Summary of some photoconductive materials with the advantages, disadvantages, active layer, and the operating wavelength.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8833",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Habitats of the World - Biodiversity and Threats",title:"Habitats of the World",subtitle:"Biodiversity and Threats",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Today it is not easy to talk about habitats and to think about the various threats facing them. We are living in an age in which we are poised between having everything immediately, and maintaining good living conditions on Earth. Unfortunately, this is almost impossible!For this reason it is important that everyone understands the importance of the habitats of the world and the inhabitants: including humans!This book aims to describe some of the world's habitats, their characteristics, and their daily threats. This is done in the hope that our children will see all of this tomorrow. Enjoy reading!",isbn:"978-1-78984-487-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-486-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-008-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81140",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"habitats-of-the-world-biodiversity-and-threats",numberOfPages:158,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4b7673e0edb8a67093ee8f925f1c1614",bookSignature:"Carmelo Maria Musarella, Ana Cano Ortiz and Ricardo Quinto Canas",publishedDate:"January 29th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8833.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6219,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:38,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 25th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 6th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 4th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 25th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 24th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"276295",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Musarella",slug:"carmelo-maria-musarella",fullName:"Carmelo Maria Musarella",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276295/images/system/276295.png",biography:"Carmelo Maria Musarella, Ph.D. (Reggio Calabria, Italy – 23/01/1975) is a biologist, specializing in Plant Biology. He studied and worked in several European Universities: Messina, Catania, Reggio Calabria, Rome (Italy), Valencia, Jaén, Almeria (Spain), and Evora (Portugal). Adjunct Professor of Plant Biology at the “Mediterranea” University of Reggio Calabria (Italy). Research topics are floristic, vegetation, habitat, biogeography, taxonomy, ethnobotany, endemisms, and biodiversity conservation. Author of many research articles published in indexed journals and books. Guest editor for Plant Biosystems and referee for this same journal and others. Member of the permanent scientific committee of International Seminar on “Biodiversity Conservation and Management” guested by several European universities. Participated in several international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops and presented oral communications and posters.",institutionString:'"Mediterranea" University of Reggio Calabria',position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Reggio Calabria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"203697",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Cano Ortiz",slug:"ana-cano-ortiz",fullName:"Ana Cano Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203697/images/system/203697.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Jaén",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"216982",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo Quinto",middleName:null,surname:"Canas",slug:"ricardo-quinto-canas",fullName:"Ricardo Quinto Canas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/216982/images/system/216982.png",biography:"Ricardo Jorge Quinto Canas obtained a Ph.D. in Analysis and Management of Ecosystems and is currently an invited assistant professor in the Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Algarve, Portugal, where he is a member of the university’s Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR). He is also the head of the Division of Environmental Impact Assessment - Algarve Regional Coordination and Development Commission (CCDR-Algarve). His current research projects focus on botany, vegetation science (geobotany), biogeography, plant ecology, and biology conservation. Dr. Quinto-Canas has coauthored many journal publications, conference articles, and book chapters.",institutionString:"University of Algarve",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Algarve",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"330",title:"Biogeography",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-ecology-biogeography"}],chapters:[{id:"67377",title:"Introductory Chapter: Habitats of the World",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86454",slug:"introductory-chapter-habitats-of-the-world",totalDownloads:544,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Carmelo Maria Musarella, Ana Cano-Ortiz and Ricardo Quinto Canas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67377",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67377",authors:[{id:"276295",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo Maria",surname:"Musarella",slug:"carmelo-maria-musarella",fullName:"Carmelo Maria Musarella"},{id:"203697",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Cano Ortiz",slug:"ana-cano-ortiz",fullName:"Ana Cano Ortiz"},{id:"216982",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo Quinto",surname:"Canas",slug:"ricardo-quinto-canas",fullName:"Ricardo Quinto Canas"}],corrections:null},{id:"67612",title:"Intensive Habitat Loss in South Spain: Arborescent Scrubs with Ziziphus (5220*)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85286",slug:"intensive-habitat-loss-in-south-spain-arborescent-scrubs-with-em-ziziphus-em-5220-",totalDownloads:647,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The habitat arborescent matorral with Ziziphus (5220*) was included in the Habitats Directive of the European Commission. These plant formations represent the maximum potential vegetation in a very restrictive arid environment, since it encompasses endemic, tropical, or Maghrebian floristic elements, and from other areas of the ancient Thetis Sea. In fact, the version of this community with Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes. [=Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell] constitutes extraordinarily singular flora formations in the Iberian southeast. These are unique communities in Europe and ecologically extremely valuable and, however, have been included among the Europe’s most endangered habitats. The vast economic development experienced in South Spain based on the remarkable transformation of traditional farming patterns into a highly profitable agriculture that uses industrial production methods and the groundwater intensively (agriculture intensification and land-use change), in addition to urbanization without sustainable land planning, determines that European G. senegalensis populations are seriously threatened by severe habitat destruction and fragmentation.",signatures:"Antonio J. Mendoza-Fernández, Esteban Salmerón-Sánchez, Fabián Martínez-Hernández, Francisco J. Pérez-García, Agustín Lahora, María E. Merlo and Juan F. Mota",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67612",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67612",authors:[{id:"285849",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio J.",surname:"Mendoza-Fernández",slug:"antonio-j.-mendoza-fernandez",fullName:"Antonio J. Mendoza-Fernández"},{id:"287228",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan F.",surname:"Mota",slug:"juan-f.-mota",fullName:"Juan F. Mota"},{id:"287229",title:"Dr.",name:"María E.",surname:"Merlo",slug:"maria-e.-merlo",fullName:"María E. Merlo"},{id:"287230",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco J.",surname:"Pérez-García",slug:"francisco-j.-perez-garcia",fullName:"Francisco J. Pérez-García"},{id:"287231",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabián",surname:"Martínez-Hernández",slug:"fabian-martinez-hernandez",fullName:"Fabián Martínez-Hernández"},{id:"287667",title:"Dr.",name:"Esteban",surname:"Salmerón-Sánchez",slug:"esteban-salmeron-sanchez",fullName:"Esteban Salmerón-Sánchez"},{id:"294366",title:"Dr.",name:"Agustín",surname:"Lahora",slug:"agustin-lahora",fullName:"Agustín Lahora"}],corrections:null},{id:"66596",title:"Deviation from Grazing Optimum in the Grassland Habitats of Romania Within and Outside the Natura 2000 Network",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85734",slug:"deviation-from-grazing-optimum-in-the-grassland-habitats-of-romania-within-and-outside-the-natura-20",totalDownloads:1010,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Grassland habitat degradation intensified in the last century worldwide and in Europe. In Romania, substantial areas of biodiverse grassland habitats that persisted due to small-scale farming are now threatened by recent land-use intensification. However, data regarding the deviation from grazing optimum, essential for management plans encompassing both socioeconomic sustainability and environment conservation, are not yet available. To fill this gap, detailed statistics of the stocking rate and its deviation from optimum were generated by spatial modeling techniques. A toolbox was developed to assess such deviations inside or outside the Natura 2000 Network of protected areas. The analysis covered an area of 33529.42 km2, corresponding to all the Romanian permanent grasslands within the land parcel identification system. The results indicate that over half of this area is degraded, mostly from overgrazing. Less than 10% is not impacted by inadequate livestock density. Of the national grassland area, 17.34% is included within the Natura 2000 protected sites, indicating the substantial overlapping of agricultural and protection activities. For this category, the degraded area is slightly lower than at the national level (50.34% vs. 52.45%). These results can be applied for environmental conflict anticipation and optimal management of grassland habitats to achieve both socioeconomic and conservation objectives.",signatures:"Anamaria Roman, Tudor-Mihai Ursu, Irina Onțel, Teodor Marușca, Oliviu Grigore Pop, Sretco Milanovici, Alexandru Sin-Schneider, Carmen Adriana Gheorghe, Sorin Avram, Sorina Fărcaș and József Pál Frink",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66596",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66596",authors:[{id:"288660",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Anamaria",surname:"Roman",slug:"anamaria-roman",fullName:"Anamaria Roman"},{id:"288670",title:"Dr.",name:"Tudor-Mihai",surname:"Ursu",slug:"tudor-mihai-ursu",fullName:"Tudor-Mihai