\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art on Theileriosis, Babesiosis, and Anaplasmosis, both in humans and domestic animals. Particularly this book aims to permit the researchers to enter into a critical focus on the biology of the parasites, eco-epidemiology of the diseases, clinical manifestations, risk factors, immunology, surveillance, diagnosis, identification, and management of risks as well as the potential economic impact on animal production.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-384-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-383-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-385-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"3d72ae651ee2a04b2368bf798a3183ca",bookSignature:"Prof. Elisa Pieragostini",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11577.jpg",keywords:"Zoonosis, Global Climate Change, Epidemiology, Risk Factors, Haemoparasites, Prevention & Control, Piroplasmosis, Anaplasmosis, Babesiosis, Theileriosis, Tick-Borne Diseases, Ticks",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 29th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 28th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 16th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 15th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor of Animal genetics and breeding at Bari University, a researcher in animal genetics related to the resilience of Apulian livestock to enzootic tick-borne haemoparasites and to the involved functional effect of hemoglobin variants. She is a member of national and international scientific associations.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"51521",title:"Prof.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Pieragostini",slug:"elisa-pieragostini",fullName:"Elisa Pieragostini",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51521/images/system/51521.jpg",biography:"Dr. Pieragostini has a Degree in Biological Sciences, DPhil in Biochemistry received from Bologna University, Italy.\r\nShe was an Assistant professor of “Genetics” at the Faculty of Science of Bologna University, a Full professor of “Animal genetics and breeding” Bari University, Italy, and Elected President of course on “Agricultural Science and Technology” (2001-2010) Bari University.\r\nShe retired in 2015.\r\nFrom 1977 to 1984 she carried out intensive work on Drosophila investigating quantitative characters associated with biochemical markers. From the1985 onwards, she had been studying Apulian farm animals focusing on blood-based markers as well as on the structure-function relationship of the different hemoglobin variants come across and their relationship with the Apulian livestock resilience to the enzootic tick-borne diseases. \r\nShe was Project Director\r\nShe is a member of national and international scientific associations.",institutionString:"Independent Researcher",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Bari Aldo Moro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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1. Introduction
Various industries release a combination of free cyanide and cyanide complexes into the environment via a variety of disposal methods, particularly as wastewater. These industries utilise cyanide based compounds in various operations, including: the beneficiation of metals, electroplating, case hardening, automotive manufacturing, circuitry board manufacturing, and in chemical industries [23]. Cyanide is often found in organic, hydrocarbon chains or as inorganic, transition, alkali and alkali earth metal complexes [20]. Many cyanide complexes are highly unstable, thus temperature, pH and light can degrade the components to form free cyanide which is the most toxic form of cyanide [20, 26].
There is an overwhelming popularity in industry for the use of chemical treatment methods for the treatment of free cyanide and cyanide complexes compared to biochemical treatment methods. Chemical remediation methods like alkaline chlorine oxidation are commonly used to treat cyanide contaminated wastewater [23, 24]. Chemical oxidation is particularly ineffective in the treatment of cyanide-metal complexes containing heavy metals, such as copper, nickel and silver, due to the slow reaction rate [23]. The excess quantity of chlorine used in the treatment process increases the chemical oxygen demand (COD) of the wastewater thereby rendering the water undesirable for reuse, toxic to aquatic life and may produce organic substances. In order to reduce operational costs, some manufacturers partially treat the wastewater, resulting in untreated and/or partially decomposed cyanide being discharged. Other methods of treatment include copper catalysed hydrogen peroxide oxidation, ozonation and electrolytic decomposition [23]. However, these methods are unpopular due to the high capital costs, specialist equipment and maintenance requirements.
Several microorganisms, bacteria such as Nocardia sp. and Rhodococcus sp., fungi such as Aspergillus sp. and Fusarium sp. and algae such as Arthrospira maxima and Scenedesmus obliquus, possess enzymatic mechanisms able to bioremediate free cyanide and cyanide complexes [1, 26]. However, limited studies have been conducted using organic waste and fungal strains in cyanide bioremediation. Several studies have been conducted using varying concentrations of free cyanide, with moderate success being achieved in some cases [1].
Since the early 1970’s, progress has been made to develop economically viable continuous remediation processes such as membrane bioreactors (MBRs) [8]. A membrane is generally defined as being a selective barrier. The membrane utilised in a bioreactor can provide either a barrier to limit the transport of certain components, while being permeable to others, thus prevent certain components from contacting a biocatalyst, or contain reactive sites thus being a catalyst itself [5]. The application of MBRs for the production of enzymes has received considerable attention for their diverse industrial use. A number of microorganisms have been studied in MBR applications for wastewater using fungi, such as white-rot fungus, Phanerochaete chrysosporium (P. chrysosporium) [8].
Solid waste generation in South Africa is a problem growing at an exponential rate with the majority of landfill sites reaching maximum capacity. Approximately 427x106 tonnes of solid waste is generated in South Africa every year, of which 40% by mass is organic waste [10]. The average amount of waste generated per person in South Africa is 0.7 kg/annum, which is close to that of developed countries such as the United Kingdom (0.723 kg/annum) and Singapore (0.87 kg/annum), than for developing countries, such as Nepal (0.3 kg/annum) [10]. It is sensible to bioaugment biotechnological processes to utilise organic waste materials, particularly for industries which produce large quantities of it.
2. Overview: Free cyanide
Free cyanide is the simplest form of cyanide and has two forms, namely as a hydrocyanic molecule or hydrogen cyanide (HCN) which dissociates into an anionic cyanide molecule (CN-) in solution [20]. By definition, free cyanides are forms of molecular and ionic cyanides that are released in aqueous solution by the dissolution and dissociation of cyanide complexes. Simple and weak acid dissociable cyanides are the most unstable and most likely to form free cyanide in aqueous solution. Simple cyanide compounds are ionically bonded cyanide anions and alkali earth or alkali metals that are neutral, that exist in solid form and dissociate into alkali earth or alkali metals and free cyanide when in aqueous solutions [20].
Accordingly the environmental risk of cyanide wastewater is not limited to the effluent but also the possibility of emitting hydrocyanic gas. Hydrocyanic gas is toxic, colourless, distinctive almond smell at low concentrations, slightly soluble in water and readily dissociates into hydrogen and anionic cyanide at low pH in aqueous solution [20]. For safety reasons, it is advised to keep cyanide solutions at a high pH to prevent the evolvement of hydrocyanic gas since there is a direct relationship between the dissociation of hydrocyanic molecule and pH (Figure 1) including temperature [20].
Figure 1.
Relationship between HCN in solution and pH [20]
3. Differentiating filamentous fungi: Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus awamori
Black Aspergilli (Aspergillus section Nigri) species, are aerobic filamentous fungi often derived from soil. They have shown potential in biotechnology, food and medical applications. The trait of these species causing agricultural products to spoil had recently shown to be of benefit. Agricultural waste can be fermented to produce a variety of industrially important extracellular enzymes, such as cellulase, amylase, xylanase, pectinase, elastase, and organic acids, such as citric, galacturonic including gluconic acid. Aspergillus niger (A. niger) and Aspergillus awamori (A. awamori) are closely related species and A. awamori is often misidentified as A. niger. They share similar morphology and growth rates at various temperatures and produce several common enzymes [34].
3.1. Isolation and identification: Aspergillus awamori
A black filamentous mould was isolated from cyanide contaminated municipal wastewater discharge drain located in the Western Cape, South Africa. Swab samples were taken at various points along the drain and grown on 1 % (w/v) Citrus Pectin Agar (CPA) plates incubated at 37 °C for 5 days. After incubation, black mycelia of filamentous mould grew on the plate (Figure 2).
