\r\n\tThis book will intend to look at different migrant patterns, voluntary and involuntary migration, over the last three centuries. What influenced people to leave their home countries, family, and friends and settle somewhere else? The book may include histories of the 19th century, consider tragedies and movements activated by political events in the 20th century, and/or look at recent events of the 21st century. Push and pull factors are important points. While most of us may be influenced in a negative way by the current happenings in Eastern Europe, the Russian invasion and resulting tragedies also demonstrate some very positive human traits – the preparedness of Ukraine’s surrounding countries to help those in need and to provide a safe place for the present. \r\n\tWhether one looks at voluntary or involuntary migration into any country, after a period of adjustment, migrants do play a positive role. The research found that migrants contribute to the economy (food, shelter, employment, tax) and enrich a country’s cultural norms. Prerequisites for successful settlements are that the host society adopts a tolerant approach and that the migrants recognize the law and the language of the host country. Nothing is ever easy or without controversy, but I am a migrant (German Australian), and life in Australia has been relatively harmonious. Issues that could be considered in the book are multicultural societies (do monocultural societies still exist?) and theories of acculturation versus integration (settlement processes). \r\n\tTwo further issues are very important in relation to human migration. There is climate change, global warming, and the environment, which clearly affect people’s movement. Small island populations are very concerned about rising sea levels. 2021 has also seen floods costing human lives: Turkey (August 2021), Brazil (December 2021), Chile (January 2021), and South India (November 2021), to name but a few. In Australia (March 2022), farms and whole townships in New South Wales and Queensland have been flooded for the second time in five years, and plans to resettle these towns are considered. Official and social media provide ample coverage of the events, which leads me to the next issue. There is today’s very important role of the media, of the official and social media. We are constantly bombarded with images of human war tragedies and flood victims. People in industrialized, western countries must be the best-informed populace. How far do the images and up-to-date TV news influence us, make us change our behavior, and perhaps even consider us more generous than we have been? \r\n\tClimate change and the media are relatively new to the human migration debate, but both issues play important parts, and some interesting discussions are appreciated. \r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-618-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-617-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-619-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"9836df9e82aa9f82e3852a60204909a8",bookSignature:"Dr. Ingrid Muenstermann",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11433.jpg",keywords:"Voluntary Migration, Involuntary Migration, Push Factors, Pull Factors, Receiving Countries, Human Rights Violations, Migrants' Acculturation, Migrants' Integration, Young People's Movement, Climate Change, War, Psychological Consequences",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 13th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ingrid Muenstermann is a Casual Academic at the College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Flinders University of South Australia, with a rich research background in relation to migration. For many years she worked as a secretary in the medical field. Still, she discovered the rewards of becoming an academic after achieving a Ph.D. in Social Sciences (Flinders University, Ph.D. supervisor Prof Robert Holton).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"77112",title:"Dr.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Muenstermann",slug:"ingrid-muenstermann",fullName:"Ingrid Muenstermann",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/77112/images/system/77112.jpg",biography:"Ingrid Muenstermann was born in 1938 in Hamburg, Germany, and settled in Australia in 1973. For many years she worked as a secretary in the medical field, but discovered the rewards of becoming an academic after achieving a PhD in Social Sciences. She is a sociologist at heart and is casually employed at Flinders University of South Australia. Dr. Muenstermann has a special interest in all things equity. Of particular interest have been, and still are, new settlers to Australia with a special focus on German immigrants. The decline of the natural environment and increased societal self-interest led her to consider universal social responsibility. Lately the concept of aging and how to retire gracefully, that is, to maintain a certain standard of living, have been on her mind. She hopes to research different areas of life in the not too distant future.",institutionString:"Flinders University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Flinders University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466997",firstName:"Patricia",lastName:"Kerep",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466997/images/21565_n.jpg",email:"patricia@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
The evolution of hepatic resection from an imprecise removal of portions of the liver often associated with a mortality rate of up to 20% to a routine and controlled anatomic procedure with operative risk less than 5%, represents a major advance in modern surgery. This accomplishment has been made thanks to better understanding of the liver vascular and biliary anatomy, recognition of the functional reserve of the liver and the potential for regeneration, advances is surgical technique as well as anesthesia and perioperative care. These factors, along with the improvement of prolonged survival following hepatic resection for colorectal metastases, hepatocellular and cholangiocarcinoma have led to an expansion of liver surgery.
\n
In this chapter, we will give the evolution of the technique used for the standard open right hepatectomy. In addition, we will describe on detail our technique employed for right hepatectomy focusing on:
Indications
Preoperative preparation
Specific technical aspects
\n
\n
\n
2. Surgical anatomy
\n
It was the work from our center conducted by Bismuth [1] which introduced to the English speaking word, the segmental approach to liver surgery, which in turn was based on the anatomical description of the liver by Couinaud [2]. The two liver lobes are divided into four segments with defined blood inflow and outflow as well as biliary drainage. The fibrous Glissonian sheath surrounds the branches of the segmental structures, whereas the hepatic veins lie between the pairs of the liver segments [3, 4].
\n
For further details on liver anatomy of interest for surgeons performing liver surgery the reader is referred to the chapter on liver anatomy on this book.
\n
\n
\n
3. Indications
\n
Currently, hepatic and right liver resections may be required in a wide variety of conditions, including pathological processes which are limited to the respective right side of the liver. Partial right hepatectomy in the treatment of primary (benign or malignant) liver tumors, biliary tract tumors and secondary malignant tumors are the most common indications. Partial right hepatic resections may also be necessary in the management of complex cystic diseases, benign biliary stenoses, some hepatic trauma, and more recently in liver transplantation with live donors. Total hepatectomies are reserved for situations of liver uptake in cadaveric donors and hepatic replacement in the hepatic transplant recipient.
\n
\n
\n
4. Different techniques of hepatectomy
\n
The modern era of anatomic resection dates as far back as 1950s, when Lortat-Jacob [5] reported the technique of right hepatectomy by performing an initial dissection, ligation and division of the right hepatic artery, portal vein and right hepatic vein, followed by parenchyma transection with intrahepatic isolation of the vessels. Although, this technique is advantageous as it reduces the bleeding during the parenchyma transection in addition to displaying the demarcation line between healthy and ischemic parenchyma, it is associated with serious complications such as major bleeding and air embolism (if the right hepatic vein is injured during the dissection of its non-parenchymal route). For this reason, Lortat-Jacobs’ original technique [5], was later modified by preceding the portal and hepatic vein dissection by supra- and infra-hepatic caval control. This technique has, however, two drawbacks: firstly, the already mentioned risk of trauma to the hepatic vein, and secondly, the possibility of devascularization of parts of remaining liver in cases of anatomical variations. In addition, during a right hepatectomy, the extrahepatic ligation of the right pedicle is associated with a risk of ligation of the biliary convergence situated anterior to the origin of the right portal branch.