Ursu"},{id:"292200",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",surname:"Onțel",slug:"irina-ontel",fullName:"Irina Onțel"},{id:"292201",title:"Dr.",name:"Oliviu Grigore",surname:"Pop",slug:"oliviu-grigore-pop",fullName:"Oliviu Grigore Pop"},{id:"292203",title:"Dr.",name:"Sretco",surname:"Milanovici",slug:"sretco-milanovici",fullName:"Sretco Milanovici"},{id:"292204",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodor",surname:"Marușca",slug:"teodor-marusca",fullName:"Teodor Marușca"},{id:"292205",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandru",surname:"Sin-Schneider",slug:"alexandru-sin-schneider",fullName:"Alexandru Sin-Schneider"},{id:"292207",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen Adriana",surname:"Gheorghe",slug:"carmen-adriana-gheorghe",fullName:"Carmen Adriana Gheorghe"},{id:"292208",title:"Dr.",name:"Sorin",surname:"Avram",slug:"sorin-avram",fullName:"Sorin Avram"},{id:"292210",title:"Dr.",name:"József Pál",surname:"Frink",slug:"jozsef-pal-frink",fullName:"József Pál Frink"},{id:"294621",title:"Dr.",name:"Sorina",surname:"Fărcaș",slug:"sorina-farcas",fullName:"Sorina Fărcaș"}],corrections:null},{id:"70413",title:"Mangrove Habitat Loss and the Need for the Establishment of Conservation and Protected Areas in the Niger Delta, Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89623",slug:"mangrove-habitat-loss-and-the-need-for-the-establishment-of-conservation-and-protected-areas-in-the-",totalDownloads:655,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Niger Delta mangroves are the largest in Africa, but uncontrolled anthropogenic activities had reduced their population size. The reduction from large to small mangrove stand has some ecological implications on species populations. For instance, stochastic events such as flooding, landslides, sea level rise, high temperature, and humidity affect small populations. Human-mediated actions of random deforestation for firewood production, canalization, and de-silting of waterways, lead to the complete elimination of mangrove stands in specific locations. The cumulative effect of these actions can result in local extinction and loss of genetic variation of mangroves. Destruction of mangroves over the years is detrimental to other species that inhabit the mangroves in the Niger Delta (e.g., fishes, crabs, etc.). This situation can be reversed or stopped if effective protective measures are adopted. Strict protective measures can be done in areas that are highly impacted i.e., regions where oil and gas exploration or massive deforestation activities had occurred. Limited protection can be done in areas with low impact, and is known as a win-win conservation where the peoples welfare is considered. Here, indigenous people are employed to help in the protection of the forest and in return are allowed to exploit its resources.",signatures:"Aroloye O. Numbere",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70413",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70413",authors:[{id:"215285",title:"Dr.",name:"Aroloye O.",surname:"Numbere",slug:"aroloye-o.-numbere",fullName:"Aroloye O. Numbere"}],corrections:null},{id:"64722",title:"Modeling the Past and Current Distribution and Habitat Suitability for Two Snake-eyed Skinks, Ablepharus grayanus and A. pannonicus (Sauria: Scincidae)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82476",slug:"modeling-the-past-and-current-distribution-and-habitat-suitability-for-two-snake-eyed-skinks-em-able",totalDownloads:573,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The study of the climate variability in the past and present, correlating those with changes in the distribution range of species, has attracted considerable research interest. The genus Ablepharus consists of 10 recognized species, of which A. bivittatus, A. grayanus, and A. pannonicus are documented from Iran. In the present study, we modeled with MaxEnt the potential distribution areas and determined the suitable habitats in the past [mid-Holocene (MH) and the last interglacial (LIG)] and their current distribution for two species of snake-eyed skinks (A. grayanus and A. pannonicus) separately. Models of the species indicated good fit by the average high area under the curve (AUC) values (A. grayanus = 0.929 ± 0.087 and A. pannonicus = 0.979 ± 0.007). Precipitation of the driest quarter of the year, mean temperature of the coldest quarter of the year, and precipitation of the driest month variables made important contributions to A. grayanus. Two important climate variables contributed importantly to A. pannonicus: temperature seasonality and mean temperature of the wettest quarter of the year and one topographic variable, slope. We conclude that these variables form a natural barrier for species dispersal. The MH and the LIG models indicated a larger suitable area than the current distribution.",signatures:"Rasoul Karamiani, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani and Eskandar Rastegar-Pouyani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64722",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64722",authors:[{id:"282248",title:"Dr.",name:"Rasoul",surname:"Karamiani",slug:"rasoul-karamiani",fullName:"Rasoul Karamiani"},{id:"282721",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasrullah",surname:"Rastegar-Pouyani",slug:"nasrullah-rastegar-pouyani",fullName:"Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani"},{id:"282723",title:"Dr.",name:"Eskandar",surname:"Rastegar-Pouyani",slug:"eskandar-rastegar-pouyani",fullName:"Eskandar Rastegar-Pouyani"}],corrections:null},{id:"66755",title:"Influence of Floods on Spatial Variability of Wetslums Using Geo-information Techniques: A Case Study of a Specific Human Habitat in Korail, Dhaka",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85649",slug:"influence-of-floods-on-spatial-variability-of-wetslums-using-geo-information-techniques-a-case-study",totalDownloads:633,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A previous study by the authors found that most slum physical upgrading projects traditionally focus on basic services, elaborated with citywide data, without addressing locational and environmental aspects. However, such data tends to hide the highly heterogeneous nature of slums. Thus, this paper’s objective is to further investigate the spatial variation resulting from the influence of water on the living conditions within slums, by proposing a framework that can quantify it. This framework is used to establish the correlation between the impact of flooding denoted by a Flood Proneness Index and living conditions denoted by a Slum Living Conditions Index in Korail, Dhaka. The paper concludes that in Korail, both flooding and living conditions exhibited spatial variability, with the former seeming to have a significant influence on the latter, particularly in areas located close to or on a water body. As a result, the paper proposes to define slums which exhibit considerable correlation between flooding and living conditions as wetslums. The analysis in Korail further revealed cluster formation and as such strengthens the hypothesis of locational variability in these specific human habitats. Subsequently, wetslum areas that require resilient physical upgrading are identified thus highlighting the importance for location-specific upgrading.",signatures:"Koen Olthuis, Kasirajan Mahalingam, Pierre-Baptiste Tartas and Chris Zevenbergen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66755",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66755",authors:[{id:"285784",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Koen",surname:"Olthuis",slug:"koen-olthuis",fullName:"Koen Olthuis"},{id:"291511",title:"M.A.",name:"Pierre-Baptiste",surname:"Tartas",slug:"pierre-baptiste-tartas",fullName:"Pierre-Baptiste Tartas"},{id:"292846",title:"Dr.",name:"Chris",surname:"Zevenbergen",slug:"chris-zevenbergen",fullName:"Chris Zevenbergen"},{id:"292847",title:"Dr.",name:"Kasirajan",surname:"Mahalingam",slug:"kasirajan-mahalingam",fullName:"Kasirajan Mahalingam"}],corrections:null},{id:"65938",title:"Wet and Dry Spells over Southeast Peninsular India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81836",slug:"wet-and-dry-spells-over-southeast-peninsular-india",totalDownloads:591,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The southeast peninsular India contains, to name a few, several important cities crucial for trade and economic growth of the country, rice bowls, institutes for science and technology, space port, etc. Despite its importance, not many reports exist on rainfall and its variation on different temporal scales over this region during southwest monsoon, partly because the rainfall in this region is relatively less and it forms only a minor part of all India rainfall. Here, an attempt has been made to understand differences in thermal and dynamical characteristics and energetics of the atmosphere between wet and dry spells of the Indian summer monsoon over the southeast India by utilizing various observations and reanalysis products. Observations demonstrate that the difference in the thermal structure between wet and dry spells is significant only in the lower troposphere (< 2-3 km) with mean CAPE values are reaching as much as 1000 Jkg-1during wet spell. Vertical buoyancy profiles indicate the bi-modal distribution during dry spells with peaks in 700 and 500 hPa levels. The observed thermal features are not confined to Gadanki but seen over entire southeast peninsular India. Associated dynamical variations also exhibit obvious differences during wet and dry spell. The diurnal variation of winds exhibits difference in amplitude and phase are remarkably large during dry spell than in wet spell. Synthesis are all the measurements indicates that the thermal and dynamical differences observed in wet and dry spells are pronounced in the boundary layer.",signatures:"Mohana S. Thota",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65938",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65938",authors:[{id:"261769",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohana S.",surname:"Thota",slug:"mohana-s.-thota",fullName:"Mohana S. Thota"}],corrections:null},{id:"65961",title:"The Disturbed Habitat and Its Effects on the Animal Population",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84872",slug:"the-disturbed-habitat-and-its-effects-on-the-animal-population",totalDownloads:1568,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Changes in the “habitat” may interfere with the normal functioning of all biological systems. The existence of relationships between environmental changes and health in humans and animal species is well known and it has become generally accepted that poor health affects the animal’s natural behaviors and animal welfare and, consequently, food safety and animal production quality. Microclimate alterations, husbandry-management conditions, quality of human-animal interactions, feeding systems, and rearing environment represent the main factors that could negatively affect animal welfare and may produce behavioral, biochemical, endocrine, and pathological modifications in domestic and wild animals. Particularly, high stress levels can reduce the immune system response and promote infectious diseases. Adverse socio-environmental factors can represent a major stimulus to the development of different pathologies. 