urine draining from this site may indicate a fistula. The treatment is conservative consisting of cleaning the wound and use of calcium alginate and hydrofiber. Antibiotics may be indicated for superficial detachment until completion of the healing process. In cases of mucocutaneous separation extending to below the fascia, surgery may be necessary to avoid contamination of the abdominal cavity and peritonitis [11] (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Mucocutaneous detachment. (A) Usual appearance and (B) mucocutaneous separation due to peristomal infection.
5.6 Bleeding and hematoma
The abundant vascularization of the stoma with delicate blood vessels near to the top facilitates bleeding easily. Spots of blood are not a cause for alarm. Cleaning around the stoma as you change the pouch or skin barrier may cause slight bleeding. If the bag has rubbed around the stoma or the blood comes around the edges while the stoma is being cleaned might not be a cause for concern. However if the bleeding is coming from inside the stoma, then it is important to contact your stoma nurse or your doctor for evaluation. The bleeding originating at the mucosal surface will usually stop quickly.
Light bleeding that does not stop spontaneously or excessive bleeding from the stoma usually at the mucocutaneous junction is more frequent in the immediate postoperative period, although it can also occur later. Bleeding may occur due to inadequate hemostasis during stoma construction, portal hypertension, trauma, underlying disease, and because of some medications, such as prolonged use of analgesic anti-inflammatory drugs, blood thinners, and chemotherapy. A correct diagnosis is mandatory to differentiate the mucosal mild trauma-associated bleeding during a pouching system change from other causes that may need even a surgical approach. The adequate treatment will depend on the etiology of bleeding. If the bleeding persists and is superficial and does not stop spontaneously, cauterization, suture placement, topical hemostatic agents (silver nitrate), or direct pressure are required procedures. Frank bleeding presenting as blood that runs down the abdominal wall requires immediate notification of the surgeon. The surgeon removes sutures, lifts the mucosa, secures the vessel with fine forceps, and ligates the bleeder. Portal hypertension induces varices around the stoma resulting in bleeding from the mucocutaneous junction. If severe, it may require sclerotherapy or portosystemic shunting. The most common cause of pharmacological bleeding is the adverse effect of prolonged use of analgesic anti-inflammatory drugs. When bleeding occurs in the late PO period, it may be associated with incorrect use of the ostomy pouch or trauma that can happen following practice of aggressive sports, for example. The management includes the use of compression with a cold dressing. A transparent plastic pouch should be used to permit a direct observation of the stoma allowing quick detection of bleeding or hematoma [15] (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Bleeding in a mucocutaneous detachment (A) and hematoma at the stoma fixing suture (B).
5.7 Necrosis
Necrosis may occur when the blood flow to or from the stoma is impaired or interrupted, resulting in severe tissue ischemia with impairment of stoma viability or tissue death. Initially the mucosa turns pale evolving to a purple, brown, and black color. The consistency becomes soft or hard and dry with loss of the characteristic brightness of a normal mucosa. The causes for stoma necrosis are extensive tension on the mesentery, excessive stripping of the mesentery, sutures too narrowly spaced, or constricting sutures. It also can result from interruption of blood flow secondary to embolization or because of abdominal structure anomalies such as thick abdominal wall secondary to edema, distention, or obesity. A higher rate of necrosis has been reported in obese and acutely ill patients.
Observation in cases of superficial or partial (less than one third of circumference) mucosal necrosis is the best approach. Debridement of the necrotic area can define the extension and deepness of necrosis. If the process compromises the whole intestinal wall or extends beyond the aponeurotic plan, a surgical intervention is indicated through the stoma opening or through the main surgical wound if a laparotomy had been performed. The use of two-piece pouch facilitates the daily observation of the stoma with no need of withdrawal of the skin attached piece. Postoperative nursing assessment and management also help prevent potential impairment of a good blood supply to the stoma [11, 16] (Figure 8).
Figure 8.
Stoma necrosis. (A) Partial necrosis; (B) extensive necrosis. An endoscopy is useful to evaluate if the necrosis extends below the level of the fascia. Surgery may be necessary.
5.8 Parastomal hernia
The parastomal hernia, a protrusion of the bowel or loops of intestine through the fascial opening into the subcutaneous tissue around the stoma, occurs months to years after surgery because of surgical technical error or following gradual enlargement of the fascial defect. The incidence rate for parastomal hernia varies with the type and age of the stoma and with surgical technique. It is caused by lack of preoperative demarcation of stoma site with exteriorization outside the rectus abdominal muscle. The main risk factors are intra-abdominal pressure, advanced age, obesity, chronic cough, and long-term use of corticosteroids. If the cause is associated to slight peristomal weakness, a common finding in patients with colostomy, surgical correction is usually not necessary. However some hernias interfere with the proper use of the pouch, and surgery for hernia correction is mandatory [17].
Parastomal hernia presents as a bulge around the stoma and may be partial or circumferential. In supine position the bulge may reduce in size, whereas sitting or standing position, Valsalva maneuver, or cough tends to protrude the hernia, whereas lying down and stoma manual compression intrude the hernia back to the abdomen. The hernia change in position makes the pouching seal more difficult. CT scan with oral contrast confirms the diagnosis. The patient may complain a feeling of discomfort or fullness, and if the stoma incarcerates, the patient presents with an acute obstructed abdomen. The use of support binders when prolonged episodes of increased intra-abdominal pressures are expected (e.g., heavy lifting or hard physical activity) is recommended. Asymptomatic patients can be treated conservatively by the use of support belt or binder, for example, by constipation prevention with diet modification and laxative or stool softener. If signs of obstruction, incarceration, perforation, or recurrent pouching difficulties are present, the patient should be referred to a surgeon. Surgery repair of parastomal hernia can be done by fascial repair, prosthetic mesh, or stoma relocation; however recurrence rates after surgical treatment vary from 33 to 76% [17, 18] (Figure 9).
Figure 9.
Parastomal hernia in a prolapsed stoma (A) and a huge parastomal hernia (B).
5.9 Stenosis
Stenosis of the stomy opening is characterized by stricture or retraction which makes drainage of the intestinal effluent more difficult. Its incidence is related to the surgical technique itself or as a consequence of precocious complications such as partial necrosis, recurrent inflammatory processes, Crohn’s disease, weight gain, and tumor recurrence. The symptoms include abdominal excess of gases, frequent cramps and diarrhea, as well as thin feces. The best option for the treatment of this complication is surgery, but increase of hydric ingestion and eating foods which favor the feces softening may improve the ostomy output [4, 5] (Figure 10).
Figure 10.
Stoma stenosis. Note the retraction of skin (A) and the scar tissue around the stoma opening in a chronic stoma stenosis (B).
Emeritus of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
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1. Introduction
With the rapid development of human civilization, the consequent air pollution and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have threaten human being for years. Energy conservation and emission reduction is an increasing priority in the development of transportation industry.
A number of approaches can be used to improve energy efficiency and reduce CO2 emission, such as reducing aerodynamic resistance, transmission loss, tire rolling resistance, and weight [1]. Among these options, lightweight structure is currently considered as one of the most efficient solutions. In recent years, lightweighting has become a major research theme in the transport industry around the world.
Material substitution appears a promising option for lightweighting. Traditionally, steel, such as low-carbon steel and stainless steel, is used as main material to build major structure of transportation equipment. Titanium, aluminum and magnesium are promising lightweight metallic materials as alternatives to steel and cast iron. Among these materials, aluminum shows a balanced performance, such as light weight, good corrosion resistance, good formability, high specific strength and relatively low cost. Density of aluminum alloy is only one third of steel. Considering structural optimization due to material replacement, the overall weight of rail car-body is decreased by 50% when aluminum is used. This degree of reduction deserves an effort in engineering application.