This was transferred to Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) plates with 0.2% (v/v) Penicillin-Streptomycin (PEN-STREP; (10000 units/L of Penicillin and 10 mg of Streptomycin/ml) anti-biotic solution. The plates were again incubated at 37 ˚C for 5 days. One millilitre (1 ml) of 0.1% (w/v) Tween 80 solution was added to each plate and a spatula was used to harvest the spores and mycelium from the plate to form a spore-mycelium suspension. The suspension was then filtered through a glass wool using 20 ml syringes to entrap the mycelium onto the glass wool and produce a spore suspension which was stored at 4 ˚C. Afterwards, serial dilutions were made from the spore suspension and the number of spores in each 1 ml, were determined in duplicate using a Marienfeld Neubauer cell-counter and a Nikon Eclipse E2000 at a phase contrast of one and magnification of 100x. The absorbance of the diluted spore suspension was determined at 750 nm using a Jenway 6715 UV/Visible spectrophotometer with distilled water as a blank [31]. A calibration graph for the spore concentration was determined by plotting the absorbance against the spore concentration (spores/ml), to quantify spore concentration in the inoculum.
Figure 2.
Growth of A. awamori on CPA after incubation at 37 ˚C for 5 days
To observe the morphological characteristics of the fungus, the isolates were inoculated on Malt Extract Agar (MEA) and Czapek Yeast Agar (CYA) and incubated at 26 °C for 7 days. Based on their growth rate, the fungus was presumptively identified as A. awamori. A. awamori was reported to show rapid growth on the CYA compared to A. niger which exhibited restricted growth. However, the growth and sporulation on MEA was better than CYA in the case of both A. niger and A.\n\t\t\t\t\tawamori. The fruiting bodies were mounted in lactic acid before they were observed under an oil immersion. The conidial heads for A. awamori were not well-defined columns in comparison to conidia heads observed for A.\n\t\t\t\t\tniger. The strain showed colony characteristics of both A. niger and A.\n\t\t\t\t\tawamori. On a general note, the conidiophores and conidia of A.\n\t\t\t\t\tawamori and A.\n\t\t\t\t\tniger are similar and morphologically indistinguishable, as shown in Figure 3 [34].
Figure 3.
Growth of isolate on (a & b) MEA and (c & d) CYA
Figure 4.
(a & b) Typical Aspergillus conidiophores with a radial head and (c & d) roughened, round conidia with regular low ridges and bars
Molecular characterization was carried out in order to confirm the identity of the fungal isolates. DNA was extracted from the pure isolates using the ZR Fungal/Bacterial DNA Kit (Zymo Research, California, USA). The subsequent Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) of the ITS1–5.8S–ITS2 rDNA region was prepared with primers ITS1 and ITS4 [36]. The β-tubulin gene was amplified using primers Bt2a and Bt2b [7] and the calmodulin gene with CL1 and CL2A [22], respectively. Sequencing reactions of the PCR products were set-up using a Big Dye terminator cycle sequencing premix kit (Applied Biosystems, CA).
Sequence reactions were analysed with an ABI PRISM 310 genetic analyser. Sequences were compared to those of a recent study by [34]. Datasets were aligned in Se-Al, including a sequence analysis in Se-Al. This was followed by a sequence analysis in PAUP* v4.0b10, using the BioNJ option for calculating a single tree for each dataset. Confidence in nodes was calculated using a bootstrap analysis of 1000 replicates. Only bootstrap values above 90% were indicated on the branches and Aspergillus flavus was chosen as the outgroup [34]. The isolated fungus was denoted as Aspergillus (CPUT) in Figure 5 and 6.
Figure 5.
NJ tree based on the analysis of the (a) ITS, (b) β-tublin and (c) calmodulin gene regions
Figure 6.
NJ tree based on the analysis of the combined gene regions
According to [34], the only way to separate A. niger and A. awamori is through a multi-gene phylogenetic analysis. This was done by using ITS, β-tubulin and calmodulin gene regions, as shown in Figure 5. The combined gene region analysis (Figure 6) indicates that the Aspergillus strain was similar and indeed identical to the sequence of the type strain of A. awamori, a fungus with diverse properties in biotechnology applications, including the production of nitrilase-a cyanide degrading enzyme.
3.2. Citrus peel supplemented growth medium for cyanide bioremediation using Aspergillus awamori
Citrus peels are composed of cellulose, pectin, hemi-cellulose, lignin, chlorophyll pigments, low relative-molecular-mass hydrocarbons including lipids, proteins, simple sugars, starches, water and ash [14, 29]. The major components in citrus peel are cellulose, hemi-cellulose, pectin and lignin which are inter-wound with each other to provide a rigid cell wall structure. Aspergillus awamori is able to produce enzymes for the breakdown of cellulose, hemi-cellulose and pectin and leaving lignin as the remaining structural component.
Cellulase, xylanase, pectinase are important enzymes in the hydrolysis of cellulose, hemi-cellulose and pectin into simpler sugars which can be utilised as a carbon source by the fungus. Hydrolysis of the orange peel has shown to yield significant quantities of neutral sugars: glucose, fructose and sucrose with low yields of xylose, arabinose, galactose and mannose. Hydrolysis of citrus peel also yield uronic acids, with galacturonic acid being the major of uronic acid liberated with trace quantities of other uronic acids. The optimum temperature and pH for these enzymes are in the range of 45 to 50 ˚C and 4.0 to 5.5, respectively [18, 19, 32]. Furthermore, A. awamori can produce nitrilase which hydrolyses the nitrile (cyanide) group (R-CΞN) into the corresponding carboxylic acid and ammonia, as shown in Figure 7 [26]. In aqueous solution, ammonia/ammonium equilibrium is observed.
Figure 7.
Nitrilase hydrolysis on cyanide group [26]
The majority of the citrus peel components are high carbon source materials and the ammonia produced from the cyanide degradation can be utilised as a nitrogen source by the microorganism. Studies have shown that the optimal pH and temperature for nitrilase production is 8 and 45 ˚C, respectively [12, 35].
The successful treatment of 400 ppm free cyanide supplemented with refined/readily metabolisable carbon sources has been reported [1]. However, current technology used can be capital intensive for large scale operations. Most studies on free cyanide bioremediation efficiency measured the free cyanide reduction periodically as opposed to product formation. This may be misleading since free cyanide is very volatile, even at room temperature, and the decline in free cyanide concentration observed may be a result of volatilisation into the atmosphere rather than actual biological remediation. The cyanide tolerance of the A. awamori (CPUT) isolate was initially assessed up to a 500 ppm CN- (1.2515 g KCN/L) in PDA (Figure 8).
Figure 8.
Cyanide tolerance analysis for A. awamori (CPUT) isolate
There was a clear decline in the growth of the fungus as the free cyanide concentration was increased. Appreciable growth occurred for the strain for free cyanide concentrations up to 200 ppm. A rapid decline in the growth was observed as the free cyanide concentration exceeded 300 ppm. The toxicity of cyanide reduces the functionality of the fungus metabolic processes, thus its growth. There was limited growth observed at cyanide concentrations above 430 ppm. Preliminary analysis on the effect of growth media on A. awamori (CPUT) for free cyanide bioremediation was performed in batch cultures, shaken at 180 rpm and 30 ˚C in a ZhiCheng (ZHWY-1102) shaking incubator. Media solutions of 42.5 ml of 1% (w/v) refined citrus pectin, 1 % (w/v) powered orange peel, Czapek yeast medium and sterile distilled water (standard) were added into 250 ml flasks. To each of the flasks, 1 ml of spore suspension (2x106 spores) was added followed by 7.5 ml of a 1 g CN-/L cyanide solution.. The experiments were run in duplicate in which sampling was every 48 hours. The samples were centrifuged for 13000 rpm for 5 minutes before any analysis was conducted. Merck cyanide (CN-) (09701) and Merck ammonium (NH4+) (00683) test kits were used to measure the free cyanide and ammonia/ammonium (NH3/NH4+) concentrations in solution.
The orange peel medium showed considerably higher cyanide reduction compared to the other nutrient media evaluated (Figure 9). The change in the cyanide concentration in the water medium (control) was due to volatilisation. At day 2, 7.5 ml of 1 g CN-/L free cyanide was again added to each flask to evaluate the robustness of the culture, in each growth media. The orange peel culture had the fastest recovery, even with a sudden increase in free cyanide concentration. The numerous enzymes released by the fungus, sufficiently hydrolysed the orange peel which resulted in better supplementation and maintenance of the fungus compared to the other media for cyanide bioremediation.