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We are living in an age in which we are poised between having everything immediately, and maintaining good living conditions on Earth. Unfortunately, this is almost impossible!For this reason it is important that everyone understands the importance of the habitats of the world and the inhabitants: including humans!This book aims to describe some of the world's habitats, their characteristics, and their daily threats. This is done in the hope that our children will see all of this tomorrow. Enjoy reading!",isbn:"978-1-78984-487-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-486-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-008-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81140",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"habitats-of-the-world-biodiversity-and-threats",numberOfPages:158,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4b7673e0edb8a67093ee8f925f1c1614",bookSignature:"Carmelo Maria Musarella, Ana Cano Ortiz and Ricardo Quinto Canas",publishedDate:"January 29th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8833.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:6219,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,numberOfTotalCitations:38,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 25th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 6th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 4th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 25th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 24th 2019",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"276295",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Musarella",slug:"carmelo-maria-musarella",fullName:"Carmelo Maria Musarella",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276295/images/system/276295.png",biography:"Carmelo Maria Musarella, Ph.D. (Reggio Calabria, Italy – 23/01/1975) is a biologist, specializing in Plant Biology. He studied and worked in several European Universities: Messina, Catania, Reggio Calabria, Rome (Italy), Valencia, Jaén, Almeria (Spain), and Evora (Portugal). Adjunct Professor of Plant Biology at the “Mediterranea” University of Reggio Calabria (Italy). Research topics are floristic, vegetation, habitat, biogeography, taxonomy, ethnobotany, endemisms, and biodiversity conservation. Author of many research articles published in indexed journals and books. Guest editor for Plant Biosystems and referee for this same journal and others. Member of the permanent scientific committee of International Seminar on “Biodiversity Conservation and Management” guested by several European universities. 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He is also the head of the Division of Environmental Impact Assessment - Algarve Regional Coordination and Development Commission (CCDR-Algarve). His current research projects focus on botany, vegetation science (geobotany), biogeography, plant ecology, and biology conservation. 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Under the sunlight, the object absorbs solar energy and the surface temperature rises. As we all know, when there is a temperature difference between the surface and the interior of the object, the heat transfer occurs. As a result, the temperature inside the object also increases by heat transfer. Just like the room temperature become warmer in winter or become hotter in summer after sunrise, and on the other hand, the room temperature become colder in winter or become cooler in summer after sunset. In order to maintain the suitable room temperature, air conditioners are widely used; however, it consumes too much energy. Relevant statistics [1, 2] show that more than 50% of human material obtained from nature is used to build various types of buildings and their ancillary facilities, and at least 50% of energy in the world was consumed during the construction and for the use of these buildings.
\nIn addition, the higher surface temperature caused by solar radiation can affect both industrial production and daily life. As we all know, high temperature is disadvantageous to store food, vegetables, fruits, and medicines. So, a very large amount of energy has been consumed for sprinklers, air conditioners, and fans. But moreover, high temperature accelerates the corrosion, aging, and degradation rate of materials, so that these materials will be limited in application due to its affected mechanical and chemical properties. For example, higher temperature will cause the thermal expansion and thermal stress of materials, which will accelerate cracking, corrosion, and destruction of the material. In some cases, high temperatures cause not only much more energy consumption but also the potential hazards. If we take petrochemical containers, for example, in hot summer, the storage tank for oil, gas, chemical, etc. required to be cooled by water spray regularly. Otherwise, high temperatures can cause excessive volatile organic compounds volatilization and even explosion. But this cooling method not only wastes a lot of water and electricity costs, but also affects the tank equipment maintenance.
\nAs discussed above, large amounts of energy have already been consumed and are still consuming to adjust the proper temperature in industrial production and daily life. Among them, the proportion of building energy consumption is still the largest one. Moreover, the building energy consumption is now increasing rapidly with the increasing building scale [3]. So, the development of building energy-saving technologies has become an urgent need for all countries in the world. In the existing building energy-saving technologies, the choice of the plan of the external envelope is the first issue to be considered in the building energy-saving design. The thermal performance of the external envelope is the basis for determining whether the building can save energy [2, 4, 5, 6]. Energy conservation of the external envelope mainly from the following aspects, including the building’s walls, roofs, doors, and windows, in addition to the rationality of building structures, proceeds on the walls [7], roofs [5], doors, and windows [6]; the most crucial part is the use of thermal insulation material to achieve the interval thermal insulation effect and to achieve the purpose of building energy efficiency.
\nIn the face of variety of choices of thermal insulation materials, thermal insulation coating become more and more popular for its economic, easy to use, suitable for variable substrates, and good thermal insulation effects. Generally speaking, coatings are basically composed of resin, functional fillers, additives, pigments, and solvents. Compared with other coatings, the most significant characteristic of thermal insulation coatings is that the functional fillers used are materials with excellent thermal insulation performance. Usually, these fillers are called thermal insulation functional fillers (shortly referred as fillers in the following text). There are already plenty of coating products composed of different resins that are suitable for different substrates. So in theory, it is possible to get various thermal insulation coatings that are suitable for walls, roofs, doors, and even windows just with the combination of different resins and fillers. From this point of view, suitable fillers are chosen that are crucial to achieve a desired thermal insulation performance.
\nAccording to the heat transfer theory, the solar radiation is mainly transmitted to the object as heat, so when the surface of the object absorbs sunlight, the heat can transfer from the surface to the inside of object. As a result, the temperature of the object rises accordingly. But if the object can be covered with thermal insulation coatings on its surface, most of the extra heat from sunlight can be insulated before it transfers to the surface of the object (Figure 1).
\nSchematic diagram of the mechanism of thermal insulation with coating.
The heat transfer is usually a combination of heat conduction, heat convection, and heat radiation. Based on these, there are three different thermal insulation modus: obstructive, reflective, and radiative. Accordingly, with corresponding fillers, thermal insulation coatings can be divided into four different kinds: obstructive, reflective, radiative, and composite thermal insulation coatings [8].
\nThe obstructive thermal insulation coating is a kind of passive thermal insulation coating by resisting heat transfer with particular fillers. But as mentioned above, the coatings system always consists of resin, fillers and pigments, additives, and solvents. So, not only the thermal conductivity of fillers but also other materials are crucial to the heat-resist performance of film. In general, pigments, fillers, additives, and film-forming materials with low thermal conductivity are selected to produce an obstructive thermal insulation coating; among them, the fillers with very low thermal conductivity called thermal insulation functional fillers are the key to achieve an excellent thermal insulation performance of the film.
\nWith these special fillers, the film can stay at a low thermal conductivity and achieve an excellent thermal resistance performance. So, the thermal conductivity (λ) of the functional fillers is generally less than 0.06 W·m−1·K−1 as the λ of air is about 0.0267 W·m−1·K−1, which means quite poor thermal conductivity, so most of the obstructive thermal insulation fillers have a hollow structure. Common thermal insulation functional fillers are materials with a hollow structure, such as, inorganic silicate-based materials, asbestos fibers, expanded perlite, sepiolite, closed-cell perlite, diatomaceous earth, and so on. Closely packed hollow particles in these fillers can form a layer of gas that has a barrier to heat and blocks the “thermal bridge” (Figure 2).
\nNetwork architecture of an aerogel.
In practical applications, the film thickness always affects its thermal insulation effect. Generally speaking, thicker one means lower thermal conductivity and shows better heat insulate performance of the film. As a result, the coating is expected to be as thick as possible, based on these, the thickness of dry film is usually controlled at 5–20 mm for many obstructive thermal insulation coatings since 1980s [9, 10]. Although thicker films are needed to achieve better thermal insulation performance, but unfortunately, thicker films show the following problems at the same time: weaker impact resistance, obvious dry shrinkage, and high moisture absorption rate.
