\r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to provide the readers with an understanding of the characteristics of the crisis itself, recognize the wide range and multi-layer of the crisis from a real situation, give ideas on how to minimize the damage, and find ways to increase resilience in the future. To adapt to the rapidly and diversely changing world, the necessary experience and appropriate management for all kinds of crisis issues will be discussed as well. At the same time, it is intended to suggest elements such as verified scientific and empirical knowledge and applicable technologies; more effective risk management operation; modeling of the risks, manuals, management plans, and strategies.
\r\n\t
In the past few decades, there has been a worldwide surge of research interests in the field of nanoscience and nanotechnology. It has been realized that it has an impeccable potential to revolutionize the modern technology in countless ways. The field of “nanoscience” has attracted much attention from scientists and engineers due to its interesting scientific aspects, and the materials thus formed have novel physicochemical properties. In the beginning, the “miniaturization” of new devices and systems being the central theme of modern technologies was considered, but these days the subject of “nanomaterials” indeed happens to be very demanding. It has overwhelming contribution in technological advancement which has already started to have a global commercial impact.
In scientific terms, nanomaterials are basically any substance having a size of the order of 10−9 m, i.e., a billionth of a meter, and they are generally considered as “nanomaterials” when their sizes are typically lesser than 100 nm. In other words, nano-sized materials are the “collection of distinguishable units,” each of which is made up of a limited number of atoms. These units have specific shape and crystallinity and have at least one of its dimensions of about a few nanometers. A few common examples of naturally occurring nanomaterials are particulate matter from volcanic eruptions, different types of bacteria, cosmic dust, protrusions on lotus leaf that limits its wettability, etc. Also there are numerous man-made nanomaterials which include but are not limited to fullerenes, graphene, single-/multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs), silver nanoparticles, metal oxide nanorods, quantum dots, etc. These nanomaterials have fascinating properties and, hence, are technologically important. For instance, due to the appropriate magnitudes of tensile strength, stiffness, and conductivity, graphene or CNTs have potential applications in catalysis, sensors, and drug deliveries. Nano-sized silver has displayed its capability of oxygen inhibition which could be utilized to pacify the burn injuries of living organisms. On the other hand, quantum dots of semiconducting materials are best suited in display and device technologies related to LED, memory storage, and solar cells [1, 2, 3]. In this manner, a variety of nanomaterials are potentially applicable in every sphere of modern technology which includes automotive, aerospace, cutting and device manufacturing industries, printing and color imaging, armor, computer chips, and biomedical and pharmaceutical fields as well.
The fact that attributes a special character to nanomaterials and variation in their overall behavior is their significantly small size. This generates “statistical size effect” that plays a vital role in altering most of the physical and chemical properties of these materials. Due to the reduction of the size to very small dimensions, typically 1–100 nm, more and more atoms are exposed to the surroundings and result into a vast increment of surface area to volume ratio for that material. This material property is particularly responsible for assigning high specific surface area to the material, which remarkably improves many processes such as adsorption, catalysis, charge storage, and transfer on the surface of the material and hence opens avenues for its applications in sensors, supercapacitors, and batteries as well. Another feature associated to the reduction of particle size down to nano-regime is “quantum confinement effect.” The valence and free electrons of atoms in these nano-sized assemblies undergo considerable variations in their energy states as compared to their features in the macroscopic state. This affects the electronic band structure of the material in such a way that the separations between the continuous energy bands or the individual electronic energy levels alter. Subsequently the occupation and transition of electrons in these levels also change substantially which results into variation in the electronic, magnetic, and optical properties of that material [4]. There are numerous such examples wherein physical/chemical properties have been remarkably improved or modified through controlling the sizes and shapes of nanostructures. These interesting variations highlight the need of nanomaterials in newer technologies, and hence the designing and development of nanomaterials with tailor-made properties fitting specific applications happens to be the current goal of researchers working in this field. Efforts are also being taken to synthesize nanomaterials in different shapes such as nanorods, nanoparticles, nanobelts, nanotubes, and nanoshells with variations in their compositions as well.
Efficient synthesis of nanomaterials has always been a worldwide challenge. Numerous methods have already been devised and are also evolving continuously to fulfill this need. Methods such as auto-combustion, hydrothermal, coprecipitation, and sol–gel can be categorized as chemical methods to synthesize nanomaterials [5, 6, 7, 8], whereas the methods such as solid-state route and high-energy mechanical milling can be termed as the physical methods. Also there are some more sophisticated techniques such as thermal evaporation, chemical vapor deposition, sputtering, pulsed laser ablation, pyrolysis, spin coating, etc. for the synthesis of high-quality thin films having nanocrystalline properties [9, 10, 11]. Every technique has its own merits and peculiarities for the synthesized nanomaterial. The solid-state methods are simple to yield the final product but may require high temperatures for the formation of desired compound. On the other hand, the deposition techniques are far more sophisticated than the other methods and hence become expensive; however, the synthesis can be controlled multi-parametrically which yield nanocrystalline thin films of superior quality. Using these techniques, variation in most of the properties such as morphology, composition, grain size, shape, thickness, crystal structure, and even non-equilibrium phases of synthesized materials could be achieved. With the advent of highly sophisticated analytical equipment such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), it is possible to observe and study these nano-sized materials from the point of view of future technological applications.