\n
In contrast, these complications are less frequent with the technique described by Tung and Quang [6] which entails an initial parenchymal dissection with intrahepatic control of the vessels.
\n
Although, other techniques have been described, generally most liver surgeons use a combination of these techniques often applied in accordance to case specifics.
\n
The technique we use, first described by Bismuth [7], consists of an initial hilar dissection to control the arterial and portal components without touching the biliary duct (Figure 1).
\n
Figure 1.
Control of the arterial and portal components without touching the biliary duct.
\n
The control of right hepatic vein can also be done at this stage, however, this is not essential and should be avoided if difficulties are anticipated. This technique has the advantage of preceding the parenchymal section by the selective control of the right arterioportal and right hepatic components (as in the technique described by Lortat-Jacob) [5] and tie the vessels in the hepatic parenchyma (as in the technique described by Ton That Tung) [6].
\n
\n
\n
5. Preoperative evaluation
\n
Before any decision to perform a major surgical procedure could be made there is a need for a thorough pre-operative evaluation of the patients focused on the general physical status as related to the requirements of the planed operative procedure. All factors needed for a proper evaluation of the risk and possible gain from the patient’s point of view should be taken into account. In this aspect liver resection does not differ from any other major surgical resection. However, there are factors that are specific to liver resection: the risk for massive intraoperative hemorrhage and postoperative functional hepatic insufficiency. The preoperative evaluation of the functional capacity of the remaining liver is difficult and there are no strict and objective rules and specific knowledge and experience is required. In general, to determine the indications for surgery and the possible course of the prognosis following the surgical treatment, evaluation of liver cell integrity, excretory, and metabolic performance as well as the expected temporary ischemia and the effects of the anesthesia are all of importance [8]. Risk factors should be taken into account particularly fibrosis/cirrhosis or small future remnant volume and the question whether resection safety can be increased by portal vein embolization (PVE) should be examined preoperatively [9].
\n
Also, the preoperative evaluation should aim at clarifying the following questions:
The extent of the pathological lesions.
Detailed evaluation of the pathological lesions within the hepatic parenchyma and the relationship with important structures such as vascular and biliary components.
\n
In this regard, a three phase spiral computerized tomography (CT) and a magnetic resonance (MR) can be of a significant help. However, further information and accuracy with great clinical benefit during the preoperative evaluation is obtained from 3D CT or MR reconstruction, vascular reconstruction as well liver volume measurements.
\n
\n
\n
6. Operative procedure
\n
\n
6.1 Installation
\n
The patient is placed on supine position. The right arm is placed along the body wrapped in a drape whose ends pass under the back of the patient. The left arm is stretched at 90°. For anesthesiological monitoring, central venous lines and an arterial pressure sensor are placed. A gastric tube may be used to decompress the stomach.
\n
Figure 2.
Median incision with right transverse extension (modified Makuuchi incision).
\n
The surgical field usually extends from the lower half of the chest to the pubic symphysis. The patient’s head is turned to the right and fixed on this position by Elastoplast® tape in order to expose the left jugular triangle. The site of the abdominal incision is marked and the entire operative field is then covered. For large tumors requiring a thoracoabdominal incision or median sternotomy, the entire chest is included in the surgical field.
\n
\n
\n
6.2 Surgical incision
\n
An optimal surgical approach is a prerequisite for safe, controlled liver resection. For right hepatic resection, we use almost exclusively an abdominal approach. This involves a median incision with right transverse extension (Figure 2).
\n
Depending on the case, the incision usually can be extended cranial over the xiphoid process. A bicostal incision may provide a very good exposure suitable for almost all types of standard hepatectomies.
\n
Extension of the incision into the chest is exceptional, however, in extreme cases the incision can be extended further by a partial sternotomy, giving an excellent exposure of the suprahepatic vena cava. Similarly, a thoraco-phreno-laparotomy is used rarely for very large tumors of the right lobe or the upper right lobe preventing the mobilization and control of the suprahepatic vena cava.
\n
\n
\n
6.3 Abdominal exploration
\n
This step involves a complete exploration of the abdominal cavity paying special attention to the liver in order to identify possible undiagnosed lesions which could constitute a contraindication to liver resection. In general, it is possible to perform this step via a limited right subcostal incision. The first part of the exploration involves a manual palpation which is focused on the left liver, porta hepatis (in particular the lower posterior aspect) and the coeliac region. Division of the ligamentum teres and the falciform ligament along the anterior surface of the liver facilitates the exploration. The elevation of the ligamentum teres helps to expose the inferior surface of the liver and the area of the hilus as well as umbilical fissure. Performing this step (elevation of the ligamentum teres) helps to identify and better estimate lesions which can be potentially missed or underevaluated. Exploration should also include the inferior quadrants of the abdomen looking for adenopathy, peritoneal carcinomatosis or any lesion indicating colonic recurrence. Frozen section biopsies should be done for suspected lesions.
\n
The second part of the exploration involves performing an ultrasound (US) examination of the liver. The US helps to identify previously undetected lesions and to clearly delineate anatomical landmarks in the relation to the tumor [10]. The intraoperative US is particularly beneficial for deep seated lesions <10 mm in diameter as identification of these lesions may influence the surgeon to change the strategy and/or tip the balance against a curative resection. In addition, US may identify anatomical variations that may make the resection more difficult, such as accessory hepatic veins or common origins of the portal pedicles [11]. Finally, ultrasound is an indispensable aid when the anatomy is altered by a previous hepatectomy. If the exploration (manual and by US) is negative, the incision is enlarged to start the mobilization of the liver.