Although aluminum accounts for ~8 wt% (by mass) of the earth’s crust, the high affinity of aluminum for oxygen, as well as the stability of aluminum oxides and silicates hindered its separation for a long time. For this reason, aluminum became economic for engineering applications only at the end of the nineteenth century [2].
Aluminum alloys was originally used in aviation industry which is an important part of the transportation industry. It was firstly used on Junker F13 fuselage with the invention of 2017-T4 alloy in 1920. It began to be used in the manufacture of train with increase of the train speed until 1980s. So far, it has been widely used in passenger cars with speeds above 200km/h, such as German ICE series high-speed EMU car-body, French ALSTOM double-decker TGV high-speed EMU car-body, Italy Pendolino(ETR) series pendulum high-speed EMU car-body, Japanese Shinkansen, and Chinese CRH high-speed EMU car-body and so on. Especially with the huge expansion of high-speed rail lines in China in the last 20 years, the development and application of aluminum alloy prospered.
A series of new manufacturing processes, such as friction stir welding and laser welding, were developed and applied. These technical progress promoted application of aluminum alloy not only in high speed trains but also urban rail vehicles, which continuously contributes to energy conservation and climate change. This chapter will introduce the application status and key technologies of aluminum alloy for manufacturing high speed train. It is expected that the technical analysis and summary will inspire and encourage material scientist and engineers to vigorously push technological innovation for comfortable travel experience in an environmental-friendly mode.
2. Characteristics of aluminum alloy
The special operating environment of trains and unique properties of aluminum alloy promotes the their combination, which favored the popularization of high speed train and in-depth application of aluminum alloy in transportation industry. For engineering application on rail transit vehicles, aluminum has the following advantages:
The net weight of the vehicle can be greatly reduced. The use of aluminum alloy can greatly reduce the net weight of rail passenger car while it meets the safety requirements in the aspect of strength and rigidity. Generally speaking, car-body made of aluminum alloy is 30%~50% lighter than that of steel. For high-speed and double-deck trains, the most effective way to make vehicles light is to increase the proportion of aluminum used in vehicles as much as possible.
Aluminum alloy has excellent fire resistance. Although the melting point of aluminum (660 °C) is much lower than that of steel (1530 °C), the fire-resistant of the car body is not only related to the melting point of the material, but also to the thermal conductivity of the material. Compared with steel, aluminum alloy has excellent thermal conductivity and better heat dissipation.
Aluminum alloy has good corrosion resistance. The surface of aluminum alloy is easy to form a layer of dense oxide film, which has a good anti-oxidation ability in the atmosphere. Therefore, car-body made of aluminum alloy has better corrosion resistance than that of steel, especially in the components that are not easy to be coated, such as the box structure and some of its internal beams and columns, aluminum counterpart show obvious advantages. At the same time, aluminum alloy surface can be colored, painted, sprayed, through chemical methods to greatly improve the corrosion resistance of the components, together with improved decorative effect.
Aluminum alloy is easy to process, manufacture and maintain. With the development and application of large hollow and complex section aluminum profiles, aluminum welding technology is constantly improving, and vehicle manufacturing technology is becoming more and more mature. Aluminum alloy parts is easy to be replaced, and suitable for all kinds of surface treatment. The workload need for manufacturing rail car-body is also greatly reduced than the steel one.
The price of aluminum alloy is moderate. The high price of aluminum material increases the manufacturing cost of vehicles, but aluminum alloy also makes vehicles light, which leads to the increase of transport capacity, reduction of energy consumption and reduction of maintenance costs. Taking the comparison of maintenance hours of vehicles leaving the factory at 10 A as an example, steel car is 100%, aluminum car is 52%.The recovery value of scrapped vehicles is 100% for steel vehicles and 480% for aluminum vehicles. From the perspective of comprehensive economic benefits, the use of aluminum vehicles is economical and reasonable. Therefore, the final cost of using aluminum alloy is moderate.
3. Typical aluminum alloys and their properties
Aluminum alloys commonly used in high-speed trains include 5000 series, 6000 series and 7000 series. 5000 series alloys show maximum strength and high corrosion resistance among the typical non-heat treatable alloy, which adapt to welded structure. 6000 series alloys show moderate strength and good corrosion resistance, together with perfect extrusion formability making complex and thin-wall hollow section possible. 7000 series alloys show excellent strength among age-hardening aluminum alloy, which provide wide space for weight reduction. Typical aluminum alloys for high speed train car-body are shown in Table 1.
Series
Designation
State
Mechanical properties
Application area
Note
Tensile strength/MPa
Yield strength/MPa
Elongation/%
5000
5083
O
≥275 ~ 350
125 ~ 200
≥16
Front skin
Plate
6000
6005A
T6
≥270
≥225
≥8
Underframe, sidewall, roof, end wall, beam
Plate, 3 ~ 5 mm
6005A
T6
≥255
≥215
≥6
Underframe, sidewall, roof, end wall, beam
Section, 3 ~ 5 mm
6082
T6
≥310
≥260
≥10
Underframe, end beam
Plate, 3 ~ 6 mm
6106
≥250
≥200
≥8
End wall
Section
7000
7B05
T4
≥315
≥195
≥11
Underframe, end beam
P, 2.9 ~ 6.5
7B05
T5
≥325
≥245
≥10
Underframe, end beam, traction beam
Section
Table 1.
Typical aluminum alloys for high speed train car-body [3, 4].
4. Detailed application
In railway vehicles, aluminum alloy is primarily used in manufacturing car-body and its ancillary structure. The car-body is a prolonged hexahedral structure. Aluminum is used to manufacture all parts of the structure, including roof, underframe, end wall and side wall. However, different aluminum designations are selected for different parts of the car-body based on their properties shown in section 3. Both extruded section and plate are used. Extruded profiles account for about 70% of the total weight of the aluminum alloy car-body, while the plates account for about 27%, and the castings and forgings account for about 3%. On the other hand, there is an emerging trend that aluminum alloy come into application to other structures such as gear-box and axle box than car-body. The detailed introduction is as follows.
4.1 Car-body
The development of aluminum alloy materials and large extruded profiles paves the way for the modernization and lightening of railway vehicles, In recent years, with the popularity of lightweight design concept for railway vehicles, as well as the requirement of simplified construction and maintenance, large integral thin plate and hollow complex thin wall profiles has been developed successfully. In Japan, 6N01(6005 alloy) alloy with better extrusion, welding and corrosion properties has been developed to produce porous complex thin-wall hollow profiles, widely replacing 7N01 and 7003 profiles as the floor, side plate and roof structure of the car-body. In Western Europe, aluminum alloy body is mainly made of 6005A extruded profiles, the main reason of which is that the extrusion performance of 6005A is better, the production process is more simplified, and the stress corrosion problem of 7000 series alloy can be avoided. The application of typical aluminum alloys on 300 series Shinkansen high speed train is shown in Figure 1. A complete car-body is shown in Figure 2. As is shown, the car-body is mainly composed of extruded section.
Figure 1.
Application of aluminum alloys on car-body of Shinkansen 300 series high speed train.
Figure 2.
Typical car-body of high speed train made of aluminum alloy.
The car-body can be easily welded automatically with through - length welds, as shown in Figure 3. The aluminum section profiles can be designed according to the section structure of the car-body, as shown in Figure 4. Typical extruded section profiles for high speed train are shown in Figure 5.