\nThe situation will be quite different if the hollow structure of the fillers is closed, like hollow ceramic beads, hollow glass beads, hollow porous silica ceramics, etc. Studies [11, 12, 13, 14, 15] show that films with closed hollow structure have an excellent thermal insulation performance especially when the size of thermal insulation functional fillers reaches nanoscale, and it can be even used as a thin film. This could be caused by the very low-close to zero-heat convection and heat conduction from molecular vibration when the bulk density of the coating and the pore diameter therein are sufficiently small. Reports shown unlike traditional thick-coated obstructive coatings, thin films with closed hollow structure fillers like hollow ceramic microbubbles can effectively enhance the thermal insulation performance of the buildings. A thin thermal insulation coating with silica hollow spheres as a functional filler is prepared, and the thermal insulation performance of the film was quantitatively evaluated by thermoresistance superposition method; test results showed that the thermal conductivity of the film is just 0.05 W·m−1·K−1, which means having an excellent thermal insulation effect [12]. Nano-TiO2-modified hollow polymer microspheres were used as a functional filler in thermal insulation coating [16]; test data showed that the thermal conductivity of the film is only 0.1687 W·m−1·K−1 and temperature difference of the film was up to 5.8°C.
\nAnyway, although a lot of works have been done and achieved a great progress in the improvement of thermal insulation performance in thin obstructive coatings, the main products on trading market are still traditional thick-coated obstructive coatings. As discussed above, the thick-coated obstructive coatings are not very suitable for buildings due to the contradiction between thermal insulation and comprehensive properties. So, more works are still needed to explore thin obstructive coating products in building energy saving.
\nThe film of reflective thermal insulation coatings can reflect solar energy, rather than absorption or resist. Usually, we can use total solar reflectance (TSR) to evaluate the reflectivity of a material. TSR means the ratio of solar energy reflected by a certain surface of material, usually expressed as a percentage. For example, when the TSR value of a particular material is 75%, which means, the material can reflect away 75% of solar energy and only absorb the rest 25% of solar energy. Theoretically, any material can reflect solar energy more or less. As the energy wavelength of solar radiation is mainly concentrated at the range of 200–2500 nm, to specific, about 50% is distributed in the visible spectrum (from 400 to 720 nm) and 43% distributed in the near-infrared spectrum (from 720 to 2500 nm). Since higher reflectivity means better thermal insulation of the film in 400–2500 nm region, the first principle to choose reflective fillers is that the material should show high reflectivity in visible and near-infrared spectrum. Researches [17, 18] show that these fillers can improve the thermal insulation performance of the film obviously compared with the traditional thermal insulation materials.
\nUsually, the visible color of the film is decided by the visible color of the fillers, and the fillers show particular color due to its selective reflection and absorption of visible spectrum. For example, white means the filler almost completely reflects all visible spectrum from 400 to 720 nm, whereas black means the filler absorbs almost all visible spectrum and red means the filler can primarily reflect spectrum from 650 to 700 nm, while absorb other spectrums in visible region. Based on these, white is the best color for infrared reflective fillers, for white fillers can reflect away almost all the spectrum in visible bands. For example, the TSR of titanium white is higher than 75%. But on the opposite, black fillers are barely selected for thermal insulation, because it can absorb almost all solar energy in visible spectrum, such as the TSR of carbon black is as low as 3–5%, which means it can absorb 95–97% of the solar energy. How different colors affect the indoor temperature of building has been studied not only theoretically but also experimentally [19, 20, 21, 22, 23]; test in different conditions verified that the white fillers show better thermal insulation than fillers with other colors, especially black. Just after hours of solar radiation, the room temperature is 7°C higher when the surface of building is covered with black than white. Taking decorative into account, pigments show particular colors are usually added to coatings; so eventually, the reflection and absorption properties of film in the visible spectrum are affected by both fillers and pigments.
\nAs discussed above, adding reflective fillers into coatings is an effective way to improve thermal insulation performance of the film. In this situation, fillers with high reflectivity at both visible spectrum and near-infrared spectrum bands are good choice. Under this premise, metal, metal oxide, hollow glass beads, fly ash beads and ceramic beads, and other materials with higher reflectivity are mainly selected as functional fillers when reflective thermal insulation coatings are prepared. But it is worth noting that, not only the color but also the structure of fillers affects the thermal insulation performance of the film; for example, metal oxide fillers with nanocrystal structure have better near-infrared reflectivity, which means better thermal insulation performance than with ordinary structure of metal oxide fillers [24, 25, 26].
\nSometimes, two or more kinds of reflective thermal insulation functional fillers are mixed in order to get better thermal insulation performance of the film. But the truth is that the reflectivity of the mixed fillers is not simply a sum of the reflectivity of each filler. For example, the TSR of CoAl blue and MnSbTi brown is 35.7 and 32.6%, respectively, but if these two fillers were mixed according to a mass ratio 1:1, test results show that the TSR value of the mixture is only 26.9%, which is not only lower than the intermediate value 34.15% but also lower than the minimum TSR value of MnSbTi brown (32.6%).
\nTo reflective thermal insulation coating systems, as the reflection occurs mainly on the surface of the film, thicker films do not always mean better thermal insulation performance. This is quite different to obstructive thermal insulation coatings. Generally speaking, there is an optimal value thickness of the reflective thermal insulation film; if the thickness of the film is lower than the optimal value, the thermal insulation performance is better when the film is thicker, but if the thickness of the film exceeds the optimal value, increasing the thickness of the film shows little effect on improving the thermal reflection efficiency of the film. This is because when the film is thinner, part of the solar can penetrate the film and be absorbed by the substrate under the film, but when the thickness reaches to a certain value, the substrate is completely covered by the film and the reflectivity is stable at same time; as a result, the thermal insulation effect become steady [27, 28].
\nWith reflective thermal insulation functional fillers, films can reflect solar directly back to atmosphere, rather than first absorb and the emission as the thermal conductive coating; so theoretically, the thermal insulation performance of reflective thermal insulation coatings is better than obstructive thermal insulation coatings [18]. It is noteworthy that reducing the roughness of the film surface is conducive to improving the thermal reflectivity of the film. Hollow glass microspheres covered with nickel were used as fillers [29]; the results showed that the thermal insulation performance of the film is excellent. ZrO2 ceramic balls coated with potassium silicate have higher light scattering, reflectance, about 10–20 times that of common ZrO2 ceramic balls. Compared with the same size of rutile TiO2 fillers, the effect of modified ZrO2 ceramic ball is improved by 1/3 [30].
\nFillers with high reflectivity and high emissivity were applied to improve the reflectivity of the films in the near-infrared region (720–2500 nm) and visible region (400–720 nm). Researchers have done much and made big improvements in this area up to now; as a result, reflective thermal insulation coatings have already been studied and used widely [18, 31, 32, 33]. For example, covered with heat-reflective insulation film on exterior walls of building in Hangzhou, China, a typical hot summer and cold winter zone, the surface temperature of the wall can be reduced up to 10°C. By calculating, it was found that the annual air-conditioning electricity saving with heat reflective insulation coating on exterior walls is about 5.8 kWh/(m2 month), which indicated that the energy saving effect with the heat insulation coating is obvious [34].
\nWith good thermal insulation performance, various reflective thermal insulation coating products can be selected in coating markets, which is now the main product in thermal insulation coating market.
\nAny object exposed to the sunlight can absorb while radiate solar energy at the same time. If the object absorbs more energy from solar than it radiates to the external space, the temperature of the object increases. On the other hand, if the object radiates more energy than it absorbs, the temperature of the object decreases. During this progress, the radiated energy is emitted in the form of invisible infrared light and longer wavelength electromagnetic waves. This radiation caused by molecular, atomic thermal motion is called thermal radiation.
\nTheoretically, thermal radiation exists between any practicality object. That means when any object radiates the energy of itself into external space, the external space radiates energy back to the object at the same time. Although the two processes always exist at the same time, but as we all know, when the temperature of the object is higher than the external space, the results of thermal radiation are that the object transmits more energy to external space and vice versa. If the temperature between object to external space is the same, there is no temperature change for the object after thermal radiation, for the amount of energy transmit, and accept by object is equal during the whole process. The temperature in outer space is close to absolute 0 K, so it seems that outer space is an ideal energy receptor, which means that any object can radiate the energy of itself into outer space with thermal radiation. But unfortunately, the energy radiation from objects on the ground to outer space is always been impeded by the outer surface atmosphere of the earth. As the atmosphere worked as a barrier between the object and the outer space, so in order to get an ideal thermal radiation, first of all, we make sure the radiation can be successfully transmitted through the atmosphere into outer space. Atmosphere is mainly composed of water vapor and carbon dioxide, and these two substances show a weak absorbance during 8–13 μm spectrum. That is to say, the atmosphere has a high transmission during 8–13 μm radiation, or in other words, when the thermal radiation between object and outer space occurs during 8–13 μm spectrum, the outer surface atmosphere of the earth is no longer a barrier but a “window”; through this “window,” the radiator on the ground can radiate directly into outer space. Usually, it is called “infrared window” in infrared technology.