In the context of synthesizing nanomaterials, recently Ameen et al. discovered a fast and highly effective growth method for thin film of nanocrystalline tungsten oxide (WO3) through one-step hot filament chemical vapor deposition (HFCVD) method at low temperature. The grown monoclinic WO3 crystal structure exhibited the morphology of cauliflower-like nanostructure (WCNs). The grown WO3 thin film was applied for the detection of hydrogen (H2) gas at 100 ppm [11]. From the H2 sensing behavior of WCN thin film, the appreciable sensitivity of the WCN thin film was obtained only after ~200°C and reached a high magnitude of ~87% at optimum operating temperature of ~250°C, as shown in Figure 1.
(a) Gas sensing response of grown WO3 thin film to H2 gas at various temperatures, (b) response recovery profile with dynamic repeatability at ~250°C for 100 ppm H2, and (c) illustration of H2 sensing mechanism on grown WO3 thin film. Reproduced from reference [
In year 2019, another work by Ameen and co-workers was reported on the synthesis of hexagonal zinc oxide (ZnO) nanopyramids (NPys) for the application of electrochemical sensor [12]. The synthesized hexagonal pyramid shape structures possessed the average size of ~2–3 μm with the base length of ~2 μm and a top length of ∼600 nm. From Figure 2, it is seen that the agglomeration of several hexagonal disks formed pyramid-like structures.
Low (a) and high (b) magnification FESEM images of hexagonal ZnO NPys. Reproduced from ref. [
Nonenzymatic glucose biosensor was developed by utilizing the electrochemically grown nanocages-augmented polyaniline nanowires (NCa-PANI NWs) on silicon (Si) substrate [13]. Figure exhibits that the grown NCa-PANI NWs are distributed uniformly on the entire surface of silicon (Si) substrate, confirming the growth of highly dense NCa-PANI NW structures (Figure 3).
Low (a) and high (b) magnification FESEM images, element line scanning mapping (c), and its corresponding profile (d) of PANI NW electrode. Reproduced from ref. [
Kim et al. designed field effect transistor using iron-nickel co-doped ZnO nanoparticles, Zn0.97Fe0.01Ni0.02O NPs, for the electrochemical detection of hexahydropyridine chemical, as shown in Figure 4 [14]. Zn0.97Fe0.01Ni0.02O NP-modified FET sensor showed the high sensitivity of ~62.28 μA μM−1 cm−2 and a good detection limit of ~79 μM with correlation coefficient (R) of ~0.96405 and a short response time (10 s) towards hexahydropyridine chemical.
(a) A diagram represented the fabricated FET sensor with Zn0.97Fe0.01Ni0.02O NPs and (b) Id-Vg response of FET sensor without and with hexahydropyridine (100 nM) in 0.01 M PBS. Reproduced from ref. [
Figure 5 shows the synthesized ZnO nanoflowers (NFs) for the photocatalytic degradation of bromophenol (Bph) dye. ZnO NFs as catalysts displayed a rapid degradation of Bph-dye with the degradation rate of ~96% within 120 min under the UV light irradiation [15].
(a) Low and (b) high magnification FESEM images, (c) EDX spectrum, and (d) XRD analysis of ZnO NFs. Reproduced from ref. [
Jang and co-workers synthesized porous cobalt oxide (Co3O4) nanocubes (NCs), as shown in Figure 6, and investigated the capacitive properties of porous Co3O4NCs electrode by cyclic voltammetry (CV) in 6 M KOH electrolyte. High specific capacitance of ~430.6 F/g at a scan rate of ~10 mV s−1 was observed. The capacity retention of up to ~85% after 1000 cycles was shown by the fabricated porous Co3O4 NCs electrode. The porous Co3O4 NCs showed excellent structural stability through cycling with promising capacity retention which suggested a good quality of porous Co3O4 NCs as electrochemical supercapacitor electrode [16].
The representation of (a) TEM-EDX including profile and (b–d) elemental mapping images of porous Co3O4 NCs. Reproduced from ref. [
This prologue provides a glimpse of nanomaterials and the way their properties change and also gives an idea about their potent applicability which can shift the entire technological paradigm. This book has been designed to induce scientific interest in the minds of young researchers and engineers to undertake research in this field and work across the ever-expanding boundaries of nanoscience and nanotechnology.