Figure 3.
Typical sidewall of high speed train composed of extruded sections.
Figure 4.
Part of a section structure of high speed train car-body.
Figure 5.
Typical extruded section profiles for high speed train.
However, when it comes to the head car, the structure is quite different. In order to achieve optimal aerodynamic performance running at high speed, a streamlined design was given to the head car, as shown in Figure 6. This unique shape make the it impossible to manufacture with relatively regular and straight sections. Therefore, beam and slab structure became the optimum option for head car. As shown in Figure 7, a framework is designed based on the requirement for stiffness and strength to support the front skin against plastic deformation. It is welded with hundreds of beam made of aluminum plates prior to skin fixation. Afterwards, the skin is divided into small pieces based on the principle of good workability. Each piece is deformed to specific shape based on the design profile. Then the piece is fixed on the framework one after another, shown in Figure 8.
Figure 6.
Streamlined head car of CRH 380A high speed train.
Figure 7.
Internal structure of the head car of high speed train.
Figure 8.
Head car of high speed train.
4.2 Gear box
For further reduction of the weight of the train, it is obviously not enough by reducing the weight of the car-body because the car-body accounts for only about 20% of the total mass of the train. Key components of bogie including traction motor, wheelsets, frame and braking system attracted attention of proponents of lightweighting. The lightweighting of gear box can help to reduce unsprung mass and wear or damage to rail. In this part, the application of aluminum alloy on gear box is introduced.
Gear box of high speed train is manufactured by casting aluminum rather than wrought alloy due to complex and unequal thickness. Low pressure casting is widely used in non-ferrous alloy casting because of its high feeding pressure and temperature gradient and stable filling, which can effectively improve the density of castings and product yield.
AlSi7MgA and AlCu4Ti are commonly used as casting materials for gear box due to good flowability, low thermal expansivity and shrinking percentage. Typical aluminum gear boxes on CRH series high speed train are shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9.
Typical aluminum gear boxes on CRH series high speed train.
4.3 Axle box
Axle box is one of the important bearing parts of trian bogie and transfer joint of motion. The left axle box part is installed on the axle journal through a rolling bearing, and the right swivel arm is connected with the positioning swivel seat on the frame through an elastic node. When the train is running, axle box bears the action of vertical force, longitudinal force and transverse force.Therefore, the bearing condition of the axle box body is complex, and its structure and performance stability are very important for the safe operation of the train. 7050 aluminum alloy forgings shows high strength and toughness, which can significantly reduce unsprung weight. The weight of forged aluminum product decrease 62.5% as compared to the traditional carbon steel one. Therefore, forging aluminum alloy axle box is widely used on high-speed train. 3D model of an aluminum alloy axle box is shown in Figure 10. A typical finished aluminum alloy axle box of highspeed train is shown in Figure 11.
Figure 10.
3D model of an aluminum alloy axle box.
Figure 11.
Finished aluminum alloy axle box of high-speed train.
5. Key manufacturing techniques
The engineering application of aluminum alloy in the field of rail transportation encounter a series of challenges, which promote the development of a series of key manufacturing techniques including casting, forming welding and anti-corrosion processes.
5.1 Casting
Casting is an important process for the manufacture of complex structures such as gear box. The main challenges of gearbox casting process are as follows:
Ensure there is no cold partition, porosity and other defects in the thin-walled area, so as to meet the requirements of casting appearance quality.
Ensure there is no excessive shrinkage porosity, shrinkage cavity and other defects on the box surface, flange, hanging and other key parts, so as to meet the internal quality requirements of castings radiographic inspection.
Ensure a high requirements for machining surface pinhole and non-machining surface, especially for aluminum alloy castings that are easy to produce pinhole defects.
In the production of aluminum alloy gearbox for high-speed EMU, the common casting defects include porosity, pinhole and shrinkage cavity.
In order to eliminate those pores, two measures need to be taken on the premise of controlling the air production content of molding sand. Firstly, the venting near the inner runner and riser should be improved by opening more air hole and hollowing out the loam core of the outer molding. Secondly, thickness of the coating should be guaranteed to decrease surface void on the sand (core) by using coating with high thermal conductivity such as zircon powder. The filling pressure and holding pressure are increased appropriately, so as to increase the resistance of gas entering the metal liquid.
The key of eliminating pinhole mainly relies on the control of hydrogen content in liquid aluminum. The refining process can reduce the oxidation inclusion and hydrogen content in liquid aluminum, and thus effectively reduce pinhole forming tendency.
Regarding to shrinkage cavity at the top of gear box, it is proved effective by simulating the solidification process with MAGMAsoft. Chilling block and riser locating can be optimized to ensure the feeding channel of the top riser unblocked under reasonable temperature distribution.
5.2 Forming process
There are four different technologies available to manufacture the front skin panels of the head car. The most commonly used one is the hammer press where a hammer machine is used conveniently to produce the target shapes. However, the dimensional tolerance of the produced product heavily depends on the worker’s experience. After installing the panels on the structural frame, any further modifications of the geometrical features can only be completed by using the hand tools such as hammer. Such a manual process renders the high repeatability of manufactured components almost impossible. The second technique is the expanding-stretching process. It is applicable for the panels with curved profile but only to a certain extent. Additionally, the rotating press machine, which mainly aims for manufacturing a panel with small and uniform curvature, is used, while a process called mould press that uses mould to produce the target shape is employed for the panel with complicated and small curvature.
As shown in Figure 12, the front skin of a typical CRH 380A high speed train is divided into around 70 small pieces which are joined together through a total of 170 meters long welding line. As the length of each panel is limited to only 1 meter, the manufacturing process becomes time consuming and low efficient for producing a considerable amount of small components. The product quality of the front panel is also compromised due to the increased residual stress resulted from the uneconomical and complicated assembling process.
Figure 12.
Front panel of CRH 380A high speed train.
In order to ensure the assembly precision of each piece, a commercial finite element analysis simulating the skin drawing and springback process based on flexible multi-point die is necessary. In order to improve the computational efficiency and obtain satisfactory computational accuracy, the dynamic explicit algorithm is used to simulate the drawing process, and the static implicit algorithm is used to calculate the springback. Figure 13 shows the Distribution of MISES stress and equivalent plastic strain for forming of a single piece. The forming process is developed based on the simulation results which can save experimental time and improve adaptability to different products, shown in Figure 14.
Figure 13.
Distribution of MISES stress and equivalent plastic strain for forming of a single piece.
Figure 14.
Skin drawing based on flexible multi-point die.
5.3 Welding
Due to special thermal physical properties and welding characteristics of aluminum alloy, such as low melting point, thermal conductivity, high electrical conductivity and the expansion and shrinkage, high content of alloy elements as compared to carbon steel and stainless steel [5, 6], it is much more easily to produce pores, crack, lack of penetration, incomplete fusion, large welding deformation, bite edge and slag when aluminum alloys are welded. The assembly precision, quality and performance can be severely affected by welding process. Therefore, the welding process is quite crucial in the manufacture of high speed train.
The following aspects should be considered as the basis of selecting welding method:
Aluminum alloy is coated with a dense oxide film which can easily adsorb moisture and bring hydrogen to molten pool. The aluminum can also become oxidate slag existing in the weld which affecting the performance. Therefore, it is very important to remove the oxide on the base metal and groove surface of aluminum alloy before welding.
The thermal conductivity of aluminum alloy is five times that of low carbon steel. High power or energy concentrated welding heat source should be a preferential option. And preheating is necessary for thick plate welding.