Figure 9.
Cyanide bioremediation by A. awamori (CPUT) in batch cultures.
NH3/NH4+ can be used as a nitrogen source for most fungi. The presence of quantifiable NH3/NH4+ in solution during biodegradation is indicative of cyanide reduction. However, not all the NH3/NH4+ was consumed by the fungus (Figure 10). Theoretical NH3/NH4+ was calculated based on the quantity of cyanide degraded and the stoichiometry of the cyanide hydrolysis reaction (Figure 7). The experimental [NH3/NH4+] were lower than that of the theoretical since the fungus metabolised some of the NH3/NH4+ as a nitrogen source. However, the hydrolysis of the cyanide does not result in complete metabolism of NH3/NH4+. The orange peel medium showed the highest concentration of the ammonia/ammonium in solution compared to the other media which is indicative of cyanide reduction. The rich carbon sources present in the orange peel and the further supplementation by NH3/NH4+, had shown to be an added advantage of using waste orange peel as a potential nutrient source.
However, for an efficient bioremediation process, a continuous process must be developed to assess the applicability of the A. awamori (CPUT) isolate for continuous cyanide bioremediation processes. One of the effective technologies which have been determined to be effective on a large scale is the use of immobilised MBRs, for continuous remediation of contaminants [8]. The advantage of using MBR technology is that the biomass can be retained for elongated periods while the continuous remediation of the contaminated water is in progress.
Figure 10.
Experimental and theoretical ammonia/ammonium concentration in batch cultures
4. Membrane technology for fixed-film immobilisation in continuous remediation processes
Materials used in the construction of membranes include organic or non-organic (e.g. metal, ceramic), homogeneous (e.g. polymer, metal) and heterogeneous (e.g. polymer mixes, mixed glass) solids and solutions (mostly polymers) [25]. Polymeric membranes are commonly used because they are well developed, competitive in separation performances and economical [25]. Membrane processes are categorised according to the pore size, molecular cut-off and pressure at which they operate. These categories are inter-related, because as the pore size or the molecular cut-off size is decreased the pressure applied to the membrane increases [33]. Membrane separation processes can be broadly categorised into four groups, based on the pore size of the membranes (Figure 11).
Asymmetric membranes have shown to be effective in immobilising biofilms in MBRs since the membranes allow the transport of nutrients to the biomass immobilised on their external surface [27]. Asymmetric refers to the graded porosity of the membrane substructure and indicates that the membranes have an inside coating, a skin layer, and combines the high selectivity of a dense membrane with a high permeation rate of a thin membrane. The exposed microvoids on the externally unskinned surface enable a resilient attachment of the microorganism on the membrane [21]. The production of asymmetric membranes is by manipulating manufacturing parameters during the membrane formation process which results in a unique membrane morphology, characteristics and properties of the membrane [16].
Figure 11.
Filtration spectrum [25]
Asymmetric membranes have an excellent mass transfer property which has led to their utilization in numerous industrial applications, especially for MBRs [8, 25]. The most important ultrafiltration (UF) membrane module types are hollow fibre and capillary tube membranes [21, 27]. They are ideal for biofilm growth because of the nutrients permeation gradient along the membrane and provide a shear free environment [8, 15]. The large surface area of these membranes to their small volume allows for high operational capacity which is an advantageous property when used in MBRs [28].
Filamentous microorganisms are commonly used in immobilised MBR systems [3, 21, 27]. These particular microorganisms are able to penetrate the membrane due to their apical growth resulting in effective immobilisation on the surface compared to non-motile bacteria and yeast. Although, comparative studies of ceramic and internally skinned polysulphone (PSu) capillary membranes have shown to provide the best attachment and immobilisation of fungal biofilms than other tubular membrane types [21, 27]. Sheldon and Small [27] showed that the ceramic and internally skinned PSu capillary membrane developed thicker biofilms than tubular membranes. Furthermore, the ceramic capillary membrane can resists mechanical stress caused by the increasing immobilised biofilm build-up on the membrane, as ceramic membranes are mechanically stable and can be chemically and steam sterilized [27].
4.1. Modes of operation and orientation for membrane bioreactors
The membrane modules’ mode of operation and orientation are important in determining the overall performance of the process. However, one of the biggest challenges in membrane operations is the effect of fouling and feeding mode, orientation and other mechanisms that would limit their application on a large scale.
Figure 12.
Modes of operation of membrane modules [2]
The effects of membrane modes of operations, as shown in Figure 12, have been studied using both experimental [6, 21, 30] and theoretical approaches [2, 8, 9, 13]. The mode of operation is concerned with the distribution and flow of the fluid in the system, as shown in Figure 12. In a dead-end filtration module the feed stream enters the lumen, permeates through the membrane and exit the shell in a continuous stream, with no retentate stream. In a continuous open shell mode, the feed stream enters the lumen and a portion of the feed permeates through the membrane and leaves the shell in a continuous stream and the other portion exit the lumen in a continuous stream. The amount of feed that will permeate through the membrane is dependent on several factors such as trans-membrane pressure, membrane permeability and feed velocity [25]. The pressure in the lumen is always greater than the shell side pressure in both dead-end filtration and continuous open shell modes [30]. This ensures that the trans-membrane flux, fluid’s flow direction between the lumen and shell regions, is directed toward the shell [2].
In a closed shell mode, the feed stream enters the lumen and a portion of the feed permeates through the membrane with no outlet shell stream, while the other portion exits the lumen as a continuous stream. The trans-membrane flux for the initial portion of the membrane is directed towards the shell, but for the end portion it is directed toward the lumen [2]. This is referred to as convective recirculation which results in undesired non-uniform distribution of the biomass in the membrane system [2, 30].
In a suction of permeate, the feed stream enters the shell for an equal distribution along the membrane and permeates through the membrane and exits in a continuous stream [8]. The pressure in the shell is kept at greater than that in the lumen for a trans-membrane flux towards the lumen [30]. There is a negligible pressure gradient in the lumen which results in a relatively uniform trans-membrane flux [30]. The orientation of the MBR is based on its application and is generally operated horizontally or vertically [2, 6, 8, 27]. Studies by Garcin [6] and Ntwampe [21] on Lignin peroxidase and Manganese peroxidase production from P. chrysosporium BKMF-1767 (ATCC 24725) in a vertically orientated PSu capillary MBR, had shown the production of these extracellular enzymes were higher in the vertically orientated MBR than in the horizontal orientation. Similarly, the biofilm was denser on the vertically orientated capillary membrane than that in horizontal MBRs [6, 21].
4.2. Membrane bioreactors: Design and application for cyanide remediation
MBRs are integrated biological and separation units for the production of value added products or the bioremediation of toxic components [8]. Immobilised MBRs refers to the fixed microbial biofilm formation on a membrane matrix with the film being fed a nutrient medium passing through the lumen. These MBR\'s retain the biomass on the membranes in a low shear environment, separate the nutrient supply from the biomass, as well as continuously remove extracellular metabolic products. These immobilised systems ensure that the biomass can be maintained in a state of low or non-proliferation for extended periods, while still producing the products desired [8]. Filamentous microorganisms have had some degree of success on immobilised MBR systems [3, 21]. However, this has not been evaluated for A. awamori biomass for cyanide remediation. Four vertically orientated single fibre membrane bioreactors (SFMBRs) (Figure 13) were constructed as described by Edwards et al. [4].
Figure 13.
Schematic of SFMBR for filamentous microorganism immobilisation
The glass housing, was produced by Glasschem (South Africa) and the asymmetric aluminium oxide ceramic capillary membranes were produced and supplied by Hyflux CEPAration BV (Netherlands).
The two SFMBRs were inoculated with 100 ml of A. awamori inoculum (10x106 spores) and two other SFMBRs were used as controls. High pressure reverse filtration of the inoculation spore solution on the external surface of the membranes was used to immobilise the spores onto the external surface of the ceramic membranes.
Figure 14.