Leishmaniasis is a wide-ranging group of diseases caused by different species of
Clinical manifestations of Leishmaniasis are dependent on the infecting parasite species and host immune response [3]. The host’s ability to eradicate or control infection caused by intracellular pathogens depends on early interactions between these microorganisms and host cells. Firstly, pathogens are recognized by host cells, which either respond to infection by mounting an efficient response or becoming a replication niche. Early interactions between the protozoan
Macrophages are crucial in the host response to
Phagocytosis is a metabolism-dependent process involving the internalization of particulate material (>0.5 mm) by professional and non-professional phagocytes that can differentiate self from non-self, modified or damaged self-particles. It occurs in a series of distinct and complementary steps [6, 7]. Initially, when the phagocyte recognizes ligands of the particulate material by receptors on cellular membranes, occurs an increase in phosphatidyl bisphosphate (PIP2) levels, followed by a reduction in PIP2 mediated by the conversion of PIP2 to phosphatidyl triphosphate (PIP3) [8]. Next, PLCγ hydrolyzes PIP3 into diacylglycerol and inositol triphosphate (IP3) [9]. After the phagosome formation, maturation of this compartment by the acquisition of different proteins begins [10]. The parasite can promote changes in the kinetics of recruitment to the membrane and activation of these molecules, interfering with phagosome maturation and the microbicidal activity of macrophages [11].
The best-known receptors that induce the attachment and ingestion of different particles, opsonized or not, are those for the complement fractions (CR1 and CR3), those for the Fc region of antibodies (Fc RI, RII, and RIII), as well as the mannose and beta-glycan receptors involved in the recognition and phagocytosis of particles derived from yeast [12] or by circulating collectins and pentraxins [13]. In addition, microbial products defined by Medzhitov and Janeway in 1997 [14] as “pathogen-associated molecular patterns” (PAMPs) are recognized by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), mainly the toll-like receptors (TLRs) [15] nod-like receptors [16] and dendritic cell receptors such as C-type lectins [17, 18]. The PRRs interplay between innate and adaptive immune responses by directly activating effector mechanisms and alerting the host organism to the presence of infectious agents, including the expression of a group of endogenous signals, such as inflammatory cytokines and chemokines [14, 19].
Like professional phagocytes, nonprofessional phagocytic cells have the machinery, cytoskeleton, and components for signal transduction necessary for phagocytosis [20]. Although intestinal epithelial cells and many nonprofessional cell lines phagocytose bacteria such as
The molecular processes involved in the uptake of particulate material have been well studied using particles opsonized by immunoglobulins (Ig) class G (IgG) and cells expressing a receptor for the Fc region of IgGs. This interaction results in the clustering of ligand-associated receptors on the phagocytic cell surface. The signaling steps leading to IgG engulfment of opsonized particles are also well studied. These steps comprise the recruitment and activation of kinases, phosphorylation of the cytosolic portion of the receptor, and stimulation of GTPases of the Rac and Cdc42 families, which cooperate with phosphatidyl bisphosphate promoting the stabilization of WASP family proteins. In turn, the WASP protein activates the Arp2/3 complex, promoting actin filaments polymerization, followed by the emission of pseudopodia around the particle [26]. The phagocytosed agent will be internalized in a vesicle called a phagosome. The phagosome will then fuse with lysosomes, forming the phagolysosome. Phagocytosis depends on a complex network of vesicle trafficking pathways that interconnect most intracellular compartments linked to the membrane and actin cytoskeleton and requires the use of a large amount of plasma membrane for pseudopod extension around the target particle [27].
By analogy with the flow of substances through the endocytic pathway, it is most likely that the ligands present on the surface of particles or microorganisms contribute to the determination of particle destiny within the cell [28, 29]. In addition, the particles and microorganisms’ composition present in vacuoles determines both the nature of the vacuolar contents [30, 31] and the ability of the organelles to fuse with other vesicles of the endocytic pathway [32, 33].
Newly formed phagosomes undergo a maturation process from the plasma membrane, which comprises a series of modifications, usually leading to the internalized particle’s degradation [6]. In the past, biochemical analyses have been performed on phagosomes isolated and purified at different time points after uptake by antibody-fixed and antibody-coated staphylococcus aureus present in J774 macrophages. These studies revealed that changes in the protein composition of phagosomes are similar to those already identified during endosome maturation or for compartments successively formed during the internalization of soluble components. Identical to the maturation process of endosome compartments, the protein content within phagosomes is partly recycled and sorted. These organelles, probably by fusion with pre-lysosomes, produce a final compartment that presents at the membrane lysosomal glycoproteins, mannose-6 phosphate receptors, and the ATP-dependent proton pump [29]. The maturation of phagosomes containing IgG-opsonized particles has already been well described for the recognition process. This process involves the remodeling of membranes, gaining and losing proteins, and lipid markers during their biogenesis. These steps comprise acquisition of Rab5 with the participation of Rab20 [34]; acquisition of proton pump V-ATPases, with the release of protons in the phagosomes and acidification of the intracellular medium [35]; conversion of the membrane of the initial phagosome into a late one, due to the recruitment of some proteins such as Mon1-Ccz1 by Rab5, which by the action of guanine exchange factor (GEF) recruit and activate Rab7. The formation of phagolysosomes culminates in the fusion between late phagosomes with lysosomes [36, 37].