The thermal expansion coefficient and cooling shrinkage rate of aluminum alloy are two times that of steel. Therefore, aluminum alloy melting welding deformation is serious. Deformation control measures such as reverse deformation and reinforcement constraint should be considered.
Aluminum alloy material has different kinds of alloying elements, and the loss of alloying elements during fusion welding is easy to lead to the decrease of joint strength and corrosion resistance, and the weld metal and heat affected zone are easy to produce intergranular cracks. Cracking susceptibility should be considered.
In this section, three typical welding processes which are widely used in manufacturing process of high speed train are introduced.
5.3.1 Arc welding MIG
Pulse MIG welding is the most widely used and developed method of aluminum alloy welding which is characterized by large thermal power, high linear energy, good energy concentration and good protection effect. The above features are suitable for welding aluminum alloy based on its unique thermal physical properties. Pulsed MIG welding can be used to control wire melting and droplet transition, improve arc stability and achieve droplet jet transition with small average current, thus suitable for all-position welding.
Considering the cathodic atomization effect of MIG welding on removing aluminum oxide film, DCEP (Direct Current Electrode Positive) is commonly used for pulse MIG welding. Semi-automatic pulse MIG welding are fit for irregular short welds while regular long straight welds are usually automatically MIG welded with laser tracking, shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15.
Automatically MIG welding process.
Typical defect includes poor formability, burning through, excessive penetration, cracking, pore and slag, as shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16.
Typical defect in aluminum alloy weld.
5.3.2 FSW welding
In addition to the traditional MIG welding, friction stir welding(FSW) has been widely used. This process and MIG welding process are not compatible on the design groove. Groove designed according to MIG welding process cannot be used for friction stir welding, so the promotion of this technology is subject to certain restrictions. However, FSW shows unique advantages as follows:
Low manufacture cost. No consumable welding materials, such as electrode, wire, flux and protective gas, are required during the welding process. Welding stirring head is the only consumption. It is not necessary to remove the oxide film before welding, which reduce cleaning time and improve production efficiency.
Good welding quality. The temperature of friction stir welding is relatively low, so the microstructure change of the heat affected zone is negligible, and the residual stress is low leading to a low deformation. The joint efficiency is high as compared to MIG weld.
Environment-friendly. The welding process is safe. There is no pollution, no smoke, no radiation, etc.
Less energy consumption. Because friction stir welding solely depends on the welding head rotation and movement, it saves more energy than fusion welding or even conventional friction welding.
High welding efficiency. It can complete the welding of long weld, large section and different position at one time.
The above advantages promote its application in rail transportation field, shown in Figure 17. It can be seen that FSW showed flat weld than MIG which requires little post-processing (Figure 18).
Figure 17.
FSW process of a sleeper beam.
Figure 18.
A comparison between MIG and FSW welds.
The defects in friction stir welding joints mainly include holes, unwelded joints, flaps and grooves. Defects are mainly caused by the fact that in the welding process, different parts of the weld metal have undergone different thermomechanical processes, and thus bring overheating or insufficient flow of plastic materials. The top of the weld is subjected to the strong friction and stirring effect of the stirring needle and the shaft shoulder at the same time, even if the welding speed is very high or the stirring head speed is not high enough, it can still ensure a certain heat input and form a defect free connection; In the middle of the weld, the heat input is less than the top, but the heat output is also less than the top and bottom, so the total heat absorption is greater than the top and bottom, and the material softening degree is the highest. The heat input at the bottom of the welding seam is the least and the output is the largest. so the welding defects will appear at the bottom of the welding seam when the process parameters are not properly selected or the size of the welding tool is not appropriate.
5.3.3 Laser-MIG welding
Laser-MIG welding is a new welding technology, which has a wide development prospect. The laser -MIG hybrid welding technology combines the laser welding technology and MIG welding technology organically, which overcomes each other\'s shortcomings, and thus favor to obtain high quality welding joint.
Laser -MIG welding uses both laser beam and arc, which has the characteristics of high welding speed, stable welding process, high thermal efficiency and allowing greater welding assembly clearance. The laser -MIG welding pool is smaller than that of MIG welding. As compared to MIG welding, laser-MIG welding shows lower heat input, smaller heat affected zone and smaller work deformation.
Based on the characteristics of concentrated heat source, strong penetration and arc wire filling welding, a new design of joint and groove of laser-MIG hybrid welding was carried out through experimental optimization and verification. Compared with the traditional MIG welding, the upper groove angle is smaller, the depth is smaller for laser-MIG hybrid welding.
The wide application range and high efficiency of laser-MIG welding enhance its competitiveness in terms of investment cost, reduced production time, reduced production cost and improved productivity. Currently It is in the stage of small-scale application in the manufacture of high speed train and relevant component, shown in Figure 19.
Figure 19.
Lase-MIG weld machine for roof of aluminum car-body of high speed train.
Figure 20 shows a comparison between MIG and laser-MIG hybrid welds. The laser-MIG hybrid welds is flat which reflect a good formability.
Figure 20.
A comparison between MIG and laser-MIG hybrid welds.
Figure 21.
Coated outer surface and internal surface of aluminum car-body.
5.4 Anti-corrosion process
The increasing operation speed of train make it experience the baptism of different environments within hours. The environmental change is quite complex when the train goes from inland to coastal cities, from high to low latitudes, from low to high altitude. The weather may change dramatically from sunny to rainy. The temperature may change from subzero to 40°C, The humidity may change from very dry to very damp (~100%). The air may change from fresh and clean to polluted. It may contain dust, oxysulfide, oxynitride, or chloridion. These ingredients would lead to corrosion to aluminum alloy which is detrimental to the safety and long-term reliability of the train, especially when it’s running at speed higher than 200 km/h.
As is known, aluminum shows good corrosion performance since it can form passive film in atmosphere. However, the corrosion resistance is also threatened by alloying elements and aggressive environmental factors. Pitting, galvanic and stress corrosion are common types of corrosion for engineering structure made of aluminum used in atmospheric environment.
For rail vehicle, an organic coating system is used to protect aluminum against corrosion. In order to deal with different environments, the coating system for outer surface is different from internal surface. The outer coating system is used to fight against harsh natural environment while the internal coating tackle the condensing water and leaking water from washing room. Therefore, it has higher requirement for the outer coating system. It needs to be evaluated by a series of accelerated corrosion test including salt spray test, damp heat test and high-low temperature test. The outer coating system consists of sand blasting pretreatment, epoxy primer, polyurethane putty, polyurethane interlayer, polyurethane finishing coat and varnish. The internal coating system consists of cleaning, etch coating, rust inhibiting primer and polyurethane top-coat. In case aluminum component joints with other alloys, a surface pre-treatment accompanied by rust inhibiting primer is necessary to ensure physical isolation from each other and against galvanic corrosion (Figure 21).
6. Conclusion
In this chapter, the latest applications of aluminum alloys in rail transportation field is introduced. The typical high-strength aluminum alloys used on high speed train was illustrated combined with the unique characteristics of aluminum alloys. The detailed application on key part of rail vehicle including car-body, gear box and axle box tie rod, were introduced. The main challenges and engineering experience were also mentioned. The key manufacturing techniques, such as casting, forming, welding, and anti-corrosion were analyzed. Hopefully, the chapter can promote the development and application of advanced materials, especially aluminum alloy, and continuously contribute to sustainable development of human civilization through technological innovation.