Schematic diagram of the experimental setup
The constructed system was setup in a Scientific Manufacturing (SMC) (160 L unit) low temperature incubator set at 30 ˚C. A Watson Marlow (504S) peristaltic pump was used to supply the feed solution to the SFMBRs at a flow rate of 3 ml/hr. The SFMBRs were fitted with two way flow 0.2 μm Millipore air filters, to ensure a monoseptic culture in the system and for aeration. The feed solution initially consisted of 1 % (w/v) orange peel solution which was prepared by adding 10 g milled orange peel to a 1 L Schott bottle. The 1 L solution was filtered through a Whatmann No 1 filter paper and the filtrate produced (orange peel extract) was fed to the system for 2 days, in a feed batch mode, to initiate spore germination and biofilm development on the membrane. Thereafter, a feed solution consisting of the orange peel extract and free cyanide solution (280ppm) was fed to the SFMBR.
The total reduced sugars (TRS), such as glucose, fructose, sucrose, were measured using the dinitrosalicylic (DNS) acid colorimetric method [17]. The Merck cyanide (CN-) (09701) and Merck ammonium (NH4+) (00683) test kits were used to measure the free cyanide and NH3/NH4+ concentrations, since this is a by-product of the cyanide metabolism. The utilisation of the TRS increased for the pure orange peel extract feed in comparison to the control MBRs (Figure 15). The initial feed was rich with TRS and therefore, the metabolism of the TRS was observed. The change in the TRS utilisation for the orange peel extract containing cyanide concentration of 1.7%, 15.2%, 23.7% and 28.8% at day 2, 4, 6 and 8, respectively and therefore the rate of metabolism was drastically hindered which resulted in reduced metabolism of the TRS.
Figure 15.
TRS versus time for feed, control and MBR
Figure 16.
Biofilm development on day (a) 0 and (b) 8
The biofilm development (Figure 16) on the membrane was slow and homogenous along the membrane, as opposed to thick biomass at a particular area of the membrane. The formation of the thin biofilm has its benefits; it allows for better oxygen mass transfer into the biomass, which is vital since A. awamori, is an aerobic microorganism. Aerobic microorganisms utilise oxygen for cell maintenance, respiratory oxidation for further growth and for the oxidation of substrates into metabolic products.
The air filter prevented contamination and maintained the oxygen concentration in the MBR due to the gaseous venting, releasing by-products, such as carbon dioxide out of the MBR system and reintroducing oxygen back into the system. The residual cyanide concentration in the permeate decreased with time and a drastic decrease was observed from day 4 as the fungus adapted to the feed (Figure 17). There was also a considerable quantity of cyanide volatilisation compared to actual bioremediation. As shown in the shaken cultures, a majority of the ammonia, produced from cyanide hydrolysis, was consumed by the fungus as a nitrogen source. This was an indication that there was further utilisation of ammonia/ammonium as the fungus adjusts to the cyanide containing feed.
Figure 17.
Discharge cyanide concentration versus time for feed, control and MBR
Figure 18.
Experimental and theoretical ammonia/ammonium concentration
For the development of a sustainable MBR system for cyanide remediation an alternative MBR system should be used which limits cyanide volatilisation. Immersed MBRs are bioreactors in which the enzyme(s) and/or microorganism(s) or antibiotic(s) are immobilised on membrane(s) and biomass is suspended in the solution and compartmentalised in a reaction vessel [3]. Sidestream MBRs are when the membrane module and bioreactor are separate from each other. Immersed and sidestream MBRs are used for conventional biomass rejection thus allowing for continued biomass utilization [3]. Immersed MBRs require less energy than sidestream MBRs. Membrane modules in a pumped sidestream system utilises more energy due to the high pressures to sustain high volumetric flow rates [11]. However, immersed MBRs may be difficult to operate and remove fouling during operation. The separated system of bioreactor and membrane unit in a sidestream MBRs makes it easier to specifically optimise certain parameters for each unit which cannot be done in immersed MBRs.
Figure 19.
Side stream MBR system
For the continuous bioremediation of cyanide, a sidestream MBR (Figure 19) would be ideal since the solid material, yet to be hydrolysed, can be recycled into the continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) and the bioremediated wastewater can be collected as the permeate product. The CSTR can be initially loaded with milled orange peel in a water solution and inoculated with A. awamori thus the cyanide containing wastewater can be continuously fed into the system.
5. Conclusion
Large quantities of organic wastes are generated every year, but it has been shown that many of the waste, particularly from the agricultural sector, can be utilised as nutrient source for microbial systems. The use of orange peel has shown to be a rich source for cultivation and supplementation for A. awamori (CPUT) isolate for cyanide remediation. The ammonia produced from the cyanide hydrolysis can be used as a nitrogen source by the fungus, although incomplete metabolism of the ammonia was observed. This could be improved by changing operating conditions so that the degradation of cyanide, thus the release and subsequent consumption of the ammonia is improved.
Challenges that are also evident in bioremediation are due to its volatility, especially in open/agitated cultures. The hydrolysis of sugar components from the orange peel by merely boiling it in water is not an effective true solution since this process results in incomplete hydrolysis/liberation of the sugar components and residual solids. This can be improved by hydrolysis using microorganism such as A. awamori, as used in this study. The use of an enclosed sidestream MBR would provide a suitable system for complete hydrolysis of the sugars from the orange peel. The unhydrolysed sugar components in the peel can be recycled and further hydrolysed depending on the molecular-weight cut-off size of the membranes used in the reactor. The sidestream MBR can reduce CN- volatilization thus, offer a safe to operate reactor unit which is easier to clean with an added advantage of optimising each unit individually.
Acknowledgements
This research was sponsored by a CPUT University Research Fund (URF RK16).
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/42503.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/42503.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42503",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42503",totalDownloads:3475,totalViews:387,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:79,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 23rd 2012",dateReviewed:"September 12th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 7th 2013",dateFinished:"February 1st 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/42503",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/42503",book:{id:"3404",slug:"environmental-biotechnology-new-approaches-and-prospective-applications"},signatures:"Bruno Alexandre Quistorp Santos, Seteno Karabo Obed Ntwampe and James Hamuel Doughari",authors:[{id:"65370",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Hamuel Doughari",fullName:"James Hamuel Doughari",slug:"james-hamuel-doughari",email:"jameshamuel@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"161195",title:"Prof.",name:"Seteno",middleName:"Karabo Obed",surname:"Ntwampe",fullName:"Seteno Ntwampe",slug:"seteno-ntwampe",email:"karabo.ntwampe@nwu.ac.za",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/161195/images/4175_n.jpg",institution:null},{id:"161198",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Bruno",middleName:"Alexandre Quistorp",surname:"Santos",fullName:"Bruno Santos",slug:"bruno-santos",email:"b17101988@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Overview: Free cyanide",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Differentiating filamentous fungi: Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus awamori",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Isolation and identification: Aspergillus awamori",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Citrus peel supplemented growth medium for cyanide bioremediation using Aspergillus awamori",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Membrane technology for fixed-film immobilisation in continuous remediation processes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1. Modes of operation and orientation for membrane bioreactors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2. Membrane bioreactors: Design and application for cyanide remediation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgements",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Akcil A., Karahan AG., Ciftci H., Sagdic O. Biological Treatment of Cyanide by Natural Isolated Bacteria (Pseudomonas sp.). 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San Diego: Academic Press; 1990. p315-322'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Bruno Alexandre Quistorp Santos",address:null,affiliation:'
Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa
Faculty of Applied Science, Department of Agriculture and Food Science, Biotechnology programme, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa
Faculty of Applied Science, Department of Agriculture and Food Science, Biotechnology programme, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa
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1. Introduction
Social media is an important part of interpersonal communication and essential for building and maintaining lasting and meaningful relationships. Recently, social media has been challenged by policymakers to promote and spread content that is not truthful, often referred to as fake news, and with that, has led to a crisis of trust [1]. In addition the global pandemic has moved several physical interactions online with several technical developments, such as remote work and online learning, being conducted online with a significant impact on trust based interpersonal interactions.