\nThe radiative thermal insulation coatings are a system with special fillers, which can convert the absorbed energy into molecular vibration and rotational energy; so the absorbed energy can be eventually transmitted to external space in the form of thermal radiation. Based on these, object covered with thermal radiation film can radiate more energy to external space than it absorbs from solar at the certain wavelength; as a result, the radiative thermal insulation film can cool the covered object actively. This thermal insulation mechanism in radiative coatings is quite different from the obstructive and reflective coatings mentioned above. As with either obstructive or reflective fillers, the film can only block extra solar energy passively, but with radiative fillers, the film can radiate the extra solar energy to external space actively.
\nAs discussed above, radiative fillers showed excellent thermal radiation ability when the outer surface atmosphere of the earth is worked as a “window.” So, in order to meet higher emissivity of film, fillers with strong absorption in the band from 8 to 13 μm are the key to coatings. Studies [35, 36, 37, 38, 39] have shown that adding a certain amount of far-infrared fillers into coating system can greatly enhance the infrared radiation ability of the film. Usually, Fe2O3, MnO2, Cr2O3, TiO2, SiO2, Al2O3, La2O3, and CeO with high emissivity are usually used as thermal radiation functional fillers. Meanwhile, materials with antispinel structure doping from a variety of metal oxide doping can be used as thermal radiation functional fillers due to its higher energy emissivity, like ATO, ITO, etc. [40, 41, 42].
\nOne word in all, radiative fillers are the key factor to achieve excellent thermal radiation in coatings; so the development on new radiative fillers in recent years promoted thermal insulation performance of coatings, but the thermal radiation ability of fillers is affected by many factors like the concentration, diameter size, surface properties (roughness/periodicity) of fillers, doping or not, and so on; so the main problem in radiative commercial coatings is that fillers with steady and excellent thermal insulation performance are expensive.
\nAs the heat transfer of object is a combination of heat conduction, convection, and radiation, the ideal thermal insulation coating can resist heat transfer, reflect, and radiate the solar energy actively. Although obstructive, reflective, or radiative thermal insulation coatings mentioned above have its own advantage in thermal insulation, the thermal insulation performance with just single mechanism cannot meet the desire for comprehensive thermal insulation; so under this background, composite thermal insulation coatings are designed to achieve a synergistic thermal insulation with obstructive, reflective, and radiative [43, 44]. For example, nanotitanium-oxide-modified hollow beads are used as functional filler; the film shows excellent thermal insulation performance due to the high reflectivity of the titanium oxide and low thermal conductivity of hollow beads at the same time [45]. A composite thermal insulation coating was prepared with obstructive, reflective, and radiative fillers together in Ref. [46]; testing results showed that the thermal insulation grade of the film is R-21.1, the TSR value of the film goes to 0.79, and the energy emissivity value is as high as 0.83. Data show that the film can resist heat transfer effectively, reflect most of the solar energy, and can cool the substrate actively by radiating energy absorbed. Multithermal insulation system with obstructive, reflective, and radiative fillers compatible with either acrylic or fluorocarbon substrate shows better thermal insulation performance than that with just single thermal insulation mechanism filler [47, 48, 49]. So composite thermal insulation coatings now became the main direction of thermal insulation coating research.
\nCovering with thermal insulation coating has been one of the most effective techniques for energy saving. As discussed above, the thermal insulation performance of coatings is mainly affected by functional fillers, but the applicability of coatings is mainly affected by substrate. So when the coating is designed for a particular application, both thermal insulation performance and comprehensive performance like protective, decorative, and other special needs (anticorrosive, waterproof, fireproof, antifouling, conductive, sterilization, and so on) should be considered at the same time. In this situation, the multifunctional coatings with thermal insulation and other special functions can satisfy more to the requirements of market. Just take building energy saving for example, in order to achieve the overall thermal insulation effects, not only varies of thermal insulation coatings for the outside and inside walls of building have been produced. Meanwhile, considering the urgent thermal insulation needs on color steel plate, aluminum profiles, glass doors, and windows in modern building, researchers have been committed to the development of multifunctional coatings that can meet both the thermal insulation and other specific functional requirements of these structural components. To be specified, transparent thermal insulation coatings can be used for windows, thermal insulation, and anticorrosion coating coatings for aluminum profiles, and etc. Therefore, based on the practical application, the multifunctional coatings with thermal insulation and other special functions are the development trend for thermal insulation coatings.
\nTransparent thermal insulation coating is transparent in the visible light area with semiconductor powder as fillers. Materials with good transmittance on the visible spectrum and high infrared light transmittance can be used as functional fillers, including nanotin oxide antimony (ATO), nanoindium-tin oxide (ITO), etc., so the film with these fillers can show an excellent thermal insulation performance while being transparent [50, 51, 52, 53, 54].
\nDue to the unique size effect, localized field effect, quantum effect, and other unique properties, the nanoparticles can obviously improve both the thermal insulation and antiaging properties of the film. The transparent thermal insulation coatings can widely be used in glass doors and windows in modern buildings, automotive glass, and so on. In fact, transparent thermal insulation coatings can almost be used at any substrate with a particular need for both transmittance and thermal insulation needs.
\nA transparent thermal insulation coating with nano-ATO as filler was prepared and tested; results showed that the coatings show both good transparency and thermal insulation performance due to the use of nano-ATO. Moreover, the thermal insulation effect of the film increases with increasing weight content of ATO [52]. Test results also indicated that the transparent thermal insulation coatings with ATO possess good artificial accelerated weathering resistance.
\nAs thermal conduction caused by the molecular vibration and convection will completely disappear in vacuum, the thermal insulation performance of the film will be outstanding if the film can form a vacuum or near vacuum structure. In 1970s, experts in the United States obtained a high-quality thermal insulation coating, with aerogel as filler; the aerogel was prepared by filling spherical hollow ceramic microbubbles into an inert latex binder (aqueous) through NASA spacecraft insulation material technology. The aerogel then forms a vacuum cavity layer in the film, which can not only obstruct but also reflect solar energy effectively. Tests showed that just brushing a thin layer of the film on the surface of buildings, the room temperature increased in winter but decreased in summer. That means the coating showed an effective thermal insulation effect [55]. Moreover, data show that the film can reach a thermal insulation up to 95%, and as a result, reduced up to 30–60% energy consumption when used on buildings. That means the vacuum thermal insulation coatings are excellent in both thermal insulation and comprehensive performance due to its special structure [56, 57]. And it is considered to be one of the most efficient energy-saving materials with a promising future.
\nAs mentioned above, aerogel with vacuum shows an ideal thermal insulation performance when used as fillers. But it is not easy to get a complete vacuum condition in many situations. Under this situation, researchers tried to use aerogel alone as filler. Aerogel basically consists of ultrafine particles and gaseous dispersion medium. Usually, the particles are filled in the pores of the medium’s network structure. It is found that when the pores in network are less than 50 nm, the aerogel can show a very good thermal insulation effect. Actually, the fillers’ ideal thermal conductivity value can even approach zero. So, it is entirely possible to obtain a coating with smaller thermal conductivity value than that of static air (0.023 W·m−1·K−1) with fillers with nanoporous structure [58], which means a lot to thermal insulation performance of the film. So, fillers with nanoporous structure provided unprecedented opportunities and possibilities for the development of thermal insulation coatings.