\n
\n
\n
6.4 Liver mobilization
\n
Following the division of the ligamentum teres, the posterosuperior remaining part of the falciform ligament is incised and divided as far back as the suprahepatic IVC. The space between the right hepatic vein (RHV) and middle hepatic vein (MHV) is dissected 2 or 3 cm in the caudal direction. In a similar fashion, the perihepatic attachments (right and when required left coronary ligament) are divided. This begins from the right lateral side and continues to the inferior peritoneal reflection exposed by retracting the right lobe anterosuperiorly. During this stage it is important to stay in close contact to the liver surface so to avoid entering the retroperitoneum. Failure to do so may result on profuse bleeding from severed retroperitoneal veins, which at times can be very dilated, particularly in patients with portal hypertension. Similarly, after dividing the upper lamina of the coronary ligament, care should be taken not to enter the thickness of the diaphragm as it can cause bleeding which often requires a time consuming hemostasis. In addition, adhesions between liver and diaphragm when present should not be digitally dissected (especially with a cirrhotic liver) as this approach is associated with a real risk of liver decapsulation leading to massive bleeding.
\n
Multiple short Spigelian veins between the IVC and posterior surface of the liver are ligated and divided as the liver is retracted anteriorly and laterally to the left. If an inferior right hepatic vein/s are present (>5 mm) it is crucial to ligate and divide them as they are a potential source of major bleeding. During this stage, one often encounters a band of ligamentous tissue extending from the liver to the right lateral aspect of the vena cava and in some patients this represents a small bridge of liver parenchyma. Regardless the nature, this too requires ligation and division as most of the time this band contains one or two veins.
\n
After the right liver is fully mobilized, the space between the RHV and the MHV in the anteromedian surface of the vena cava is carefully dissected using a right angle forceps through which a tape is passed around to control the root of the RHV. Having achieved this, laparotomy pads are placed behind the liver to enhance the exposure of the right lobe necessary for the parenchyma resection.
\n
It is not unusual that during mobilization to find right lobe tumors attached to the diaphragm. The surgeon should either separate these attachments or in some cases resect a segment of the diaphragm which can be subsequently repaired. Tumor attachment/s to the diaphragm should not be considered as distal metastatic lesions and should not influence the surgeon to abandon the planed resection.
\n
\n
\n
6.5 Hilar dissection
\n
After cholecystectomy, the right lateral aspect of the hepatoduodenal ligament is incised longitudinally just posterior to the bile duct, followed by a hilar dissection to identify and achieve control of the right hepatic artery (RHA) and right portal vein (RPV). The right hepatic artery is identified during the cholecystectomy. Anomalies such as having a right hepatic artery originating from the superior mesenteric artery or posterior location in the hepatoduodenal ligament should always be kept in mind if injuries are to be prevented. Ideally, these possibilities should be excluded during the preoperative work-up by CT angiography imaging. The artery is traced to its left sufficiently to identify with certainty its junction with the proper hepatic artery after which the right branch is controlled.
\n
The next step involves the exposure of the portal vein. Using gently a blunt right angle forceps, the trunk of portal vein is dissected anteriorly and posteriorly and a traction tape is passed around this vessel. Dissection is then continued into the hilum of the liver to expose the bifurcation of the portal vein, where the right branch is freed up and controlled by a vascular tape. During this step, one should be careful to avoid two possible complications. First, the left portal vein tends to pass directly away from the operator and care must be taken not to injure it. Second, the possibility of small tributaries from the right portal branch to the caudate lobe should always be kept in mind as failure to do so may lead to cumbersome bleeding from such very fine veins. Hilar dissection is completed by tracing the common bile duct into the hilum where the right and left branches are seen. Insertion of a small catheter through the cystic duct stump and up into the left and right ducts can be useful to identify these structures as a preparation step for eventual division (during the parenchyma transection).
\n
An initial occlusion of RHA and RPV with bulldog clamps will reveal a demarcation line on the liver surface that corresponds to the transection plane, which is marked with electrocautery. The isolation and clampage of the right arterial and portal branches is advantageous as it allows selective clamping without inducing ischemia in the contralateral site of the liver [12, 13, 14].
\n
One important point to remember is that at the end of this step the surgeon has two options. First, as described above to dissect and control the vascular components (right hepatic and portal branch) followed by parenchyma transection. Second, to dissect, ligate and divide the vascular components before commencing the parenchymal transection. The choice will depend on the case particulars and on the surgeons’ preference.
\n
\n
\n
6.6 Parenchymal transection
\n
After selectively controlling the right lobe inflow and outflow, transection of the parenchyma is commenced along the marked line running from an anteroinferior to posterosuperior direction near the diaphragmatic hiatus of the IVC for early exposure of the middle hepatic vein. The transection is done using either a Kelly clamp or ultrasonic dissector with selective occlusion of the vascular inflow (RHA and RPV). While the ultrasonic dissector is highly effective for exposure of the periportal pedicles, care must be taken with this instrument when dissecting in close contact to the hepatic veins whose walls are extremely fragile. In addition, one should be always aware of the location of the tumor to achieve a negative histologic margin. When the resection is performed in a fibrous or cirrhotic liver, using a small Kelly clamp (kellyclasie) to carry out the transection may be preferable. As parenchymal division proceeds, pedicles including the larger branches originating from the hepatic veins are tied with silk 4.0. We do not use metal clips or absorbable material to achieve the hemostasis in transection surface of the remaining parenchyma. In our experience, the clips can easily be removed/dislodged during manipulations, by vigorous suction or when the liver becomes very congested or edematous leading to unnecessary bleeding and time delay to control it.
\n
Care must be taken to preserve the middle hepatic vein by carefully ligating its branches to the anterosuperior and anteroinferior segments of the right lobe and by preserving the venous drainage of the medial segment of the left lobe. The parenchyma is divided in an anteroposterior direction until the anterior surface of the IVC is exposed. Before the specimen is removed it is necessary to divide the right portal pedicle and right hepatic vein. The right hepatic artery already controlled is double ligated with nonabsorbable suture (Cardionyl® 4.0), whereas the portal vein is sutured transversely with Cardionyl® 5.0 in order to prevent stricture of the remnant portal trunk. At this stage, the right biliary duct as the only remaining anatomical structure of the pedicle is in turn divided and closed with PDS 6.0. The right hepatic vein as the last structure holding the specimen, clearly exposed by a combined approach (extrahepatic dissection above the liver and laterally along the vena cava as well as medially by the parenchymal transection) is double clamped using DeBakey clamps and divided leaving sufficient length to perform a secure closure with Prolene® 4.0, or it may be divided using a vascular stapler. Alternatively, the right hepatic vein can be controlled and divided intrahepatically during the parenchyma transection. However, extrahepatic control reduces blood loss as the liver is divided and is very important maneuver for tumors close to the vena cava. Following the removal of the specimen, it is important to check for possible bile leaks by injecting methylene blue either via the cystic duct stump or the stump of the right bile duct before closing it. Bile leaks on the resection surface are easily visualized and selectively closed by using monofilament sutures. With the described technique for the parenchymal transection, the cut surface is usually dry, however, when required the hemostasis is achieved by gentle manual compression combined sometimes with application of biological fibrin glues.