At the core of this crisis lies the question of responsibility. Technology providers tend to push responsibility to the users by claiming that the application only facilitates the transaction and cannot be responsible for the nature or purpose of the content. This, however, is rejected by policymakers, which tend to argue that personal information is misused and sold for content targeting. On the one hand, it can be argued that social media providers should protect the interests of their users and ensure that their personal information is not used to target them with potentially false or harmful information. On the other hand, it can be argued, that users should become more aware of such information and not ‘trust’ everything they see. This includes making their own background checks and spending the time to investigate the source and intention of the message. This trust-related debate, therefore, bears the question of what responsibility the user holds in trusting information that is spread on social media applications in validating its trustworthiness. In addition to this reduced, transaction-based, point of view, between the user and the social media application. Interpersonal trust has to be investigated. The recent debate related to echo chambers and filter bubbles points to the fact that users tend to trust content from trusted peers more than from unknown users. Furthermore, users tend to focus more on what engagement their own content gleaned and not so much what other content they engage on themselves [2]. Content engagement is used to gauge trust for example via likes, shares, comments and reactions in the form of emoticons. The main assumption is, that content with high engagement, is most likely content that can be trusted [3]. However, it is easy to conclude that content engagement is not suited to assess if the content is true, false or misleading. The main reason being, that any reaction can be fabricated (e.g. by false accounts). To compound this challenge, the underlying content distribution algorithms of social media applications react strongly to content that receives increased engagement by assuming that content with a high number of engagement is interesting to more users, hence the content is spread wider and faster. This specific action can affect information diffusion and the role of the users. Indeed, social media algorithms give more visibility to contents with higher engagement by hiding the visibility of contents with less engagement (e.g. post in Facebook groups). Trust, therefore, cannot be assessed by assuming the content is trustworthy due to the level of engagement. Based on this assessment two possible viewpoints can be introduced. The first pointing to the social media applications screening content and the second pointing to the user needing to trust their own ability to judge content. Furthermore, a good trust model needs to take into account several aspects which involve the level of trustworthiness a user has towards both the content and the user sharing the content. Moreover, it can be argued that if the user does not trust their own ability to assess information they might prefer a regulator to decide. This, however, points to the challenges of censorship and how political bias within the screening teams should be handled. An addition to social media related inter person trust the recent global pandemic has led to an increased online usage with several physical social interactions moving online, specifically these are online working and online learning. However, there is to date no indication that the global pandemic and its impact on online has had a significant impact on social media based interpersonal reactions or that it has changed anything in relation to trust dynamics in social networks. Pandemic related online technologies used are mostly focused on video live and real-time conferencing without the need or usage of a social network or any related social technologies that create an social activity overlay. There are instances of trust related aspects such as companies trusting their workers less due to the lack of control and insight. This argument has led to the increased development of surveillance technology for online workers which however is not directly related to interpersonal trust covered in this article. It remains however an interesting and ongoing topic to reflect how the pandemic, once it is over, changes the dynamics of online and social media related interpersonal trust.
This article is organised as follows. First, a discussion of interpersonal trust within social media applications is provided. This is followed by a conceptual literature review resulting in the identification of modalities of trust in social media. Finally, a rudimentary and brief information-dense word embeddings analysis is provided to illustrate how impactful the terminology around interpersonal trust within the state of the art of interpersonal trust within social media applications is. This concluding study is based on unsupervised machine learning techniques. Finally, a discussion is provided.
2. Interpersonal trust in social media applications
Trust is a complex construct and often defined from different perspectives. This makes it difficult to define and to categorize conceptually. In this section, we seek to provide an overview of definitions and categories of trust with the goal to frame the conceptual literature review discussed in Section 3.
2.1 Trust and trustworthiness
A common opinion is that connected people trust one another’s content. However, trust is a far more complex concept which takes several aspects of the human dynamics into account. Different definitions of trust can be related to the real-world relationships of people and based on this the trust aspects of the relationship take various aspects and definitions into account.
From a general perspective, it can be argued that modern societies are becoming increasingly complex due to technologies that provide instant access to a large amount of information and services. Based on this, it can be argued that trust is a key concept that ensures all members of a complex society to deal with a high level of complexity. Only by trusting the technology to do the job right it is possible to ‘give away’ the control to technology. The same argument stands for non-technical processes and trust such as financial and regulatory processes in which trust is given to a central bank and/or governments. Trust hence is an essential fabric of our society without which the complexities of it would not be manageable and there existing within a complex society would not be possible.
On a more specific level trust can be defined as a derivation of the reciprocity, learned when people are in cooperation with others, like in associations and other forms of voluntary organizations [1]. In addition to this definition, trust is composed of personal values (e.g. personal happiness), but also by political and economic values.
The argument of complexity reduction, central to trust, is aligned with the concept of trusted agents. A trust agent has the purpose to complete tasks on behalf of a person. It can be a person, a governmental agency or technology. However, trusting an agent is not easy. The main reason for this is the role of risk related to trust [4, 5]. The more an individual trusts, the more risk the individual is willing to take. In this context O’Hara [6] discusses that for technology to increase the quality of life, it is necessary that technology assists in increasing trustworthiness throughout society. However, it can be argued, social media applications as one of the most used technology for social interactions within societies, specifically those relying on social interactions on content, are not designed to increase trustworthiness. They typically revert to simplified low-risk substitutes of trust, such as ratings, recommendations and engagement. The risk argument is essential however, without risk there is no trust. This argument on the flipside implies that any action that holds no risk does not require any trust. The result of risk minimization within social interactions in social media applications is a significantly decreased impact such applications have on increasing the quality of social interactions and with that the quality of life throughout societies [6]. As mentioned above, trust as a concept is complex, due to it being based on the person’s beliefs and attitudes. Therefore, it is challenging to understand what properties within social interactions increase trustworthiness and specifically how these properties can be utilized in a mostly automated social media application.
From an economic point of view, an essential view point, especially when discussing publicly trading social media companies, trust is partially a product of people’s capacity to assess the trustworthiness of their potential partners. People, as homo economicus, often calculate the costs and projected outcomes of their decisions to trust. From a rational perspective, trusting involves expectations about interaction partners based on calculations, which weigh the cost and benefits of certain courses of action to either the trustors or the trustees [7]. In this context Weber et al. [8] notes that in some cases people display a willingness to trust people they do not know and will never meet or see. Moreover, a more technology-related view is taken by Friedman et al. [9] in which an end-user must first trust in that atmosphere—technology and human community combined—and only then the interacting partners are positioned to trust in any particular online interaction with other people. In addition, trust can depend on non-rational factors, such as love or altruism and may involve a loose confluence on diverging interests. In extreme cases, trust is even necessary when people are in desperate situations from which they cannot extricate themselves [10]. For example, two parties having an asymmetrical dependency in a trusting relation—one is dependent on the other, but not the other way around [10]. Lewis and Weigert [11] argue that trust, from a sociological perspective, should be viewed as a property of collective units (such as groups and collectives), and not of isolated individuals. As a collective attribute, trust is applicable to the relations among individuals rather than to their psychological states taken individually [11].
It is not clear however what role social media applications play in increasing or decreasing interpersonal trust and what implications this has on the overall society which can only function if trust exists. Several research studies have been proposed and they show the wide effect that social media have on the creation of the trust. However, researching trust within online interactions is a complex task and requires the replication of physical interaction with its sets of interpersonal cues in the context of online exchange may be a feasible method to promote online trust. We postulate that the infusion of social presence in websites for online transactions may increase users’ trust in online organizations which is in line with Beldad et al. [10]. Thus, the problem for establishing trust online is how to do so in light of uncertainty about both the magnitude and the frequency of risk and potential harm [9]. The inclination to view trustors and trustees symmetrically under the premise that each party interprets each other’s actions similarly [8].