Acknowledgments
Authors would like to thank Mr. LIU Xuezhi, Mr. ZHANG Shilei and Mr. LI Shuaizhen from CRRC Qingdao Sifang Co., Ltd for providing figures of the chapter.
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest regarding to the content of this chapter.
\n',keywords:"aluminum alloy, application, rail transportation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75650.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75650.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75650",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75650",totalDownloads:344,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 27th 2020",dateReviewed:"February 5th 2021",datePrePublished:"May 31st 2021",datePublished:"October 6th 2021",dateFinished:"March 10th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter focus on the latest applications of aluminum alloys in rail transportation field. The typical high-strength aluminum alloys used on high speed train is introduced. The unique properties of aluminum alloys are analyzed. The detailed application is illustrated including car-body, gear box and axle box tie rod. The main challenges encountered in the application are also mentioned. The key manufacturing techniques, such as casting, forming, welding, are analyzed. Finally, the future improvement directions for better application is summarized. It is expected to set up a bridge for materials providers, equipment manufacturers and end-users, thereby promoting the advance of manufacturing technology and application of aluminum alloys in wider fields.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75650",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75650",signatures:"Xiaoguang Sun, Xiaohui Han, Chaofang Dong and Xiaogang Li",book:{id:"9912",type:"book",title:"Advanced Aluminium Composites and Alloys",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Advanced Aluminium Composites and Alloys",slug:"advanced-aluminium-composites-and-alloys",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",bookSignature:"Leszek A. Dobrzański",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9912.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-451-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-450-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-456-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"15880",title:"Prof.",name:"Leszek A.",middleName:null,surname:"Dobrzański",slug:"leszek-a.-dobrzanski",fullName:"Leszek A. Dobrzański"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"320275",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaoguang",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Xiaoguang Sun",slug:"xiaoguang-sun",email:"sunxg_sf@126.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Science and Technology Beijing",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"346573",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Xiaogang Li",slug:"xiaogang-li",email:"Lixiaogang99@263.net",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Science and Technology Beijing",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"346574",title:"Prof.",name:"Chaofang",middleName:null,surname:"Dong",fullName:"Chaofang Dong",slug:"chaofang-dong",email:"cfdong@ustb.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Science and Technology Beijing",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Characteristics of aluminum alloy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Typical aluminum alloys and their properties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Detailed application",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Car-body",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Gear box",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Axle box",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Key manufacturing techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.1 Casting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.2 Forming process",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.3 Welding",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"5.3.1 Arc welding MIG",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"5.3.2 FSW welding",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"5.3.3 Laser-MIG welding",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.4 Anti-corrosion process",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kawajiri, K.; Kobayashi, M.; Sakamoto, K., Lightweight materials equal lightweight greenhouse gas emissions?: A historical analysis of greenhouse gases of vehicle material substitution. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2020;253:119805. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119805'},{id:"B2",body:'Ashkenazi, D., How aluminum changed the world: A metallurgical revolution through technological and cultural perspectives. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 2019; 143: 101-113. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.03.011'},{id:"B3",body:'GB/T 32182-2015 Aluminium and aluminium alloy plates and sheets for railway application'},{id:"B4",body:'GB/T 26494-2011 Aluminium alloys extruded profiles used for structural material of railway vehicle carbodies'},{id:"B5",body:'Mallick, P. K., Designing lightweight vehicle body. In Materials, Design and Manufacturing for Lightweight Vehicles, 2021; pp 405-432'},{id:"B6",body:'Mallick, P. K., Joining for lightweight vehicles. In Materials, Design and Manufacturing for Lightweight Vehicles, 2021; pp 321-371'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Xiaoguang Sun",address:"sunx_sf@126.com;, sunxiaoguang@ustb.edu.cn",affiliation:'
CRRC Qingdao Sifang Co., Ltd, China
Corrosion and Protection Center, University of Science and Technology Beijing, China
Corrosion and Protection Center, University of Science and Technology Beijing, China
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
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We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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We also provide a comparative analysis of the mechanism for germ plasm RNP segregation in zebrafish versus other known vertebrate systems of germ cell preformation, such as in amphibian and avian models.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Celeste Eno and Francisco Pelegri",authors:[{id:"177209",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Pelegri",slug:"francisco-pelegri",fullName:"Francisco Pelegri"}]},{id:"62171",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79106",title:"Intraoviductal Instillation of a Solution as an Effective Route for Manipulating Preimplantation Mammalian Embryos in vivo",slug:"intraoviductal-instillation-of-a-solution-as-an-effective-route-for-manipulating-preimplantation-mam",totalDownloads:1124,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Preimplantation embryos of mammals are enclosed by a translucent layer called zona pellucida (ZP), which is composed of glycoproteins. ZP is important for protecting against infection by virus and bacteria, and to prevent attachment of embryos to the oviductal epithelia. Due to the presence of ZP, it has been difficult to transfect preimplantation embryos existing within the oviductal lumen, with exogenous nucleic acids, such as DNA and mRNA. However, intraoviductal instillation of nucleic acids, and subsequent in vivo electroporation in pregnant females, enables transfection of these embryos, leading to the production of gene-modified animals. This new method for production of genetically modified animals does not require any ex vivo handling of embryos, which has been essential for traditional transgenesis. In this article, we describe recent advances in the in vivo transfection of preimplantation mammalian embryos, and also the possibility of simple transfection of these embryos through intraoviductal instillation of a solution, alone.",book:{id:"7233",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology"},signatures:"Masahiro Sato, Masato Ohtsuka and Shingo Nakamura",authors:[{id:"177440",title:"Dr.",name:"Masato",middleName:null,surname:"Ohtsuka",slug:"masato-ohtsuka",fullName:"Masato Ohtsuka"},{id:"177444",title:"Dr.",name:"Shingo",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",slug:"shingo-nakamura",fullName:"Shingo Nakamura"},{id:"245795",title:"Prof.",name:"Masahiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",slug:"masahiro-sato",fullName:"Masahiro Sato"}]},{id:"50061",doi:"10.5772/62470",title:"Sperm Motility Regulatory Proteins: A Tool to Enhance Sperm Quality",slug:"sperm-motility-regulatory-proteins-a-tool-to-enhance-sperm-quality",totalDownloads:2126,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Sperm forward motility is an essential parameter in mammalian fertilization. Studies from our laboratory have identified and characterized a few unique sperm motility regulatory proteins/glycoproteins from the male reproductive fluids and mammalian blood serum. The purified sperm motility-initiating protein (MIP) from caprine epididymal plasma as well as the forward motility-stimulating factor (FMSF) and motility-stimulating protein (MSP) from buffalo and goat serum, respectively, have high efficacy to initiate or increase motility in nonmotile or less motile sperm. Antibody of sperm motility inhibitory factor (MIF-II) has the high potential to enhance sperm vertical velocity and forward motility by increasing intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) level. The appearance and disappearance of D-galactose–specific lectin and its receptor along the epididymis has been reported to be involved in motility regulation in spermatozoa. A novel synthetic cryopreservation method and role of lipid to protect membrane damage during cryopreservation have been demonstrated. Motility-promoting proteins may be extremely useful for improving cattle breeding and breeding of endangered species, thereby helping in enhanced production of animal products as well as in the conservation of animals. Isolated proteins and developed cryopreservation technology may also be beneficial in human infertility clinics to increase the chance of fertilization.