\n
Following resection, torsion of the mobilized left lobe may occur which can potentially lead to either kinking of the vessels in the hilum or the left hepatic vein. By refixing the falciform ligament this complication can be prevented. In addition, the diaphragmatic veins, vena cava, the surface of the parenchyma, hepatic artery and the integrity of the bile duct are checked before abdominal closure.
\n
\n
\n
6.7 Technical variations
\n
\n
6.7.1 The liver hanging maneuver
\n
In 2001 Belghiti described a technique termed the “liver hanging manoeuvre” (LHM). In this procedure, the liver is lifted by a tape passed between the anterior surface of the vena cava and the liver, thereby providing effective vascular control, in order to make the anterior approach safer and easier [15].
\n
The classic technique was first described to facilitate right hepatectomy by the anterior approach. In this first variant of the procedure, the anterior aspect of the suprahepatic IVC is exposed and the space between the right hepatic vein (RHV) and the middle hepatic vein (MHV) is dissected along the IVC axis for 2–3 cm, and when the dissection is complete, the hepatic parenchyma is looped up with a tape.
\n
During the parenchymal transection, continuous upwards traction is applied on the tape by holding both its ends together. The tape ensures the safety of the underlying major vascular structures during transaction in a manner akin to dissecting on the finger to protect an important underlying structure. The tape elevates the liver, making it easier to transect, and constantly guides the surgeon towards the correct plane, thereby enabling a vertical transaction along the shortest possible route. The traction on the tape can also be regulated to provide control in instances of venous bleeding to help identify the vessel.
\n
In “up to down” technique, the classic technique is modified in order to increase its security that no major bleeding occurs during the maneuver [16]. The entire blind dissection of the RHIVC tunnel is performed in a craniocaudal direction in order to avoid the possible risk of RHV or MHV injury by the clamp inserted caudally. The maneuver is begun between the RHV and MHV, this space usually does not contain SHVs [17], and can be safely dissected for 3–4 cm downwards with a right-angled vascular clamp without any risk. The long axis of the RHIVC does not always represent a straight perpendicular line, but may take a straight-oblique or slightly curved course [17]. For this reason the dissection should be performed along a right oblique axis rather than in vertical direction to reduce the risk of injury to the caudate processus vein.
\n
\n
\n
\n
6.8 Drainage
\n
Drainage is carried out by silicone drains. Two drains are brought out on the lower edge of the surgical incision, one placed on the right subdiaphragmatic space near the resected surface, whereas the second drain whose end lies in the foramen of Winslow is placed under the liver. In general, we believe that hepatectomies should be drained as this measure reduces the risk of postoperative hematoma formation or bile collection.
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. Immediate operative care
\n
The patient is kept in ICU for a minimum of 12 h in order to begin monitoring potential postoperative complications (Table 1).
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n
Bleeding
Post-hepatectomy liver failure
Biliary fistula
Post-operative ascites
Surgical infection
Coagulation disorders
Pulmonary infection and respiratory disorders
Acute kidney injury
Hepatorenal syndrome
\n
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Potential postoperative complications of right hepatectomy.
\n
\n
\n
8. Final considerations
\n
The adoption of a specific technique for right hepatectomy is related to the preference of the surgeon and for each specific situation, however, it is desirable that surgeons are familiar with various techniques available to perform the operation. An obvious example is the resection of large tumors of the right lobe in these cases and it is desirable, but impossible, to maintain the conventional mode of hepatic resection with mobilization of the wolf right prior to transection. Another example is the ability to promptly apply occlusion of vascular influx, or even total vascular exclusion, in case of bleeding during hepatectomy.
\n
The surgical risks associated with hepatic resection are now smaller, especially in specialized centers and high volume liver operations.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"hepatectomy, open right, liver resection",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/61990.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/61990.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61990",totalDownloads:1276,totalViews:305,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:37,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 25th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"May 29th 2019",dateFinished:"June 7th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The evolution of hepatic resection from an imprecise removal of portions of the liver often associated with a mortality rate of up to 20% to a routine and controlled anatomic procedure with operative risk less than 5%, represents a major advance in modern surgery. This accomplishment has been made thanks to better understanding of the liver vascular and biliary anatomy, recognition of the functional reserve of the liver and the potential for regeneration, advances is surgical technique as well as anesthesia and perioperative care. These factors, along with the improvement of prolonged survival following hepatic resection for colorectal metastases, hepatocellular and cholangiocarcinoma have led to an expansion of liver surgery. In this chapter, we will give the evolution of the technique used for the standard open right hepatectomy. In addition, we will describe on detail our technique employed for right hepatectomy focusing on indications, preoperative preparation and specific technical aspects.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/61990",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/61990",book:{id:"7528",slug:"surgical-challenges-in-the-management-of-liver-disease"},signatures:"Luis Cesar Bredt",authors:[{id:"256192",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Bredt",fullName:"Luis Bredt",slug:"luis-bredt",email:"lcbredt@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Surgical anatomy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Indications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Different techniques of hepatectomy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Preoperative evaluation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Operative procedure",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"6.1 Installation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"6.2 Surgical incision",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.3 Abdominal exploration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"6.4 Liver mobilization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.5 Hilar dissection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.6 Parenchymal transection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.7 Technical variations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"6.7.1 The liver hanging maneuver",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.8 Drainage",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"7. Immediate operative care",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"8. Final considerations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bismuth H. Les hépatectomies: Encycl méd.-Chir., Techniques Chirurgicales—Appareil Digestif. Paris: Editions Techniques Ed; 1968, 4.2.07, 40762\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Couinaud C. Le foie. Etudes Anatomiques et Chirurgicales. Paris: Masson Ed; 1957\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Goldsmith NA, Woodburne RI. Surgical anatomy pertaining to liver resection. Surgery, Gynecology & Obstetrics. 