The contact of promastigote forms of
The first studies showing the interaction of infective promastigotes with macrophages were carried out in the 70s [41] and focused on the observation of the interaction of the parasite with its host cell from the very first moments of interaction until its complete internalization, passing by all intermediate stages of parasite uptake. These studies carried out using scanning electron microscopy also showed, in a pioneering way, that the phagocytosis seems to start preferentially by the tip of the parasite’s flagellum. Although parasites could be found being phagocytosed by the cell body, the flagellum appears to be the preferred portion to trigger the internalization process. The promastigote flagellum is an anterior structure, extremely active and motile, towards which the parasite moves its body. Interestingly, and due to these morphological characteristics, there is an increasing debate proposing that the promastigote flagellum is, in fact, a sensory structure and that it is probably the first portion of the parasite to interact with host cells. When macrophages were treated with cytochalasin-D, a potent phagocytosis inhibitor, about 75% of the infection was blocked [42].
Given that 25% of the cells continued to be infected even with the drug treatment, these data showed the importance of phagocytosis as a way of invasion. Furthermore, they pointed to alternative routes of infection yet to be explored. As discussed below, we now know that these parasites can penetrate cells also through non-phagocytic pathways.
The internalization process of the
In addition to classical phagocytosis receptors, PRRs also participate in the interaction of
Binding of
The fact that
Phagolysosome biogenesis, also known as phagosome maturation, is a highly regulated membrane traffic process essential for pathogen intracellular fate, survival or intracellular death and degradation, and antigen processing presentation by professional phagocytes [78, 79]. This maturation process results from sequential fusion events between phagosomes and compartments of the endocytic pathway. Classical cell biology studies have revealed several aspects of the biogenesis of
For pathogens that live in intracellular compartments, the process of phagosome maturation does not necessarily follow the steps described for other particles. Once internalized, several microorganisms, including protozoa and bacteria, are adapted to live at least one phase of their life cycle inside host cells. It has been described at least three strategies adopted by different pathogens to evade the defense mechanisms developed by the host following infection. Some microorganisms induce the formation of vacuoles that do not acidify [84]. Other pathogens are phagocytosed and settle in acidified compartments from which they then escape to live in the cytoplasm of the host cell. The last group is formed by organisms adapted to survive in the phagolysosomes of the host cell, which is the case of
After being recognized by receptors in the host cell surface,
Model of the parasitophorous vacuole composition induced by
Despite similar characteristics among
Model of the parasitophorous vacuole induced by different
Once internalized within the parasitophorous vacuoles, the amastigotes multiply by binary fission, facilitating infection amplification, and persistence in the mammalian host (Figure 4). It is commonly assumed that amastigotes are released after host cell burst, which could be occasioned by the burden imposed by the unrestrained replication of the parasite. However, this is still an unproven hypothesis. Thus, the process of infection amplification during leishmaniasis is still a black box. Therefore, our knowledge about the mechanisms that lead to infection amplification during
Human macrophages infected by
As mentioned earlier, cell disruption with the release of amastigotes into the extracellular environment has never been demonstrated despite being often assumed to be a mechanism of amastigote spread. On the other hand, it is entirely plausible to hypothesize that the amplification of infection in leishmaniasis occurs by the ingestion of apoptotic bodies of dead infected macrophages by new macrophages. This is even more logical if we consider that the clearance of dead cells is one of the leading roles these phagocytes play in tissue remodeling. This lack of knowledge about whether amastigotes are released extracellularly is also reflected in the few studies approaching cell invasion by free amastigotes [107, 108, 109].
Still, it is necessary to emphasize that other mechanisms have also been proposed regarding the infection amplification process.
The dissemination of infected cells containing
In leishmaniasis, macrophages function as a replicative niche for
Undoubtedly,
This work was supported by grants from the Bahia State Research Support Foundation (FAPESB) and FAPEMIG; PSTV holds a grant (305235/2019-2) from National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq). PSTV and JPBMF are professors from PGPAT and PGBSMI financed by Higher Education Personnel Council–Brazil (CAPES)—Finance Code 001.
We thank Prof. Jane Lima-Santos for kindly providing the infected macrophage image.
The authors deny the existence of any conflict of interest.
Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. 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Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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