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Sandhya R. Dungdung, Arpita Bhoumik, Sudipta Saha, Prasanta\nGhosh, Kaushik Das, Sandipan Mukherjee, Debjani Nath, Jitamanyu\nChakrabarty, Chanakyanath Kundu, Bijay Shankar Jaiswal, Mahitosh\nMandal, Arunima Maiti, Saswati Banerjee, Madhumita\nRoychowdhury, Debleena Ray, Debdas Bhattacharyya and Gopal C.\nMajumder",authors:[{id:"50052",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahitosh",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"mahitosh-mandal",fullName:"Mahitosh Mandal"},{id:"177044",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandhya",middleName:null,surname:"Dungdung",slug:"sandhya-dungdung",fullName:"Sandhya Dungdung"},{id:"177920",title:"Dr.",name:"Arpita",middleName:null,surname:"Bhoumik",slug:"arpita-bhoumik",fullName:"Arpita Bhoumik"},{id:"177921",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudipta",middleName:null,surname:"Saha",slug:"sudipta-saha",fullName:"Sudipta Saha"},{id:"177922",title:"MSc.",name:"Prasanta",middleName:null,surname:"Ghosh",slug:"prasanta-ghosh",fullName:"Prasanta Ghosh"},{id:"177923",title:"Dr.",name:"Kaushik",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"kaushik-das",fullName:"Kaushik Das"},{id:"177924",title:"MSc.",name:"Sandipan",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"sandipan-mukherjee",fullName:"Sandipan Mukherjee"},{id:"177925",title:"Dr.",name:"Debjani",middleName:null,surname:"Nath",slug:"debjani-nath",fullName:"Debjani Nath"},{id:"177927",title:"Dr.",name:"Jitamanyu",middleName:null,surname:"Chakrabarty",slug:"jitamanyu-chakrabarty",fullName:"Jitamanyu Chakrabarty"},{id:"177928",title:"Dr.",name:"Chanakyanath",middleName:null,surname:"Kundu",slug:"chanakyanath-kundu",fullName:"Chanakyanath Kundu"},{id:"177929",title:"Dr.",name:"Bijay Shankar",middleName:null,surname:"Jaiswal",slug:"bijay-shankar-jaiswal",fullName:"Bijay Shankar Jaiswal"},{id:"177930",title:"Dr.",name:"Arunima",middleName:null,surname:"Maiti",slug:"arunima-maiti",fullName:"Arunima Maiti"},{id:"177931",title:"Dr.",name:"Saswati",middleName:null,surname:"Banerjee",slug:"saswati-banerjee",fullName:"Saswati Banerjee"},{id:"177932",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhumita",middleName:null,surname:"Roychowdhury",slug:"madhumita-roychowdhury",fullName:"Madhumita Roychowdhury"},{id:"177933",title:"MSc.",name:"Debleena",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"debleena-ray",fullName:"Debleena Ray"},{id:"177934",title:"Dr.",name:"Debdas",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"debdas-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Debdas Bhattacharyya"},{id:"177935",title:"Dr.",name:"Gopal Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Majumder",slug:"gopal-chandra-majumder",fullName:"Gopal Chandra Majumder"}]},{id:"63404",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80229",title:"Subclinical Endometritis in Dairy Cattle",slug:"subclinical-endometritis-in-dairy-cattle",totalDownloads:1800,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Subclinical endometritis is recognized as a cause of poor reproductive performance in dairy cows. Inflammation of the endometrium persisting after postpartum uterine involution has been related with prolonged calving-conception intervals and low fertility in dairy cows. The subclinical nature of this condition makes it necessary in the use of endometrial cytology or biopsy for diagnosing it. There are some controversies among authors in relation to the postpartum period from which a physiological endometrial inflammation should be considered a pathological subclinical endometritis. Therefore, depending on the sampling period after calving, different studies establish a different degree of polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration as cutoff point to diagnose subclinical endometritis. Controversies also exist regarding the pathogenesis of the disease and its consequences on the fertility of dairy cattle. The aim of this chapter was to review the current knowledge on this uterine pathology.",book:{id:"7233",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology"},signatures:"Luis Angel Quintela Arias, Marcos Vigo Fernández, Juan José\nBecerra González, Mónica Barrio López, Pedro José García Herradón\nand Ana Isabel Peña Martínez",authors:[{id:"243272",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Quintela Arias",slug:"luis-angel-quintela-arias",fullName:"Luis Angel Quintela Arias"},{id:"243886",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Peña Martínez",slug:"ana-isabel-pena-martinez",fullName:"Ana Isabel Peña Martínez"},{id:"243887",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Herradón",slug:"pedro-garcia-herradon",fullName:"Pedro García Herradón"},{id:"243888",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Becerra González",slug:"juan-jose-becerra-gonzalez",fullName:"Juan José Becerra González"},{id:"256852",title:"Dr.",name:"Mónica",middleName:null,surname:"Barrio López",slug:"monica-barrio-lopez",fullName:"Mónica Barrio López"},{id:"256854",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Vigo Fernández",slug:"marcos-vigo-fernandez",fullName:"Marcos Vigo Fernández"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49736",title:"Chromosome Abnormalities in Domestic Animals as Causes of Disorders of Sex Development or Impaired Fertility",slug:"chromosome-abnormalities-in-domestic-animals-as-causes-of-disorders-of-sex-development-or-impaired-f",totalDownloads:4132,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Cytogenetic evaluation is an important step in the diagnosis of infertile or sterile animals. Moreover, the analysis of sex chromosomes is crucial for a proper classification of disorders of sex development (DSD). For many years, chromosome studies mainly addressed the livestock species, while recently, increasing interest in such analysis in companion animals is observed. New molecular and cytogenetic tools and techniques have given opportunities for a precise identification of chromosome mutations. Among them, fluorescence in situ hybridization, besides chromosome banding, has become a gold standard. In this chapter, recent advances in the cytogenetic diagnosis of cattle, pigs, horses, dogs and cats are presented.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Izabela Szczerbal and Marek Switonski",authors:[{id:"177030",title:"Prof.",name:"Marek",middleName:null,surname:"Switonski",slug:"marek-switonski",fullName:"Marek Switonski"},{id:"177045",title:"Dr.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Szczerbal",slug:"izabela-szczerbal",fullName:"Izabela Szczerbal"}]},{id:"50144",title:"Proliferative Endometrial Lesions Hidden behind the Feline Pyometra",slug:"proliferative-endometrial-lesions-hidden-behind-the-feline-pyometra",totalDownloads:2456,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The literature refers to pyometra as the most important pathology in the feline uterus, which is often associated with cystic endometrial disease (cystic endometrial hyperplasia/pyometra complex or CEH-Pyo). The etiology of pyometra is complex and probably multifactorial, but hormonal influences are suggested to play an important role in the pathogenesis. Progestagen-based contraceptives may be risk factors for the CEH-Pyo syndrome, for endometrial adenocarcinoma and also to mammary tumors in this species.