1957;195:310-318\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Launois B, Jamieson GG. The importance of Glisson’s capsule and its sheaths in the intrahepatic approach to resection of the liver. Surgery, Gynecology & Obstetrics. 1992;174:7-10\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Lortat-Jacob JL, Robert HG, Henry C. Un cas d\'hépatectomie droite réglée. Mémoires. Académie de Chirurgie. 1952;78:244-251\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Tung TT, Quang ND. L\'hépatectomie réglée par ligature vasculaire intra-parenchymateuse. Presse Médicale. 1965;73:3015-3017\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Bismuth H, Castaing D, Garden OJ. Major hepatic resection under total vascular exclusion. Annals of Surgery. 1989;210:13-19\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Bismuth H, Houssin D, Ornowski J, Meriggi F. Liver resection in cirrhotic patients: A western experience. World Journal of Surgery. 1986;10:311-317\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Azoulay D, Raccuia JS, Castaing D, Bismuth H. Right portal vein embolization in preparation for major hepatic resection. Journal of the American College of Surgeons. 1995;181:267-269\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Bismuth H, Castaing D. Echographie per-opératoire du foie et des voies biliaires. Paris: Flammarion Médecine-Sciences Ed; 1985\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Castaing D, Garden J, Bismuth H. Segmental liver resection using ultrasound-guided selective portal venous occlusion. Annals of Surgery. 1989;210:20-23\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Shimamura Y, Gunven P, Takenaka Y, Shimizu H, Akimoto H, Shima Y, et al. Selective portal branch occlusion by balloon catheter during liver resection. Surgery. 1986;100:938-941\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Gotoh M, Monden M, Sakon M, Kanai T, Umeshita K, Nagano H, et al. Hilar lobar vascular occlusion for hepatic resection. Journal of the American College of Surgeons. 1994;178:6-10\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Hannoun L, Vaillant JC, Borie D, Delva E. Techniques de l’exclusion vasculaire du foie et des hépatectomies extrêmes (chirurgie «ex situ-ex vivo» et «in situ-ex vivo» du foie). Encycl méd.-Chir., Techniques Chirurgicales - Appareil Digestif. Vol. 40. Paris: Editions Techniques Ed; 1994. pp. 766-782\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Belghiti J, Guevara OA, Noun R, Saldinger PF, Kianmanesh R. Liver hanging Manoeuvre : A safe approach to right hepatectomy without liver mobilization. Journal of the American College of Surgeons. 2001;193:109-111\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Ogata S, Belghiti J, Varma D, Sommacale D, Maeda A, Dondero F, et al. Two hundred hanging manoeuvres for major hepatectomy: A single-centre experience. Annals of Surgery. 2007;245:31-35\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Hirai I, Murakami G, Kimura W, Kanamura T, Sato I. How should we treat short hepatic veins and paracaval branches in anterior hepatectomy. Clinical Anatomy. 2003;16(3):224-232\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Luis Cesar Bredt",address:"lcbredt@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Surgical Oncology and Hepatobiliary Surgery, University Hospital of Western Paraná, State University of Western Paraná, Cascavel, Paraná, Brazil
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1. Introduction
Global strawberry production grew at a rate close to 5% per year in the first two decades of the twenty-first century. At the beginning of this century, 4.57 million tons were produced annually, on an area of 40,000 ha versus 8.9 million tons and 396,401 ha in 2019 [1]. The origin of the production was given as follows: Asia and America are the continents with the highest contribution, where, in decreasing order, China, USA, Mexico, Turkey and Egypt are the five largest producers in the world. The statistics of the last 40 years stand out several factors (1) The cultivation spread from 53 countries in 1980 to 77 in 2000 and 79 in 2019; (2) More than half of the current fruit production is in the subtropical climate; (3) Emerging countries such as: Turkey, Egypt and Morocco, became important production poles; and, (4) The high altitude tropics whose typical case is Mexico, showed its climatic benignity, which placed Mexico as the world’s leading producer of fresh strawberries in autumn-winter, a period in which there is a deficit in the global market.
Other factors that are changing the role in the production-demand binomial are the cancelation of methyl-bromide [2], the promotion of organic cultivation, the interest in developing cultivars rich in bioactive and nutraceutical compounds [3], and the increasing importance of day-neutral cultivars [4]. These global trends are changing the profile of the strawberry industry, ultimately creating new technological demands of all kinds, especially for the main component, which are cultivars. In a holistic context, broadening the genetic base for new attributes and the formation of elite cultivars could have a major impact on better use of water, fertilizers, and adaptation to various stresses such as: alkaline pH, excessive heat, tolerance to frost damage, etc., furthermore, to help mitigate and/or eliminate future demand for synthetic pesticides.
Developing elite genotypes will imply a greater exploration, collection, and characterization of wild strawberry germplasm to face global problems [5, 6], a deep scientific knowledge of the genetic complexities to use it, especially in the case of those with ploidy levels other than octoploid. Nevertheless, molecular biology is currently advancing rapidly, and must be an ally of classical improvement, to advance more quickly in the objective of enriching the genetic base of the crop and achieving the development of cultivars with new characteristics. This chapter will present a review of contemporary problems of this crop, the use of current genetic resources as the main strategy to design their management, the factors that affect the under-utilization of the genetic reservoir, the demands for elite cultivars, with genetic resistance to biotic and abiotic factors, and better nutraceutical qualities, and the limitations of this approach.
2. Global context
The predominant plantation system in the subtropical environment is that developed by California, USA during the 20th century, it was adopted and/or adapted with certain variations in other countries from the equator to 42°latitude in both hemispheres [7]. Its technological support was the disinfection of soils with methyl-bromide + chloropicrin to eliminate soil diseases [8], the development of cultivars with high productivity and sensory quality of the fruit [9], and the optimization of the technological package for cultivation, fertigation, pest, disease and weed management practices [10]. The reproducibility of the previous production model, and the adoption of the macro-tunnel, located in Spain, Mexico, and other Mediterranean countries, among the largest producers of fresh strawberries.
When the use of methyl bromide ended in 2005 and 2015 in developed and developing countries, respectively, ended the relatively simple Era to eradicate biotic agents from the soil, since to date substitutes or alternatives are being investigated to replace it, being chemical, physical, microbiological agents, or a combination of them, that exerts action on a wide spectrum of biological entities [2].
Strawberries are grown in a wide variety of environments. In terms of latitude, it can be said that, from the equator to the polar zone [11], mainly in the northern hemisphere. Regarding altitude, from sea level to altitudes above 2000 meters above sea level [12]. These macroenvironments, with their different photoperiod, temperature, and rainfall regimes, as well as different pH and soil texture, are the genesis of an infinite series of microenvironments, and give rise to the so-called geographical and regional adaptation, a situation that affects cultivars. They can be adapted to a better or lesser degree to a certain environment [11].