\nAerogels are low-density solid materials with nanoporous network structures. The aperture of SiO2 aerogel is about 2–50 nm, and the hole rate is high up to 99.8%, and the thermal conductivity value of SiO2 aerogel is 0.008–0.018 W·m−1·K−1 at room temperature, which is much lower than 0.023 W·m−1·K−1. So, SiO2 aerogel is considered to be one of the lowest thermal conductivity materials in the field of thermal insulation. The thermal insulation performance of SiO2 aerogel composites were also prepared and studied. For example, SiO2 aerogel composed with ceramic fibers was studied. As discussed, silica aerogel itself has very low thermal conductivity value on both gas and solid due to its special structure; meanwhile, ceramic fibers can greatly decrease the value of radioactive thermal conductivity of the composite. So as a result, silica aerogel composites show excellent thermal insulation properties. Test showed that the thermal conductivity value of the composite is only 0.017 and 0.042 W·m−1·K−1 accordingly when test at 200 and 800°C [59]. A trimethylchlorosilane-modified SiO2 aerogel was prepared and tested, results indicated that the thermal conductivity of composite is 0.0136 and 0.0284 W·m−1·K−1 at room temperature and 400°C, respectively [60].
\nWith SiO2 aerogel and polyvinylidene fluoride as substrate, a thermal insulation film was prepared and tested. Results indicated that the thermal conductivity of the film is as low as 0.028 W·m−1·K−1 [61]. Meanwhile, the performance of thermal insulation enhanced with the increasing content of SiO2 aerogel [62, 63].
\nSmart thermal insulation coating, which can insulate heat when the outer temperature is too high and release heat when the outer temperature is too high, has drawn attention in recent years, as this kind of coating has both energy storage and thermal insulation functions. Thermochromic, photochromic, electrochromic, and gasochromic films are demonstrated for energy saving as different kinds of thermal insulation coatings [64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73]. By just taking thermo-chromic films for example, thermo-chromic materials are capable of changing their optical properties when exposed to heat. The transmittance and reflectance can be significantly altered due to phase transition. Metal oxides such as lower oxides of vanadium, titanium, iron, and niobium can be used as fillers, which means, with these fillers in coating system, the color of the film can change when the temperature changes. With lower transition temperature and sharp transition features, vanadium dioxide (VO2)-based smart coatings have gained much attention in recent years. When the temperature is lower than 68°C (Tc), the structure of VO2 is semiconducting (insulating) monoclinic phase; when the temperature exceeds Tc, the structure turns to metallic tetragonal rutile [74]. The switch between the different structures means different light selectivity, which means, at temperature under Tc, film with VO2 allows transmission of the visible and infrared light, and when the temperature is higher than Tc, the VO2 film allows visible light but blocks IR. As a result, film with VO2 shows variation color when the temperature changes. Researchers have already done much to improve the luminescence transmittance and modulation capability of solar energy [75, 76, 77, 78].
\nBased on the adjustability of the coating system, the study on smart thermal insulation coating causes more and more attention from the researchers; so it is worth looking forward to the widespread application of the smart thermal insulation coatings sometime in the future.
\nThis chapter is supported by the key Project of Department of Education of Guangdong Province (2016GCZX008), the key Research Platform Project of Department of Education of Guangdong Province (gg041002) and the Project of Engineering Research Center of Foshan (20172010018).
\nSince the ultrafast (femtosecond) laser was demonstrated in the 1980s, the field of terahertz (THz) technologies has emerged with an array of applications appearing in different areas, from spectroscopy and sensing to imaging and high-speed communications [1, 2]. Terahertz radiation is nonionizing radiation and has low photon energies, thus having less chance of tissues, cells, and DNA damage during the spectroscopic, sensing, and imaging applications. In addition, the terahertz radiation can be transmitted through some opaque objects in visible light, which opens an array of detection and security applications. The late development of the THz applications is due to the challenges in the generation and detection within the THz band. Its frequencies of 0.1 to 10 THz (30 μm to 3 mm), sandwiched between the electronic and optical frequencies, cannot be generated by conventional electronics or optical methods [3]. This is because the conventional electronics technologies are insufficient to produce broadband waves at these relatively high frequencies. On the other hand, conventional optical technologies cannot emit THz frequencies due to a fundamental issue; there is no material with a bandgap energy corresponding to the THz frequencies [4]. Fortunately, various ultrafast laser and semiconductors approaches have been examined and established. That leads to demonstration of the first emission of pulsed THz radiation using a dipole photoconductive antenna in 1988 by Smith
The photoconductive THz emitter is an optoelectronic device with three main components, being the photoconductive materials, the photoconductive electrodes, and the lens [8] (Figure 1). The photoconductive material is a semiconductor having bandgap energy compatible with the photon energy of the ultrashort laser pulses. In addition, the photoconductive material should have optimum characteristics, including carrier lifetime, carrier mobility, breakdown voltage, and dark resistivity [9]. The carrier lifetime is preferable to be short. However, in the case of the photoconductive detector, it must be in the subpicosecond range. A higher breakdown voltage, carrier mobility, and dark resistivity are fundamental characteristics to assure a better photoconductive THz emitter performance in the form of higher radiated power, higher SNR, and broader bandwidth. The second component is the photoconductive electrodes. The photoconductive electrodes are two metal electrodes patterned on top of the device, having a gap in between, namely, a photoconductive gap. The design and dimensions of such a gap will influence the device’s performance. The last component is the lens. The lens is typically integrated with the emitter to accumulate the radiated field; the radiated field will then be focused on the targeted radiation path.
Illustration of the photoconductive device, as in (a) it shows a schematic diagram of the photoconductive THz emitter, and in (b) it shows the semiconductor band structure under the applied electric field. © IOP publishing. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved [
The photoconductive THz emitter can generate the THz radiation following photoexcitation of its photoconductive gap by an ultrashort laser pulse. When the laser pulse is focused into a photoconductive gap, the laser pulse generates free electrons and holes within the semiconductor, having a rate proportional to the laser pulse [10]. The free carriers will then accelerate under a bias field, controlled by the bias voltage,
This chapter presents the photoconductive devices for THz generation, with insights into their components, limitations, and considerations, and recent progress in this field. In Section 2, a number of photoconductive materials are discussed, the influence of the material and material’s characteristics are addressed. In Section 3, the photoconductive electrodes (structure) are considered. This includes different structures characteristics based on their size, being a large aperture antenna, a small aperture antenna, and the plasmonic antenna, discussing the influences on the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance. In Section 4, the limitations of the THz emission by photoconductive devices are discussed. The presented limitations are mainly related to the bias field and optical (pump) fluence, which appear in the form of radiated power saturation. In addition, the underlying physics of the space charge and near-field saturation is provided. Ultimately, in Section 5, the recent advances in photoconductive devices technology are given, including the integrated devices and the system-on-chip technologies.
In general, the photoconductive THz emitter performance differs based on the photoconductive material and structure. Therefore, the photoconductive material will be the focus of this section. The optimum photoconductive materials would be crystal lattices with a direct bandgap between the valence and conduction bands. This bandgap determined the absorption wavelength of the exciting laser pulse. Other factors that play a significant role in choosing suitable materials are low carrier lifetime and high carrier mobilities. The most studied materials for photoconductive devices are gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), quantum well of InGaAs, indium aluminum arsenide (InAlAs), and a combination of group III-VI materials. This section will explore the photoconductive materials GaAs, ion-implantation in GaAs, InGaAs, and multi-quantum wells InGaAs/InAlAs.