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Maria dos Anjos Pires, Hugo Vilhena, Sónia Miranda, Miguel\nTavares Pereira, Fernanda Seixas and Ana Laura Saraiva",authors:[{id:"41065",title:"Dr.",name:"Sónia",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda",slug:"sonia-miranda",fullName:"Sónia Miranda"},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires"},{id:"179547",title:"MSc.",name:"Hugo",middleName:null,surname:"Vilhena",slug:"hugo-vilhena",fullName:"Hugo Vilhena"},{id:"179548",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Tavares Pereira",slug:"miguel-tavares-pereira",fullName:"Miguel Tavares Pereira"},{id:"179549",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Seixas",slug:"fernanda-seixas",fullName:"Fernanda Seixas"},{id:"179550",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Saraiva",slug:"ana-laura-saraiva",fullName:"Ana Laura Saraiva"}]},{id:"49944",title:"The Use of Reproductive Technologies to Produce Transgenic Goats",slug:"the-use-of-reproductive-technologies-to-produce-transgenic-goats",totalDownloads:2411,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Recombinant DNA technology has revolutionized the production of therapeutic proteins. Thus, genes of a great number of human proteins have already been identified and cloned. The use of farm animals as bioreactors may be the better choice to produce recombinant therapeutic proteins. For this activity, the term “pharming” was created, referring to the use of genetic engineering to obtain a transgenic or genetically modified animal. Considering the advantages and disadvantages of livestock species, goats appear as a very good model. In addition, the first human commercially approved biological drug (antithrombin (AT)) was produced from the milk of transgenic goats. The aim of this chapter is to present various reproductive technologies used to obtain transgenic goats secreting recombinant proteins in milk. Initially, this chapter presents the methods for embryo production (in vivo and in vitro) to realize the DNA microinjection in pronuclear embryos. Thus, the techniques of superovulation of donors (in vivo embryo production) and ovarian stimulation for oocyte recovery (in vitro embryo production) are described. Also, the methods for DNA microinjection and embryo transfer are detailed in this chapter. Finally, this chapter describes the reproductive procedures used for obtaining transgenic goats by cloning.",book:{id:"5105",slug:"insights-from-animal-reproduction",title:"Insights from Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Insights from Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Vicente J. F. Freitas, Luciana M. Melo, Dárcio I.A. Teixeira, Maajid H.\nBhat, Irina A. Serova, Lyudmila E. Andreeva and Oleg L. Serov",authors:[{id:"177122",title:"Dr.",name:"Vicente",middleName:null,surname:"Freitas",slug:"vicente-freitas",fullName:"Vicente Freitas"},{id:"177194",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",slug:"luciana-melo",fullName:"Luciana Melo"},{id:"177195",title:"Dr.",name:"Dárcio",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira",slug:"darcio-teixeira",fullName:"Dárcio Teixeira"},{id:"177196",title:"Dr.",name:"Maajid",middleName:null,surname:"Bhat",slug:"maajid-bhat",fullName:"Maajid Bhat"},{id:"185365",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Aleksandrovna SEROVA",slug:"irina-aleksandrovna-serova",fullName:"Irina Aleksandrovna SEROVA"},{id:"185366",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyudmila",middleName:null,surname:"Evgenievna ANDREEVA",slug:"lyudmila-evgenievna-andreeva",fullName:"Lyudmila Evgenievna ANDREEVA"},{id:"185367",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Leonidovich SEROV",slug:"oleg-leonidovich-serov",fullName:"Oleg Leonidovich SEROV"}]},{id:"63404",title:"Subclinical Endometritis in Dairy Cattle",slug:"subclinical-endometritis-in-dairy-cattle",totalDownloads:1800,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Subclinical endometritis is recognized as a cause of poor reproductive performance in dairy cows. Inflammation of the endometrium persisting after postpartum uterine involution has been related with prolonged calving-conception intervals and low fertility in dairy cows. The subclinical nature of this condition makes it necessary in the use of endometrial cytology or biopsy for diagnosing it. There are some controversies among authors in relation to the postpartum period from which a physiological endometrial inflammation should be considered a pathological subclinical endometritis. Therefore, depending on the sampling period after calving, different studies establish a different degree of polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration as cutoff point to diagnose subclinical endometritis. Controversies also exist regarding the pathogenesis of the disease and its consequences on the fertility of dairy cattle. The aim of this chapter was to review the current knowledge on this uterine pathology.",book:{id:"7233",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology"},signatures:"Luis Angel Quintela Arias, Marcos Vigo Fernández, Juan José\nBecerra González, Mónica Barrio López, Pedro José García Herradón\nand Ana Isabel Peña Martínez",authors:[{id:"243272",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Quintela Arias",slug:"luis-angel-quintela-arias",fullName:"Luis Angel Quintela Arias"},{id:"243886",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Peña Martínez",slug:"ana-isabel-pena-martinez",fullName:"Ana Isabel Peña Martínez"},{id:"243887",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Herradón",slug:"pedro-garcia-herradon",fullName:"Pedro García Herradón"},{id:"243888",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Becerra González",slug:"juan-jose-becerra-gonzalez",fullName:"Juan José Becerra González"},{id:"256852",title:"Dr.",name:"Mónica",middleName:null,surname:"Barrio López",slug:"monica-barrio-lopez",fullName:"Mónica Barrio López"},{id:"256854",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Vigo Fernández",slug:"marcos-vigo-fernandez",fullName:"Marcos Vigo Fernández"}]},{id:"79909",title:"Cryopreservation Methods and Frontiers in the Art of Freezing Life in Animal Models",slug:"cryopreservation-methods-and-frontiers-in-the-art-of-freezing-life-in-animal-models",totalDownloads:159,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The development in cryobiology in animal breeding had revolutionized the field of reproductive medicine. The main objective to preserve animal germplasm stems from variety of reasons such as conservation of endangered animal species, animal diversity, and an increased demand of animal models and/or genetically modified animals for research involving animal and human diseases. Cryopreservation has emerged as promising technique for fertility preservation and assisted reproduction techniques (ART) for production of animal breeds and genetically engineered animal species for research. Slow rate freezing and rapid freezing/vitrification are the two main methods of cryopreservation. Slow freezing is characterized by the phase transition (liquid turning into solid) when reducing the temperature below freezing point. Vitrification, on the other hand, is a phenomenon in which liquid solidifies without the formation of ice crystals, thus the process is referred to as a glass transition or ice-free cryopreservation. The vitrification protocol applies high concentrations of cryoprotective agents (CPA) used to avoid cryoinjury. This chapter provides a brief overview of fundamentals of cryopreservation and established methods adopted in cryopreservation. Strategies involved in cryopreserving germ cells (sperm and egg freezing) are included in this chapter. Last section describes the frontiers and advancement of cryopreservation in some of the important animal models like rodents (mouse and rats) and in few large animals (sheep, cow etc).",book:{id:"10664",slug:null,title:"Animal Reproduction",fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction"},signatures:"Feda S. Aljaser",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"300",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"79909",title:"Cryopreservation Methods and Frontiers in the Art of Freezing Life in Animal Models",slug:"cryopreservation-methods-and-frontiers-in-the-art-of-freezing-life-in-animal-models",totalDownloads:167,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101750",abstract:"The development in cryobiology in animal breeding had revolutionized the field of reproductive medicine. The main objective to preserve animal germplasm stems from variety of reasons such as conservation of endangered animal species, animal diversity, and an increased demand of animal models and/or genetically modified animals for research involving animal and human diseases. Cryopreservation has emerged as promising technique for fertility preservation and assisted reproduction techniques (ART) for production of animal breeds and genetically engineered animal species for research. Slow rate freezing and rapid freezing/vitrification are the two main methods of cryopreservation. Slow freezing is characterized by the phase transition (liquid turning into solid) when reducing the temperature below freezing point. Vitrification, on the other hand, is a phenomenon in which liquid solidifies without the formation of ice crystals, thus the process is referred to as a glass transition or ice-free cryopreservation. The vitrification protocol applies high concentrations of cryoprotective agents (CPA) used to avoid cryoinjury. This chapter provides a brief overview of fundamentals of cryopreservation and established methods adopted in cryopreservation. Strategies involved in cryopreserving germ cells (sperm and egg freezing) are included in this chapter. Last section describes the frontiers and advancement of cryopreservation in some of the important animal models like rodents (mouse and rats) and in few large animals (sheep, cow etc).",book:{id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg"},signatures:"Feda