The strawberry industry is experiencing a continuous varietal change. Except for China, where cultivars from Japan predominate [7], in the nine main strawberry producing countries, perhaps no more than 15 cultivars, generated by the Universities of California and Florida and, a few others from private companies are used. However, these genotypes share a close relationship since they descend from common or related parentals. Modern cultivars stand out for their productive qualities, good adaptation, and high sensory quality. The risky facet is associated with genetic uniformity and genetic erosion for traits that can confer tolerance and adaptation to biotic and abiotic factors, and their clonal spread, which is a risk of transmission of infectious agents.
The genetic vulnerability was shown since the end of the last century, both for nuclear genes [13] and for the cytoplasm [14] and becomes more valid in contemporary times, before the first signs of the globalization of phytosanitary problems of strawberry. During the twentieth century, biotic problems were caused by 20 pests, 108 diseases, and eight nematodes, in addition to five abiotic agents [15]. It was anticipated that others could arise [16] and this was the case in this century with Drosophila suzukii [17], and the diseases caused by Colletotrichum spp. [18], Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. fragariae, Macrophomina phaseolina, and probably Neopestalotiopsis spp.
3. Global challenges
Based on the available information, experiences of classical genetic improvement for the development of cultivars tolerant or resistant to diseases, pests, abiotic factors and recently to improve the nutraceutical quality of the fruit, will be addressed. An important aspect is that, for each goal of incorporating tolerance or resistance to a certain problem, the required sequence is to search for sources of genetic resistance [19], or of the richness of nutraceutical compounds [3], and then transfer it to the new cultivars. The commercial strawberry is octoploid, and wild plant populations of the 26 species known to date are found in nature [20], including their ancestors, and the newly discovered F. emeiensis [21]. The availability and use of this genetic wealth in the formation of cultivars were derived from the international literature. The ease of use of these genes depends on the chromosomal level of the species, the nuclear and cytoplasmic genetic compatibility between them, the type of inheritance of the resistance (qualitative or quantitative) and the availability of an appropriate technique to identify the resistant individuals.
3.1 Disease resistance
The development of cultivars with tolerance or resistance to certain diseases has been an approach of limited use in strawberries. Root and crown diseases are the group of parasites that cause the most economic damage. In the last century and the current one, the presence of at least seven important diseases has been reported: Phytophthora fragariae, Verticillium spp., Phytophthora cactorum [15]. In the latter, Colletotrichum spp. [18], Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. fragariae in Chile [22]; China [23]; Spain [24]; California, USA [25]; Iraq [26]; Serbia [27]; Turkey [28]; Iran [29]; Bangladesh [30]; Ecuador [31]; Macrophomina phaseolina in Florida, USA [32]; Israel [33]; California, USA [34]; Spain [35]; Argentina [36]; Iran [37]; Australia [38]; Chile [39]; Tunisia [40]; Italy [41]; and probably Neopestalotiopsis spp., emerging parasite whose presence has been reported in 17 countries during this century in Brazil [42], Egypt [43]; Morocco [44]; Spain [45]; Iran [46]; Vietnam [47]; Belgium [48]; Argentina [49]; India [50]; Korea [51]; Uruguay [52]; Italy [53]; Mexico [54]; China [55]; Ecuador [56]; Finland [57]; Taiwan [58], and that it could acquire global importance if the damage persists in future years. It is important to highlight that Colletotrichum spp. [59], Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. fragariae (FOF), Macrophomina phaseolina [60, 61, 62], and Neopestalotiopsis spp. [63, 64, 65] were reported since the twentieth century, but only FOF was important in Australia [66], Japan [67], Argentina [68], Korea [69], and Mexico [70].
Genetic resistance in strawberries has a history dating back to the last century, and valuable experiences that confirm the goodness of this strategy. In this sense, the United States Department of Agriculture, released a multitude of cultivars resistant to various races of P. fragariae, adapted to the cold climate of various countries in the world, whose commercial use and/or as sources of resistance, were used to obtain cultivars in other countries. The resistance genes used by the USDA were transferred from F. chiloensis clones Yaquina and Del Norte; and Fragaria x ananassa through the cultivars ‘Md 683’ and ‘Aberdeen’ (Table 1) [71, 72]. In populations of F. chiloensis from California, USA there is also resistance to this fungus [73, 74].
Disease-causing agent
Species/resistance genes
Ploidy level
Genes used in cultivars
References
Phytophthora fragariae
F. x ananassa Fragaria chiloensis Oregon F. chiloensis California F. virginiana
Sources of disease resistance in F. x ananassa and other species of wild strawberry.
Refer to Mycosphaerella fragariae and Diplocarpon earlianum.
Other diseases of the twentieth century that justified the development of resistant cultivars were Verticillium spp., and P. cactorum. For the first disease, in the last century sources of genetic resistance were detected in Fragaria x ananassa [75], and F. chiloensis [76], but more recent studies also found resistance in F. virginiana and three diploid species [77]. The same situation occurred for P. cactorum, where resistance genes have been tracked back in commercial cultivars from the USA and Germany [78, 79, 80, 81], and in two diploid species [82] (Table 1).
Root diseases that acquired global importance from the XXI century, have been the subject of research that allowed to strengthen the efforts made regionally during the twentieth century, such was the case of anthracnose. The disease can be caused by the species C. fragariae, (CF), C. gloesporioides (CG) and C. acutatum (CA), also affecting all organs, among them flower and fruit rot [18]. The following cultivars resistant to CF were developed: ‘Florida Belle’ [83]; to CF and CG ‘Treasure’ [84]; and resistant to CF and CA ‘Pelican’ [18] and at least one race of CG [85]; and resistant to CA, ‘Flavorfest’ [86]. Subsequent studies identified sources of resistance to CG in octoploid species [86, 87].
The same happened for FOF, resistant cultivars were detected in Korea [69], Japan [88]. Genetic resistance to FOF strains was detected in Mexico in cultivars from the United States and, also in F. chiloensis ssp. pacifica [89, 90] (Figure 1). The ‘Ventana’ cv is FOF resistant in California, USA [91]. In Mexico, there are selections in an intermediate stage of advance, which carry genes from both the cultivated species and F. chiloensis for resistance to FOF, adapted to the tropical high-altitude climate in Mexico [92] (Table 1; Figure 2). Recent investigations detected genotypes resistant to Macrophomina phaseolina in Australia and Egypt, although some are out of date cultivars [93, 94].