In the context of online trust functions of ongoing image and reputation management are important to discuss. The potential partners have the burden of not only creating trust but also maintaining it and this process involves the duty of presenting themselves as trustworthy persons [12]. This corresponds to Goffman’s presentation of the self-theory, which proposes that people are constantly engaged in managing and controlling the impressions they make on others to attain their goals [13]. Specifically, in interhuman relationships, trust can be viewed as a product of people’s capacity to assess the trustworthiness of their potential partners. More specifically, trust, therefore, can be considered as the reflected trustworthiness of the trustees and their trustworthiness that is subjectively entertained in the judgment of the trustors [14]. A further view on trust is offered by Zand [15] by viewing trust as a concept that increases the vulnerability to others whose behaviour one cannot control. Essentially meaning that online trust is defined as an attitude of confident expectation in an online situation of risk that one’s vulnerabilities will not be exploited which can be viewed as an argument that trust in offline settings is applicable to trust in an online environment [16]. Following the argument of increased vulnerability Zand [15] argues that trust can be viewed as the willingness of people to be vulnerable to the actions of others based on the expectation that the latter will perform a particular action important to the former, irrespective of the ability to monitor and control the latter. However, the idea of being vulnerable when trusting skews towards the realization that while uncertainties and ambiguities are abounding in all forms of exchanges and transactions, risks creep underneath. Doney et al. [17] extend this argument by arguing that the sources of risks are related to vulnerability and/or uncertainty about an outcome. Therefore, trust can be regarded as people’s behavioural reliance on others on a condition of risk [18].
The connection between risk and trust has been highlighted in Rousseau et al. [19]. If considered that trust is one of the major concepts of an online/offline human social relationship, two specific aspects characterize a trust relationship between humans: the risk and the interdependence. The risk regards the intention of the other party which is not certain before, instead, the interdependence concerns the interests of the two parties which are related. These two conditions are needed to consider a human relationship as a trust relationship, and changes in these two factors may change the level of trust [19].
In relation to risk Koller [20] and Lewis and Weigert [11] ask if we trust because there are risks or do we take risks because we trust? The first question emphasizes that risks determine trust, while the second question supposes that trust is an antecedent of risk-taking behaviour in any relationship, in which the form of risk-taking, according to Mayer et al. [21]. This, however, depends on the situation and/or context. The people’s level of trust in their interaction partners is positively related to the perceived risks present in the situation. This means that an increase in risk perceptions could result in the augmentation of people’s degree of trust [20, 21].
There are several more specific viewpoints on what makes a person trustworthy and with that different perspective how this can be achieved online in comparison to offline. Sztompka [14] for example employs three criteria in estimating the trustworthiness of a person being reputation, performance, and appearance. Mayer et al. [21] describes that trustworthy occurs when the transactional partners (1) have the required skills, competencies, and characteristics that enable them to exert influence within a specific domain (competence criterion), (2) are believed to do good to trustors (no egocentric motive), and (3) are perceived to adhere to a set of principles that trustors consider acceptable—a definition of integrity [10].
In digital media studies, authenticity has often been discussed in relation to online identity and self-presentation [22]. Especially social media has changed the possibilities for self-presentation. The main reason for this is that users present themselves in flat spatial and temporal context [23]. This happens because social media changed the nature of the interpersonal relationship in two ways: space and time. Time because the Internet is able to reduce the barriers of time thanks to asynchronous communications. Instead, as concerns space, social information can spread to a very wide set of interested users [24].
This relates to Goffman’s impression management framework addressing challenges for the separation of backstage and frontstage identity performances [10, 25] which relates to the users online and offline persona. Social media allows users to perform strategic authenticity by revealing personal information, displaying symbolic connections, and responding to their audiences immediately and regularly. This controlled selection, along with monitoring self-disclosures [23] and constant redaction of profiles [26], help users to perform authenticity for multiple audiences by presenting themselves in different ways based on different strategic personas. Based on [4] authenticity stems from the construction of identity. Giddens explains that an authentic person is one who knows herself and is able to reveal that knowledge to the other. Based on this it can be argued that social media applications influence how individuals build and express the overarching biographical narrative upon which their authenticity claims rest [27].
A trust dimension related to authenticity is reputation which is often represented online as reviews and ratings. It can be argued that the ever-increasing popularity of review websites that feature user-generated opinions (e.g., TripAdvisor and Yelp) are increasingly gamed to increase monetary value through opinion spam (e.g. fraudulent reviews) [28]. Ratings and reviews, therefore, are a weak indicator of trust simply because it is impossible to gauge if the person who produced the rating or review have behaved with goodwill. There is furthermore no incentive for the same to do so. This is further reduced by decreasing anonymity and increase violations of privacy and undermine personal autonomy [9]. Further reasons for a reduced trust in online reputation is emotional bias and deceptive opinion spam which in both cases are highly subjective and mostly motivated based on different reasons than validating reputation. Moreover, there is a high risk of reviews and ratings being purchased and therefore false. Should a person be identifiable and therefore related to a real person the history of comments, reviews and ratings can create a collection of records which indicates the user’s performance in a prior transaction which can increase trustworthiness [29].
In relation to other online applications that evolve around use cases that include social interactions video calling applications can be mentioned. In relation to trust these applications overlap slightly with social media apps specifically if the social media app is focused on short form video presentation. Within such apps several technology enhancements, such as facial filters and background filters can lead to a distortion of the persons actual look and a distortion of where the person is, such as by using different background filters. However, there are two sides to this, pandemic related surge in online social applications, which is short term (recorded) video posted on a social media platform and a live transmission for meetings are learning which is either on a social media platform via live feature or directly via a plethora of video conferencing tools that are available for free.
In relation to trust aspects of real-time o video based trust are understudied however due to the added visual effect are similar to content posted. Hence, content can be viewed widely not only as posts that contain images and text but also videos and which as argued above underly commenting, sharing, rating, etc. which are all prone to be use to validate trust. In relation to real-time video however interactions drastically change with trust being assessed based on multimodal content experiences, such as image, voice and speech in real-time [REF]. A more worrying development in relation to trust and video based content, live or recorded, has become known as deep fake [REF]. This AI empowered technology allows not only the changing of the look and feel of a individual within a video, including voice and speech, but allows for the fake replication of a person as if it is the person [REF]. Deep fake technologies will further evolve and become more easy and cheaper to produce. To ensure videos and interactions of the same, which can still be categorized under the umbrella of fake news, technologies will need to evolve in terms of validating the authenticity of content [REF].
In the following sub-section a closer view is placed on methods to measure and model interpersonal social interaction related to trust and within social media applications.
2.2 Measuring and modelling interpersonal trust in social media applications
Trust has several properties, which are usually used to define models or to measure it. As concerns social media applications [30]. The most interesting ones are dynamic, propagative, no-transitive, asymmetric, and composable. Dynamic means that trust can change. It can increase, decrease, or decay with time. There are two approaches to update the trust value: event-driven, where all trust data are updated when an event happens, and time-driven, where trust is periodically updated. From a properties point of view trust is propagative, which means that if a generic user A trusts B, and B trusts C, A can trusts C, which is the basic concept of a recommendation system. However, trust is not transitive, which means that if A trusts B, and B trusts C, this does not imply that A trusts C. The composable property mean that propagation of trust (and distrust) can follow long social chains, which allows a member A to create a trust connection with a member D that was not directly connected to the member A. When several social chains recommend different values of trust for the member D, then A needs to compose the trust information. Finally, trust is asymmetric, which means that a level of trust between the two members is not the same. Indeed, a member A may have a certain level of trust with a member B, but the level of trust from B to A can be less or more than it is trusted back. We can, therefore, note a strong correlation between trust and similarity. Indeed, users with trust relations are likely to be similar, and this similarity is called homophily. Based on these properties several models have been proposed. Usually, methods are classified by using the propagative characteristic. The techniques used take into account statistical and machine learning techniques, heuristics-based techniques, and behaviour-based techniques.
3. Conceptualization of interpersonal trust in social media
Trust in technology significantly differs from the interpersonal trust. Specifically, the technical environment is one of the building stones helping to build trust between people and can, therefore, be referred to as a socio-technical research challenge. Trustworthy environments are intertwined with social aspects and together they build trust resulting in the usage of the online application. The following overview serves as a high-level conceptualization of how trust is modelled and realized within social media applications (Figure 1). This overview has be developed based on the literature review in the table below the illustration. Its main categories are defined as modalities of trust in interpersonal interactions within social media applications. These modalities are perceived risk, perceived reputation, perceived authenticity, perceived complexity reduction. Each modality is mapped to concept derived from the literature review.