S. Aljaser"},{id:"79782",title:"Avian Reproduction",slug:"avian-reproduction",totalDownloads:151,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101185",abstract:"There are about 10,400 living avian species belonging to the class Aves, characterized by feathers which no other animal classes possess and are warm-blooded vertebrates with four-chamber heart. They have excellent vision, and their forelimbs are modified into wings for flight or swimming, though not all can fly or swim. They lay hard-shelled eggs which are a secretory product of the reproductive system that vary greatly in colour, shape and size, and the bigger the bird, the bigger the egg. Since domestication, avian species have been basically reared for eggs, meat, pleasure and research. They reproduce sexually with the spermatozoa being homogametic and carry Z-bearing chromosomes, and the blastodisk carries either Z-bearing or W-bearing chromosomes, hence, the female is heterogametic, and thus, determines the sex of the offspring. The paired testes produce spermatozoa, sex hormones and the single ovary (with a few exceptions) produces yolk bearing the blastodisk and sex hormones. Both testis and ovary are the primary sex organs involved in sexual characteristics development in avian. In avian reproduction, there must be mating for fertile egg that must be incubated to produce the young ones. At hatch, hatchling sex is identified and reared to meet the aim of the farmer.",book:{id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg"},signatures:"Kingsley Omogiade Idahor"},{id:"78802",title:"Intraovarian Gestation in Viviparous Teleosts: Unique Type of Gestation among Vertebrates",slug:"intraovarian-gestation-in-viviparous-teleosts-unique-type-of-gestation-among-vertebrates",totalDownloads:184,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100267",abstract:"The intraovarian gestation, occurring in teleosts, makes this type of reproduction a such complex and unique condition among vertebrates. This type of gestation of teleosts is expressed in special morphological and physiological characteristic where occurs the viviparity and it is an essential component in the analysis of the evolutionary process of viviparity in vertebrates. In viviparous teleosts, during embryogenesis, there are not development of Müllerian ducts, which form the oviducts in the rest of vertebrates, as a result, exclusively in teleosts, there are not oviducts and the caudal region of the ovary, the gonoduct, connects the ovary to the exterior. The lack of oviducts defines that the embryos develop into the ovary, as intraovarian gestation. The ovary forms the oocytes which may develop different type of oogenesis, according with the storage of diverse amount of yolk, variation observed corresponding to the species. The viviparous gestation is characterized by the possible intimate contact between maternal and embryonic tissues, process that permits their metabolic interchanges. So, the nutrients obtained by the embryos could be deposited in the oocyte before fertilization, contained in the yolk (lecithotrophy), and may be completed during gestation by additional provisioning from maternal tissues to the embryo (matrotrophy). Then, essential requirements for viviparity in poeciliids and goodeids are characterized by: a) the diversification of oogenesis, with the deposition of different amount of yolk in the oocyte; b) the insemination, by the transfer of sperm to the female gonoduct and their transportation from the gonoduct to the germinal region of the ovary where the follicles develop; c) the intrafollicular fertilization; d) the intraovarian gestation with the development of embryos in intrafollicular gestation (as in poeciliids), or intraluminal gestation (as in goodeids); and, e) the origin of embryonic nutrition may be by lecithotrophy and matrotrophy. The focus of this revision compares the general and specific structural characteristics of the viviparity occurring into the intraovarian gestation in teleosts, defining this reproductive strategy, illustrated in this review with histological material in a poeciliid, of the species Poecilia latipinna (Lesueur, 1821) (Poeciliidae), and in a goodeid, of the species Xenotoca eiseni (Rutter, 1896) (Goodeidae).",book:{id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg"},signatures:"Mari-Carmen Uribe, Gabino De la Rosa-Cruz, Adriana García-Alarcón and Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero"},{id:"78617",title:"Doppler Ultrasound in the Reproduction of Mares",slug:"doppler-ultrasound-in-the-reproduction-of-mares",totalDownloads:123,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98951",abstract:"Doppler ultrasonographic (US) is a method that provides real-time information on vascular architecture and hemodynamic aspects of blood vessels. It can determine the presence, direction, and speed of blood flow, being subdivided into the categories of color Doppler (color flow and power flow) and pulsed Doppler. The objective of this chapter was to compile data from several studies addressing the use of US Doppler correlated with pathophysiological phenomena of equine reproduction. Initially we decided to describe the technique, advantages, and disadvantages of each Doppler mode. Then the applicability of US Doppler in mares related to equine reproduction. Thus, within this chapter, you will find the form of use and descriptions of studies carried out on vascular perfusion of the follicular dynamics, the corpus luteum, the uterine segments, which we have divided into post-insemination evaluation, endometritis diagnosis and pregnancy diagnosis. So, we hope that this chapter will expand the knowledge about US Doppler and increase the number of veterinarians who will introduce the technique into their practical routine.",book:{id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg"},signatures:"Camila Silva Costa Ferreira and Rita de Cássia Lima Morais"},{id:"78202",title:"Stimulatory Effects of Androgens on Eel Primary Ovarian Development - from Phenotypes to Genotypes",slug:"stimulatory-effects-of-androgens-on-eel-primary-ovarian-development-from-phenotypes-to-genotypes",totalDownloads:141,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99582",abstract:"Androgens stimulate primary ovarian development in Vertebrate. Japanese eels underwent operation to sample the pre- and post-treated ovarian tissues from the same individual. Ovarian phenotypic or genotypic data were mined in a pair. A correlation between the initial ovarian status (determined by kernel density estimation (KDE), presented as a probability density of oocyte size) and the consequence of androgen (17MT) treatment (change in ovary) has been showed. The initial ovarian status appeared to be important to influence ovarian androgenic sensitivity. The initial ovary was important to the outcomes of androgen treatments, and ePAV (expression presence-absence variation) is existing in Japanese eel by analyze DEGs; core, unique, or accessory genes were identified, the sensitivities of initial ovaries were correlated with their gene expression profiles. We speculated the importance of genetic differential expression on the variations of phenotypes by 17MT, and transcriptomic approach seems to allow extracting multiple layers of genomic data.",book:{id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg"},signatures:"Yung-Sen Huang and Chung-Yen Lin"},{id:"78116",title:"Embryo Transfer",slug:"embryo-transfer",totalDownloads:258,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99683",abstract:"Assisted reproductive technologies (ART) have made tremendous advances, in last years. Artificial insemination is a method for achieving slow genetic progress in populations of animals. Many large and small ruminants are bred by AI, and more than a half million embryos are transferred every year around the world. Most of the ruminants sires used for artificial insemination were derived from embryo transfer. Improvements of reproductive biotechnologies of controlling the estrous cycle and ovulation have resulted in more effective programs for AI, superovulation of donor, and the management of ET. In the ruminants, ET procedure is a timely alternative that can allow good conception rates to be obtained constant in a year. There have been great advances of this biotechnique with on aimed to intensify the genetic progress between generations of farm. The gains is possible with the development of advanced reproductive biotechnique. The best current strategy in applying biotechnology to farmers is to use AI with sexed semen, so farmers will enjoy and benefit. The use of ET together with cryopreserved sexed embryos has a very specific potential for donor replacement and genetic improvement of the herd. In this chapter, procedures of the MOET protocol were described step by step.",book:{id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg"},signatures:"Ștefan Gregore Ciornei"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 19th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"17",type:"subseries",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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