Figure 1.
Root system from clones of Fragaria chiloensis ssp. pacifica showing different degrees of resistance, 60 days after being inoculated with fusarium oxysporum f. sp. fragariae.
Figure 2.
Comparison of an experimental clone carrying genes of F. chiloensis resistant to fusarium oxysporum f. sp. fragariae, and the viral complex of Irapuato, Gto. (central furrow), and two susceptible genotypes (left and right furrows).
Other diseases that attack foliage, flower, and fruit, caused mainly by fungi and a bacterium, are documented in Table 1. The damage due to Botrytis cinerea is globally important [15], and there have been detected although commercial cultivars are only moderately susceptible [95, 96], and apparently, the diversity and genetic variation for tolerance or resistance to the fungus is absent in the commercial species, which has been an impediment to develop tolerant cultivars. However, in this century sources of genetic resistance were identified in progenitor species of cultivated strawberry and in a diploid species [97, 98] (Table 1).
The case of the bacterium Xanthomonas fragariae is quite similar to that of Botrytis, except that until recently resistance was detected in F. virginiana, since no sources of resistance were found in the commercial species [99, 100]. Additionally, evidence of immunity genes found in F. moschata [100, 101, 102], and resistance genes in the diploids F. nilgerrensis and F. vesca f. alba, and ‘Illa Martin’ and in the diploid F. pentaphylla [102], but not in F. nilgerrensis, F. daltoniana, F. iinumae, F. vesca, F. viridis, F. gracilis; F. nubicola and F. orientalis [101].
For other foliage diseases such as powdery mildew [103, 104], Mycosphaerella fragariae and Diplocarpon earliana [11, 105]; since the previous century, resistance genes were found in cultivated species and in F. virginiana, and tolerant or resistant cultivars were developed. Subsequently, knowledge has been enriched with the detection of resistance genes in other octoploid and diploid species [106, 107, 108] (Table 1).
A scientifically important and economically transcendental case, for the strawberry industry in California, during the twentieth century, was the practical demonstration that genetic tolerance was the best alternative to avoid economic losses, caused by the yellowing viral complex [109]. Around 1945, the University of California released the cultivars ‘Shasta’ and ‘Lassen’, tolerant to the viral complex. This event marked the beginning of the Era of the formation of cultivars with high yield potential and sensory quality of strawberry, adapted to the subtropical climate of California. The tolerance genes introduced in these cultivars were derived from a cultivar called ‘Ettersburg 121’, which had within its ancestors’ genes from Fragaria chiloensis of the central coast of California, USA (Table 1) [73, 74]. In Irapuato, Gto., Mexico, there are advanced clones with tolerance to the local viral complex, which carry genes of F. chiloensis ssp. pacifica from California USA, [92] (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Comparison between a resistant clone (upper furrow), and a susceptible one to the viral complex present in Irapuato’s region.
3.2 Pest resistance
Pests of greatest global importance and causing major economic damage, are the two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae), lygus bug (L. lineolaris, L. hesperus) and possibly other genus of bugs, in addition to thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis). The aphid Chaetosiphon spp. is a pest that transmits at least five viruses and for that reason, it is also important [15].
The genetic improvement in strawberries for tolerance or resistance to some of these pests was almost null in the previous century, for several reasons. Partly because of the availability of synthetic pesticides, which at first allowed easy control. Also due to the technical difficulty, time invested and economic cost of maintaining a genetic improvement program to achieve this objective, and in another, because there was a lot of pressure to develop cultivars with high yield potential and good sensory quality, even if they were susceptible to the most important pests of the crop.
Despite this unfavorable environment, there were pioneering scientists in spider mite and aphid resistance research. By far, the two-spotted spider mite has always been the main pest of strawberries and for this reason, the first studies evaluated the reaction of cultivars of the time to the mite. Experience showed that it developed larger populations on certain genotypes, which confirmed the presence of genetic variation in the host, with various degrees of damage, from tolerant to susceptible [110].
A survey with a greater number of cultivars and clones of octoploid species, allowed us to locate sources of resistance in the cultivated species, in F. chiloensis from North America [111, 112] and from South America and in F. virginiana [113]. However, an important aspect was that in the wild clones of both octoploid species, a higher level of resistance was identified than in the cultivars. In addition, and very important, is that some F. chiloensis clones, that were resistant to the spider mite, were also resistant to the aphid C. fragaefolii, which is a vector of at least five economically important viruses (Table 2).
Pest
Species/resistance genes
Ploidy level
Genes used in cultivars
References
Tetranychus urticae
F. x ananassa Fragaria chiloensis ssps. Lucida, and pacifica Fragaria chiloensis ssp. chiloensis F. virginiana
Sources of resistance to pests of global importance in F. x ananassa and other species of wild strawberry.
For the other pests of global importance, genetic variation is generally mentioned at the cultivar level, and this is the case of Lygus spp. [114] and Frankliniella occidentalis [115], although the information available for both pests is still very limited, and many aspects of the host–parasite relationship are unknown.
An outstanding case is a problem with the oriental fly Drosophila suzukii, a pest that has spread throughout the main strawberry-producing countries, which parasitizes other small fruits as well, in which the damage could be considered in the future. A study carried out in Germany, with octoploid and diploid genotypes, identified that in the diploid F. vesca certain clones had a low mosquito emergence [17] (Table 2).
3.3 Outstanding characters of adaptation and resistance to abiotic factors
In this section, a series of agronomic attributes are presented and discussed, which allow the plant a better adaptation to the environment and/or mitigate its adverse effect on it and eventually result in higher productivity and quality of the fruit and therefore are attributed with high economic importance.
Among the 11 listed attributes, those related to wide adaptation, low chilling requirements, resistance to low temperatures and versatility for different photoperiod regimes, have had primary importance with the evolution under cultivation of the octoploid strawberry and consequently with the already cited adaptation to environments as contrasting as the duration of the photoperiod, temperature regime, cold-chilling needs, rainfall, soil texture, etc. [11, 74, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120].
Previous characters present in one, or both, octoploid parental species of cultivated strawberry were surely transferred to it during the synthesis of both species in Europe in the seventeenth century, as well as with the introduction of these ancient European cultivars into the USA, and its numerous introgressions of F. chiloensis and F. virginiana genes, by amateur breeders in the United States during the eighteenth century, which originated a multitude of cultivars more rustic and adaptable to the environments of that country, where the availability at first of short-day cultivars, over the years and due to this introgression, originated long-day octoploid cultivars [11] and later, as explained below, the day-neutral cultivars. Other sources of cyclical flowering have been documented in F. virginiana [118, 119].