Figure 1.
Modalities of trust in social media.
Extending this literature social-technical research related to interpersonal trust in social media applications can be found in the following table.
Trust and privacy concern within social networking sites: a comparison of Facebook and MySpace
A study describing the impact of trust and Internet privacy concern on the use of social networking sites for social interactions. Comparison of Facebook and MySpace.
Impact of trust, security and privacy concerns in social networking: an exploratory study to understand the pattern of information revelation in Facebook
The study explores the impact of security, trust and privacy concerns on the willingness of sharing information on social networking sites. Using an online questionnaire, empirical data were collected from 250 Facebook user’s of different age groups.
Impact of user awareness, trust, and privacy concerns on sharing personal information on social media: Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram
An experiment from 340 social-media users through a questionnaire-based online survey over a period of 2 months was conducted. This research shows that user awareness, trust, and privacy concerns have a positive and significant effect on sharing personal data on social media.
Antecedents of self-disclosure on social networking sites (SNSs): a study of Facebook users
This study investigates how self-disclosure on social networking sites (SNSs) leads to connectedness and trust increases specifically in relationship building. The study investigates the antecedents of self-disclosure under the lens of the technology acceptance model (TAM). The research is quantitative, and the data were collected from 400 Pakistani Facebook users with a variety of demographic characteristics.
Social media never shake the role of trust building in relieving public risk perception
This paper introduces three surveys on the perceptions covering two groups over and 6 months and their risk perception on social media. Results show that social media information provision reshapes the risk perception by increasing self-reported knowledge, reducing trust, and making them more fearful.
Fake news detection and social media trust: a cross-cultural perspective.
This paper studies how fake news is detected by users from a perspective of risk and how it impacts the trustworthiness of the social media interaction. The cross-cultural study presented in the paper was conducted in Spain and Lebanon and uses structural equation modelling to explore these factors and presents them within a behavioural model.
Community gravity: measuring bidirectional effects by trust and rating on online social networks
Effects from trust to the rating (and reputation) within the Japanese community site @cosme analyzed. A theoretical model is presented with a measure of community gravity, which measures how strongly a user might be attracted to the community.
Investigation of two complementary reputation mechanisms which rely on collaborative rating and personalized evaluation of the various ratings assigned to each user.
CouchSurfing. Belonging and trust in a globally cooperative online social network
A study of engagement activities in an online resource exchange community exploring elements of belonging, connectedness, and trust and how to develop them.
Generating trusted graphs for trust evaluation in online social networks
Work presenting user-domain-based trusted acquaintance chain discovery algorithm by using the small-network characteristics of online social networks. A model calculating trust.
Estimating the prevalence of deception in online review communities
A generative model of deception used to explore the prevalence of deception in six popular online review communities: Expedia, Hotels.com, Orbitz, Priceline, TripAdvisor, and Yelp.
A survey of trust in social networks
A review of existing definitions of trust and social trust in the context of social networks.
Fake it till you make it: reputation, competition, and yelp review fraud
A study exploring the potential of fake reviews and consequences on the reputation of users.
Static and dynamic structure characteristics of a trust network and formation of user trust in an online society
A study investigated the characteristics and formation of the online social trust network of Epinions.com, a general consumer review site. User activeness had a larger effect on trust formation in online social networks, indicating a “diminishing returns” phenomenon. This phenomenon contrasts with the Matthew effect (i.e., the more reputation a person has, the more likely he or she is to be trusted) in real-world social networks.
Perceived authenticity (personas, anonymity, information quality)
Dressing up Tinderella: interrogating authenticity claims on the mobile dating app Tinder
Tinder’s framing of authenticity within mobile dating, using Gidden’s conceptualization and Callon’s sociology of translation. Identifying both human and technological influences on the construction of authenticity with digital media.
Exploring the credibility of online celebrities’ Instagram profiles in influencing the purchase decisions of young female users
Study investigating the impact of Instagram on source credibility. Non-traditional celebrities (YouTubers, bloggers and “Instafamous” profiles) are perceived as more credible than traditional celebrities.
Online reputation and stress: discovering the dark side of social media
This study provides an important perspective by studying social media user’s concern for online reputation and its relationship with stress which is moderated by social media dependency and trust issues. This study was conducted on university students in India on a sample size of 350. Using structural equation modelling, the relationship between ‘concern for online reputation’ and ‘social media stress’ was tested which revealed there is a positive relationship between the two variables. The results also suggest positive moderating role played by social media dependency in the relationship between ‘concern for online reputation’ and ‘social media stress’ leading to a decrease in trust.
Online reputation and stress: discovering the dark side of social media.
This study identifies the dimensions and items in the existing literature that can effectively measure a social media influencer’s reputation that is verified by trust based relevance as a measure of a social media influencer’s reputation. Based on in-depth interviews with 30 experts and empirical findings from 557 adults, this study identified dimensions that impact on a user’s perception of a social media influencer and developed a scale. The results showed that the social media influencer’s reputation scale comprises four distinctive dimensions: communication skills, influence, authenticity, and expertise.
Exploration of the nature of trust and how and where it flourishes online from the perspectives of technology and human community (interpersonal cues).
The emergence of trust networks under uncertainty—implications for Internet interactions
An application of experimental sociological research to different types of computer-mediated social interactions, particular attention focused on “trust networks” (networks of those one views as trustworthy).
Algorithmically quantifiable measures of trust which can be determined from the communication behaviour of the actors (behavioural trust) in social communication networks are presented and validated on the Twitter network.
Do people trust Facebook as a technology or as a “person”? Distinguishing technology trust from interpersonal trust
Two second-order factor structures that represent alternative ways to model the three interpersonal and three technology trust beliefs were tested on data collected from 362 university-student Facebook users.
CouchSurfing. Belonging and trust in a globally cooperative online social network
Study of engagement activities in an online resource exchange community exploring elements of belonging, connectedness, and trust and how to develop them.
Fostering public trust in science: the role of social media
This study leverages a 20-country survey to examine the relationship between social media news use and trust in science which is viewed as a topic to complex to understand hence requires a high level of trust. Results show a positive relationship between these variables across countries. Moreover, the between-country variation in this relationship is related to two cultural characteristics of a country, individualism/collectivism and power distance.
Past the privacy paradox: the importance of privacy changes as a function of control and complexity
This paper introduces three studies that provide initial evidence of an alternative explanation in which one’s subjective importance of trusting in privacy within social media itself varies as a function of who is in control of managing privacy and the extent to which managing privacy is perceived to be easy or difficult. When privacy is complex to manage, individuals perceive privacy to be more important when they control privacy management but less important when a social network/company controls privacy management. This changing importance predicts an individual’s intentions to disclose private information and moderates established effects that risk-benefit trade-off tolerance and trust in a company’s expertise (but not benevolence) have on disclosure.
Attacking science on social media: how user comments affect perceived trustworthiness and credibility
This paper introduces two exploratory studies that were performed to investigate the effects of science-critical user comments attacking Facebook posts containing scientific claims. The claims were about one of four controversial topics (homeopathy, genetically modified organisms, refugee crime, and childhood vaccinations). The user comments attacked the claims based on the thematic complexity, the employed research methods, the expertise, or the motivations of the researchers. The results reveal that prior attitudes determine judgments about the user comments, the attacked claims, and the source of the claim. After controlling for attitude, people agree most with thematic complexity comments, but the comments differ in their effect on perceived claim credibility only when the comments are made by experts.
To extend the categorisation and introduction of moralities of trust in social media applications we introduce a machine learning based analysis of terminology usage in relation to the trust modalities introduced. This analysis is conducted by using word embedding within social media related publications. The main objective of the following section is to assess the popularity of trust related aspects in social media publication.