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) is a III–V semiconductor that has a bandgap of (Eg ∼ 1.42 eV at 300 K) corresponding to the emission wavelength of 880 nm [12]. GaAs is compatible with the titanium-doped sapphire (Ti: sapphire) femtosecond pulsed laser sources typically used to illuminate the photoconductive THz emitters. The GaAs has been the most common material and is typically employed in semi-insulating (SI)-GaAs, low temperature-grown (LT)-GaAs, or ion-implanted GaAs. The SI-GaAs grown by liquid-encapsulated Czochralski at 450–600°C [13] is typically a single crystal that has a high resistivity (>107 Ω cm) and a high electron mobility (μ > 7000 cm2/Vs) [14]. The SI-GaAs is considered a cost-effective substrate and has become widely used material for photoconductive devices. However, the research was ongoing to shorten the carrier lifetime. The LT-GaAs grown on SI-GaAs is proved to reduce carrier lifetime two orders of magnitude to below 1 ps compared to SI-GaAs (t > 100 ps) and efficiently generate broadband THz radiations of over 1 THz with high resistivity (107 Ω cm) and reasonable mobility μ (100–300 cm2/Vs) [15]. The growth is typically done by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) on the surface of SI-GaAs substrate and growth temperature to between 200°C and 300°C in an arsenic-rich environment [16]. In such a case, it yields a high level of crystallinity, which means higher carrier mobilities and point defects due to excess As precipitants. Higher mobility leads to fast response, and point defects significantly reduce the lifetime (below 400 fs). These point defects act as recombination centers [15]. Increasing the temperature above 250°C will increase the lifetime to be greater than 50 ps. Tani
An alternative approach is using the ion-implantation technique to create point defects and reduce the lifetime in SI-GaAs by implementing arsenic, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen (proton). Implanting H+ ions are shown to decrease the carrier lifetime of GaAs to sub-picosecond. Then several groups studied the effect of As+3 ion implantation of SI-GaAs and introduced excess As+3 impurities within the crystal structure similar to LT-GaAs [11]. However, the ion-implantation technique of As+3 (GaAs∶ As+3) improved the controllability of the excess As+3 concentration and uniformity as compared to LT-GaAs, making it more reproducible than LT growth [11]. Salem
The InGaAs are also employed as photoconductive material. It is a great advantage of the III-V compound to engineer the bandgap by changing the composition ratio. For example, the bandgap of the ternary compound indium gallium arsenide (InxGax-1As) can be potentially varied from 1.42 eV (x = 0) to 0.36 eV (x = 1). From a practical point of view, the protentional to achieve 0.8 eV (1550 nm optical excitation) was the motivation for investigating this material for THz applications. Doping InGaAs by iron has been demonstrated to provide required recombination sites for a subpicosecond carrier lifetime, higher optical pump saturation power, and higher breakdown voltage. Wood
Heterostructure devices consisting of alternate InGaAs/InAlAs multilayer stacks (multiquantum wells) have been proposed [21] as potential materials for photoconductive devices and achieve high performance at 1550 nm comparable to LT-GaAs excited at 800 nm. Sartorius
In addition to the GaAs, and InGa(Al)As, many other materials of group III-V such as InAs [23], InSb [23], GaSb [24], GaAsSb [25], and doped InGaAs [26], GaInSb [25] are studied as photoconductive material. Choosing the materials highly depends on the application and operating wavelength. Although LT-GaAs is still the most used material for photoconductive devices and is the most efficient material for 800 nm. However, it exhibits poor absorption at 1.55 μm, where other materials such as InGaAs or InGaAs/InAlAs heterostructure become more attractive. Table 1 summarized some of the photoconductive materials with the advantages, disadvantages, active layer, and the operating wavelength.
Photoconductive material | Advantages | Disadvantages | Active layer | Operating wavelength (nm) |
---|---|---|---|---|
GaAS | The most used materials for THz PCAs and is well studied. It is the most efficient material for 800 nm. | It is not suitable for 1550 nm excitation wavelength. | LT-GaAs | 780 |
LT-GaAs | 770 | |||
LT-GaAs | 776 | |||
LT-GaAs | 800 | |||
SI-GaAs | 800 | |||
GaAs:Er | 1550 | |||
InGaAs | Suitable for 1550 nm excitation wavelength. | Low dark resistivity. | InGaAs | 1550 |
InGaAs | 1550 | |||
Multi-QW | Higher dark resistivity. High performance at 1550 nm comparable to LT-GaAs excited at 800 nm. | More complication. | InGaAs/InAlAs | 1550 |
other materials of group III-V | The ability to engineer the target excitation wavelength. | More complication. It is not well studied. | InAs | 780/ 1550 |
InSb | 780/ 1550 | |||
GaSb | 800 | |||
GaAsSb | 800 (up to 1440) | |||
InGaAs | 800 and 1500 | |||
GaInSb | 800 |
Summary of some photoconductive materials with the advantages, disadvantages, active layer, and the operating wavelength.
The photoconductive devices for THz emission have been developed extensively to fulfill the demand for high-performance THz emitters—and thus be essential for spectroscopic and imaging applications. The development of the emitters’ structure is related to its design and dimensions and how that is attributed to the high performance of the THz emission. The performance of the photoconductive THz emitters is determined in the form of radiated power (or the THz spectral amplitude), SNR, and bandwidth. It is worth noting that the bandwidth here manifests itself as is the maximum frequency in the THz spectral amplitude, as a function of frequency,
In the large-aperture and interdigitated electrodes photoconductive THz emitters, the gap between the two electrodes can be large as 4 mm to 130 μm [11]. Such a gap will allow a high level of optical excitation before reaching the saturation issues. Thus, the importance of such emitters stems from the need to scale up the radiated power, which is influenced by the incident optical power. A molded has been developed by Darrow
In the small-aperture photoconductive THz emitter (dipole antenna), the gap between the two electrodes is smaller than in the large-aperture THz emitters, typically below 200 μm. In this case, it will be more difficult to align the laser spot within the PC gap. Although these emitters experience the saturation issues at lower pump fluence, in comparison with the large-aperture THz emitters, these emitters provide broader bandwidth over the large-aperture THz emitters. Our recent work on the design and structure of photoconductive THz emitters based on SI-GaAs examined the influence of bowtie structure characteristics on the THz spectral amplitude and bandwidth [28]. It is found that the bandwidth can be improved from 3.4 THz to 3.7 THz by changing the design of electrode structure from a sharp bowtie to an asymmetric bowtie structure at the same photoconductive gap. That could be attributed to the smaller capacitance of the sharp bowtie structure over the asymmetric bowtie structure, which results in a shorter resistance-capacitance (RC) time constant. The RC time constant,
Figure 2 illustrates the biased photoconductive gap with its equivalent circuit, here the redistribution of charge on the electrodes, can be seen as incident voltage waveform,
A biased photoconductive gap at bias voltage,
The plasmonic THz emitter is introduced by Berry
A schematic diagram of the photoconductive device shows in (a), the conventional photoconductive THz emitter, and in (b), the plasmonic photoconductive THz emitter. © IOP publishing. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved [
Overall, the photoconductive structure plays a significant role in the performance of the photoconductive THz emitters. The large-aperture and interdigitated electrodes THz emitters mitigate the influence of saturation for scaling up the THz emission with the optical influence. The small aperture THz emitter (dipole antenna) shows a broader bandwidth, which allows discovering a more comprehensive range of THz frequencies. In addition, the recent studies on plasmonic devices present their significance to the photoconductive THz emitter performance. It also steers the future research and development of high-performance photoconductive devices for spectroscopy, sensing, and imaging applications.
The underlying physics of the THz emission by photoconductive devices is the core of this section, which helps understand these devices’ behavior. The photoconductive THz emission scales linearly with the applied bias field and pump fluence. However, that can be precise only in the ideal case, at low levels of bias field and/or optical excitation. Higher levels of bias field influence the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance. Such influence can be seen as thermal effects, space-charge-limited current effects, etc. In addition, the photoconductive device has a limitation at a higher bias field correlated to the breakdown voltage of the photoconductive material. The pump fluence also has an impact, but that can be observed as the saturation of the THz radiation. The saturation (screening) of the THz radiation is mainly associated with two different mechanisms, being space-charge and near-field screening. This section will explore the limitation of the photoconductive THz emission with insights into the material and structure implications on photoconductive THz emitter’s performance.
The THz radiated power (or the THz field amplitude,
The scaling of THz radiated power as the THz field amplitude,
The pump fluence impacts the radiated THz power in the form of saturation (screening). At a higher level of optical excitation, the radiated THz power will be saturated. This saturation can be classified into two mechanisms, being space-charge and near-field screening. However, each screening status differs based on the photoconductive characteristics (material and structure) and optical characteristics (pump fluence). It is worth noting that transient mobility (mobility as a function of pump fluence) plays an important role in the emitted THz power and thus in the screening of the THz field [30]. The mechanisms of these two screening effects are explained in the next paragraph.
In the space-charge THz screening, the limitation of the photocurrent within the photoconductive gap is due to the high carrier densities within the photoconductive gap, affected by the high pump fluence. The charges drift in the opposite direction. Thus, the bias field screens and ultimately limits the radiated THz field [36]. In the near-field THz screening, the direction of the radiated THz field is in the opposite direction of the bias field, which limits the linear scale of the THz radiated field with the pump fluence, as increasing the pump fluence will raise the carrier densities within the semiconductor [37]. At the same pump fluence, the carrier densities in the emitter with a large photoconductive gap will be smaller than in the emitters with a small photoconductive gap. Thus, a large photoconductive gap emitter leads to scaling up the radiated THz power for higher levels, which increases the total emitter performance, before reaching the screening issues [30].
Overall, the main limitations of the THz emission by photoconductive devices can be related to the applied bias field and the exciting pump fluence. The two limitations are correlated with the photoconductive material and structure characteristics. These two limitations prevent the THz field amplitude from scaling linearly with the bias field and pump fluence. Thus, it is essential to design the photoconductive THz emitter carefully. Furthermore, the photoconductive material must be chosen judiciously to meet the demand of the high-radiated THz field for the aforementioned advanced applications.
A number of the recent advances and research in the field of photoconductive devices are discussed in this section, with insight on the development of the material and structure to enhance the photoconductive THz emission for spectroscopic, sensing, and imaging applications. The section will explore different approaches including:
Quantum dots.
Nanostructured electrodes (non-plasmonic) of the photoconductive device.
Dielectric metasurfaces in photoconductive terahertz devices.
Grating photoconductive devices.
The development of the photoconductive THz emission using such new approaches is notable. The quantum dots are mainly related to photoconductive materials. In contrast, the nanostructured electrodes, dielectric metasurfaces, and Grating photoconductive devices are associated with the photoconductive structure. Here, the main interest is to focus on improving the THz emission using these different approaches and the potential enhancement of these devices.
The quantum dots have been employed to boost the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance. Gorodetsky
Nanostructure electrodes of the photoconductive device show an improvement of the photoconductive THz generation, even without a plasmonic effect. Although the plasmonic photoconductive THz emitter is one of the breakings through in the THz generation and detection field, the nanostructure has its encasement on the performance of such devices [41]. Singh et al. examined an antenna nanostructure fabricated by utilizing an electron-beam lithography system (EBL), having a 5-nm titanium layer and a 25-nm gold layer. Hilbert-fractal design is used with different line widths up to 140 nm. An improvement of the emitted THz power by an approximate factor of two is observed using this nanostructure.
Dielectric metasurfaces in photoconductive terahertz devices can be used as an alternative method to enhance the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance instead of the plasmonic structure [42]. Although the plasmonic structure delivers better THz field improvement over the dielectric structure, the dielectric structure has a substantial characteristic which is the lack of dissipation [43]. In addition, the optical absorption of the incident light (laser) onto the photoconductive device can be improved by reducing the Fresnel losses, which can be done by using thin films of dielectric materials on top of the photoconductive gap. These dielectric materials (thin films) include SiO2, Si3N4, Al2O3, and TiO2 [44, 45]. Figure 5 shows a bowtie antenna having a layer of TiO2 being coated on the photoconductive gap, in (a) the schematic view of the photoconductive THz emitter, (b) the SEM image of the photoconductive THz emitter, and (c) the THz spectral amplitude obtained with using TiO2 layer (red) and without using TiO2 layer (black), “from [45]”.
The bowtie photoconductive antenna with TiO2 layer, coated on the photoconductive gap, in (a) the schematic view of the photoconductive THz emitter, (b) the SEM image of the photoconductive THz emitter, and (c) the THz spectral amplitude obtained with using TiO2 layer (red) and without using TiO2 layer (black). This figure is reprinted from [
The grating structure manifests itself as a periodic array of grooves, lines, slits, etc. The grating structure of the photoconductive devices for THz generation has been studied according to the effective medium approximations (or effective medium theory). The theory can be applied to describe the interaction of light with the grating structure (subwavelength) [46]. Chia et al. have modeled and simulated the influence of grating structure on the THz emission performance by COMSOL Multiphysics software with an insight into the effects of grating geometrical parameters. The author funds an improvement of about 1.63 of the photocurrents obtained by an optimized grating structure of photoconductive THz emitter over the planer emitter structure. This is due to the higher photon absorption, which leads to and leads to more carrier generation within photoconductive material, thus higher photocurrent is observed [46]. Figure 6 shows the simulated grating structure of LT-GaAs and its effects, as in a) the upper diagram shows the surface of planner photoconductive THz emitter, the lower diagram shows grating structure of the photoconductive THz emitter used in the simulation, and b) the normalized electronic concertation obtained by the two different simulated photoconductive THz emitters, “from [46]”.
The simulated grating structure of LT-GaAs, as in (a) the upper diagram shows the surface of planner photoconductive THz emitter, the lower diagram shows grating structure of the photoconductive THz emitter, and (b) the normalized electronic concertation obtained by the two different simulated photoconductive THz emitters. This figure is reprinted from [
Nowadays, the development of photoconductive devices regarding materials and structure is a hot research topic. Several publications have discussed many schemes to achieve higher performance of THz generation by photoconductive devices to facilitate the applications in cutting-edge technologies such as THz spectroscopy, THz sensing, and THz imaging. For photoconductive materials, the research focuses on the quantum dots as well as promotes material properties such as the carrier lifetime and carrier mobility. For the photoconductive structure, the implementation of plasmonic and nanostructures shows its advantage for the aforementioned applications. However, utilizing some novel ideas such as grating structure and a precise selection of the dielectric material is demonstrated to boost the performance of photoconductive devices further.
This chapter presented the photoconductive devices for THz emission. Several materials have been employed as photoconductive materials. However, GaAs is a typical material for these applications, particularly for the sapphire femtosecond pulsed laser sources, which emit at the same range of the bandgap energy of GaAs. Furthermore, several photoconductive structures have been employed. The plasmonic structure shows the highest impact of the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance over the microstructure photoconductive THz emitters. On top of that, the screening effects of the THz field amplitude is an issue limiting the linear scaling of the THz field with the pump fluence. Such limitations can be diminished using a large-aperture photoconductive antenna. At the end of this chapter, the improvement of these devices’ performance has been considered by viewing some recent work in this area. The work has also presented the influence of the quantum dots, the nanostructured electrodes (nonplasmonic) of the photoconductive device, the dielectric materials in photoconductive terahertz devices, and the grating structure on the photoconductive surface. It is hoped that the presented work can lay a role in continuing advancements of photoconductive devices.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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These geological elements have been evaluated to understand possible cause(s) of rapid decline in pro¬duction. The N5.2 reservoir, located in shallow marine sandstones, offshore Niger Delta, has experienced decline in oil rate with a corresponding increase in water-cut within two years of beginning of production. The main objective of this study is the determination of reservoir architecture in order to individuate the possible cause(s) of rapid production decline. To this aim, several methods have been used, including the seismic attribute analysis, electrofacies analysis, well log and petrophysical correlations. The obtained results show that the N5.2 reservoir is a massive sandy unit, occurring within the paralic Agbada Formation of about 2133 m thick. A contour depth map of the reservoir shows the occurrence of a structural saddle associated with an elongated closure having two structural culminations. Further analysis using the root mean square (RMS) and anti-tracking seismic attributes has indicated a seismic facies parallel to the paleo-coastline direction and several faults and fractures. The high quality of the reservoir, fractures, poor management and water injection may have induced rapid fluid flow and consequently early watercut and decline in production.",book:{id:"7768",slug:"sedimentary-processes-examples-from-asia-turkey-and-nigeria",title:"Sedimentary Processes",fullTitle:"Sedimentary Processes - Examples from Asia, Turkey and Nigeria"},signatures:"Prince Suka Momta",authors:[{id:"228567",title:"Dr.",name:"Prince Suka",middleName:null,surname:"Momta",slug:"prince-suka-momta",fullName:"Prince Suka Momta"}]},{id:"54964",title:"Intermittent Formation, Sedimentation and Deformation History of Cenozoic Forearc Basins along the Northwestern Pacific Margins as an Indicator of Tectonic Scenarios",slug:"intermittent-formation-sedimentation-and-deformation-history-of-cenozoic-forearc-basins-along-the-no",totalDownloads:3244,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"This chapter examines the basin-filling stratigraphy and major unconformity events of the Cenozoic forearc basins in the NE Japan, SW Japan, Ryukyu and Izu-Bonin forearc territories along the northwestern Pacific margins to obtain information on the background tectonic scenarios along the plate subduction zones. The forearc basin type and tectonic history are characteristic for each forearc territory, reflecting the differences in plate tectonic processes. Several major unconformity events seem to be synchronous for a forearc territory or whole forearc territories around Japan, suggesting that these events originated from more or less wider scale plate tectonic events. In the NE Japan forearc territory, the Oligocene unconformity can be the largest events, which transformed the forearc basin styles from the trench slope break-uplifted, fluvial system-dominated type to the tensional, deeper marine sloped type. In the SW Japan and Ryukyu forearc territories, the latest Oligocene to Middle Miocene gap was the transformation phase from the Palaeogene Shimanto-type forearc and accretionary complex, to the Neogene compressive, sloped to ridged forearc basins, developments of which have been interrupted by several unconformity events possibly related to changes in plate tectonic condition. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. 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