4. Analysis of modalities via information-dense word embeddings with unsupervised machine learning techniques
In order to assess the popularity of the discussed topic the following section discusses the topic of trust and social media as a topic that is becoming increasingly more important, especially with recent trust breach cases, such as Cambridge analytic. In addition the emerging field of autonomous networks and the requirement for trust valuation (e.g. ad-hoc networks) indicates the need for increased scientific production in the field of interpersonal trust in social media applications. To gain a more comprehensive overview of the debate an in-depth review of trust-related keywords is presented below. The extraction of facts, knowledge and relationships from this increasing body of literature requires a more generalized approach, such as machine learning based text mining through the collection of abstracts. To achieve this we relied on natural language processing techniques, such as doc2vec, for word embeddings performed on abstracts from scientific papers containing the keywords ‘trust’ and ‘social networks’. We focus on the abstracts since they represent a compressed view of the informational content according to Atanassova et al. [57]. The decision to analyse abstracts only was supported by a processing point of view, with abstracts typically short (usually about 300 words) and available as part of the metadata, access to them is relatively easy for analysis. The processing was conducted with publications up to 2020. The main rational for this was to ensure discussions around the impact of the pandemic are not counted which in the view of the authors creates a distortion of the topic of this paper. Further publications, once the pandemic is over, can apply this same approach to focus and possibly compare the impact of the pandemic on the interpersonal trust related debate in social media.
4.1 Data collection
From Google Scholar we collected 560 unique articles in English, which had ‘trust’ and ‘social network’ in their keywords. This selection was focused on articles within the research field of computer science and related fields such as computational sociology. The article dates ranged from 1980 to 2020 and therefore represent exactly 20 years. Hence, this analysis can be defined as pre-pandemic. From each article we extracted and processed the article name, the publication year and the article’s abstract. The following Figure 2 shows a histogram (amount per year) of the above mentioned terms.
Figure 2.
The figure shows the publication year of the collected and analysed articles.
4.2 Preprocessing
In order to prepare the abstract texts for natural language processing we tokenized each document, therefore processing the abstract of each article as a separate document. The result of this pre-processing was a bag-of-words consisting of the token (a non-stop word, hence any term that holds meaning), a token-id and the token-count, such as 2-tuples, which together created the text corpus for further research. In a second step all tokens were normalized. This resulted in 4623 unique words representing the overall size in the processed corpus (or the size of the vocabulary) with a vector size of 300 (which was defined manually). In the following subsection we discuss the overall findings.
4.3 Findings
After the data processing stage we performed a frequency analysis of the words that were collected from the abstracts. The plot below (Figure 3) shows the 10 most frequent words, with ‘trust’, ‘social’, ‘network’, and ‘user’ being the most frequent.
Figure 3.
Most frequent words.
It has to be noted that the word frequency analysis disregards important relations between the words. To mitigate this affect, we selected the 20 most common bi-grams and tri-grams in the data set. In the bi-gram case (see Figure 4) we can see that ‘trust’ co-occurs with ‘social trust’, ‘trust model’, ‘trust network’, ‘based trust’, ‘trust management’, ‘trust social’, ‘trust reputation’, ‘trust relationships’, ‘trust-based’, ‘trust distrust’, and ‘trust evaluation’. In the case of tri-grams (see Figure 5), ‘trust’ interestingly appears in relation to ‘trust news media’, ‘context-aware trust’, ‘trust reputation systems’, ‘trust social commerce’, ‘trust social media’, ‘trust social networks’. In the case of ‘context-aware trust’, it is interesting to note that the notion of trust is related to the specific context a user finds himself/herself in. Therefore trust values are different depending on the context.
Figure 4.
Top 20 bigrams.
Figure 5.
Top 20 trigrams.
To further analyse the relationship between words from the corpus is used for a word embedding analysis, where semantically similar words are mapped to proximate points in geometric space. As shown on Figure 6 below, the semantically similar words to ‘trust’ are ‘application’, ‘context’, ‘prediction’, ‘recommend’, ‘collaborative’. In the case of ‘trustworthy’ the most similar words were ‘applicable’, ‘approach’, ‘exist’ and ‘relation’.
Figure 6.
Word vector representation based on semantically close words to “trust” from the doc2vec model.
To gain a deeper understanding of the topics used in the publications we explored topic modelling to the data set. For this the latent semantic analysis (LSA) technique was applied resulting in the clusters indicated in Figure 7 topics. The largest number of articles was clustered around the topic ‘trust social network’.
Figure 7.
t-SNE visualization of the word clusters from the scientific abstracts. The trained model was reduced to a vector of 50, with a concatenation of context vectors and a max vocabulary size of 1000.
Finally, as illustrated in Figure 8, a topic analysis cluster was applied after normalisation resulting ‘trust’ and ‘online’ being the most used terms.
Figure 8.
Term clustering of the corpus.
5. Conclusions and future work
Studying the implications of trust online is challenging due to the complexity of the topic. Specifically in relation to the literature review it has proven very difficult to identify publications that focus on interpersonal trust online, specifically social media. Most publications in the intersection of trust and online relate to topics of security. However, the advent and growing discussion around the topic of fake news has proven to be a good reference point in the identification of relevant papers. A further difficulty in the categorisation has been the global pandemic which has changed the dynamic of online application usage towards real-time and away from posted content based on recordings or text. During the inception of this paper the pandemic was still ongoing there a concluding pandemic related investigation into trust in online interpersonal interactions can be concluded as valuable future work. Early work in the topic of pandemic related trust implications can be found in Dwyer et al. [58]. Moreover, the advent of DeepFake, a concept that dynamically creates fake news, possibly also in live interactions, is an important topic to review in future work. Overall, it can be concluded that this work, both the literature review introducing modalities of trust and the extended review of the abstracts of research papers should provide a solid foundation for further more focused investigations and studies in the implications of trust in online interactions, specifically related to social media and social media related online technologies. Moreover, this paper has laid the foundation of deeper and more comprehensive literature and state of the art review in interpersonal trust as a foundational dimension in addition to the current debate that focuses mostly on the application or the user behaviour. For this, the paper introduced a comprehensive overview and identified key aspects related to interpersonal trust and truthfulness.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the ADAPT Centre for Digital Content Technology, which is funded under the Science Foundation Ireland Research Centres Programme (Grant 13/RC/2106) and is co-funded under the European Regional Development Fund.
\n',keywords:"social media, trust, truth, literature review, machine learning",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81619.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81619.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81619",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81619",totalDownloads:17,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 2nd 2021",dateReviewed:"February 25th 2022",datePrePublished:"May 3rd 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 3rd 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Interpersonal trust within social media applications is a highly discussed topic. The debate ranges from trusting the application, related to security and privacy, to trusting content and the underlying content delivery algorithms. Several trust-related phenomena have surfaced in recent years, known as filter bubbles, echo chambers and fake news. Addressing these phenomena is often pushed to either the regulator or directly to the provider of the social media application. Interpersonal trust within social media applications is a more complex topic and not limited to the application or the content, but has to include the behaviour of the user. To broaden the debate beyond the prevalent focus on the application and content this paper presents a conceptual literature review studying interpersonal trust within social media with the goal to deepen the understanding of the complex interplay between user behaviour in relation to interpersonal trust. Based on this review modalities of interpersonal trust are identified and presented. To extend on these findings an information-dense word embedding based analysis is presented by using unsupervised machine learning techniques.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81619",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81619",signatures:"Kevin Koidl and Kristina Kapanova",book:{id:"10673",type:"book",title:"The Psychology of Trust",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"The Psychology of Trust",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10673.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-873-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-872-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-874-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Interpersonal trust in social media applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Trust and trustworthiness",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Measuring and modelling interpersonal trust in social media applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Conceptualization of interpersonal trust in social media",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Analysis of modalities via information-dense word embeddings with unsupervised machine learning techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1 Data collection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2 Preprocessing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.3 Findings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Conclusions and future work",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Fisher C. What is meant by ‘trust’ in news media? In: Otto K, Köhler A, editors. Trust in Media and Journalism. 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School of Computer Science and Statistics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"24",type:"subseries",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"J. 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