One of the classic examples of the impact on the strawberry industry is the incorporation of genes that confer the day-neutral character and allow continuous flowering in the subtropical environment. The original source of the day-neutral character was found in F. virginiana ssp. glauca, in a plant collected in Utah [74]. These genes were introduced through the cultivar ‘Shasta’ and by means of a carefully modified backcross program, after three cycles of crossing and selection, the first cultivars with the day-neutral trait were released in 1979. In contemporary times most day-neutral cultivars carry those genes transferred by Bringhurst [4, 9].
Resistance of the plant and its different organs to low temperatures is another attribute, which allows minimizing the damage with temperatures below 0°C and is crucial to mitigate the damage of these organs. In the tropical climate at altitudes above 1500 meters above sea level, temperatures below the mentioned threshold can cause large yield losses during autumn and winter in cultivation without a macro-tunnel. However, the fore effect is probably maximized by the sudden increase in temperature up to 25°C in three hours, so this wide thermal oscillation could be the cause of the damage to the plant, flower, and fruit. Among the genotypes sown in Mexico, it has been observed that the most susceptible to this thermal shock are the day-neutral cultivars of California, compared to the short-day cultivars of California and Florida, respectively.
There are reports about sources of resistance to low temperatures in the progenitor species of the cultivated strawberry [6, 11], and also in some diplo, tetra and hexaploid species, [11, 108, 117, 120] as can be seen in the summary of Table 3. This desirable quality could acquire more relevance as more strawberry is grown in the tropics, as macro trends in crop expansion suggest for the near future. The opposite character, which is resistant to high temperatures during summer, could be important in certain latitudes, although except for Darrow [11], there was only recently interest in this stress as a cause of inhibition of flowering in short-day and day-neutral cultivars, when daytime temperatures are around 26°C [4].
F. virginiana F. chiloensis ssp. chiloensis f. patagonica F. moschata F. orientalis F. moupinensis F. viridis F. daltoniana F. iinumae F. nipponica Fraxinus mandshurica
Genetic diversity for traits associated with abiotic factors of global importance in F. x ananassa and other species of wild strawberry.
Adaptation to deficits and excesses of moisture is documented for some strawberry species [6, 11, 108, 117, 121] (Table 3), and considering the current and future growing environments, both characteristics can be valuable, particularly a gradient related to the efficient use of water, or in other words, cultivars that require the fewer amount of water per kg of fruit produced, since most of the strawberries are grown under irrigation, and this is an input whose availability for agricultural use is less and less.
Other qualities that are found in wild species and are of great economic and environmental importance are those related to resistance to alkaline pH, salinity, and efficient use of iron in those soils [6, 11, 117]. In many of the countries where strawberries are grown, there are problems of iron deficiencies (Figure 4), induced by the alkaline pH of the soils, a problem that is partially solved with the application of iron in different forms. It has been observed that there is genetic variation for the efficient use of iron by certain cultivars and octoploid species of strawberry [122, 123], but unfortunately, on many occasions, there are no genotypes available that have this quality and are also adapted and productive to cultivation environments, where these nutritional deficiencies are manifested [122] (Figure 5).
Figure 4.
Iron deficiency in a commercial plantation planted in soil with alkaline pH in Irapuato, Gto., Mexico.
Figure 5.
Clones with genes of Fragaria chiloensis resistant to iron deficiencies planted in an alkaline pH soil of Irapuato, Gto., Mexico.
On the other hand, non-renewable inputs such as the use of synthetic fertilizers, could be better used by incorporating in modern cultivars the genes that confer a more efficient use of them, qualities present in certain wild species [73, 124, 125] and that until now have not been used (Table 3).
3.4 Characters associated with sensory and nutraceutical quality
Strawberry has a long history of genetic improvement for traits associated with the sensory quality of the fruit. Certainly, since ancient times, the aborigines of the new world [12, 120, 125, 126], practiced selection for some organoleptic characteristics such as fruit weight, color, firmness and flavor, outstanding attributes that have been reported in the landrace’s varieties of Chile [124, 125, 126, 127]. These qualities, which are under genetic control, have been incorporated into commercial cultivars of F.xananassa. The large fruit size and firmness undoubtedly came from F. chiloensis ssp. chiloensis f. chiloensis [11]. Clones with large fruit have been identified in other species such as F. daltoniana and F. nilgerrensis [11, 117]. The firmness of fruit, which is a highly appreciated quality in strawberries, derived from F. chiloensis [125, 126] has also been found in certain diploid species [107, 117] (Table 4).
Characteristics of sensory and nutraceutical qualities of strawberry in F. x ananassa, and other wild species of strawberry.
Color, flavor and aroma are attributes of the fruit that influence consumer acceptance [128]. The genetic diversity for these traits is partially documented. For example, for color it is possible to find a range of tones from albino to red in some species [11, 129, 130], the same happens with the flavor where outstands certain octoploids and diploids, while aroma F. moschata is recognized as a species that is above all [117] (Table 4).
Nutritional qualities of strawberries were documented since the previous century for the high content of vitamin C, as much or more than some citrus fruits, and Hansen and Waldo demonstrated in 1944 its genetic control in commercial strawberry cultivars [75]. Evaluations of California’s cultivars showed a range of 50 to 100 mg of vitamin C per 100 g fresh weight, with ‘Tufts’ standing out [131] (Table 4).
With the medical recognition of the benefits for human health of certain bioactive compounds such as flavonoids and polyphenols [132], in addition to the already known properties of vitamins and minerals, and with the confirmation that the strawberry belongs to the group of fruits with high content of these substances, its consumption increased and there was an interest in increasing the nutraceutical properties of strawberries, through genetic improvement [3].
Research groups of some prestigious institutions have identified some important compounds, their presence in cultivars [133], and certain cases, which are the strawberry species whose contents are higher and can be the appropriate genetic source for these traits to be transferred to new cultivars. For example, wild plants with a high content of cyanidin, a type of anthocyanin, that helps to reduce risks of type 2 diabetes, certain types of cancer and heart problems, were identified in F. chiloensis [134] (Table 4).
Diamanti et al. [3], identified certain wild clones of F. virginiana ssp. glauca with high antioxidant content, and through interspecific hybridization, followed by three cycles of backcrosses, managed to recombine strawberry genotypes with high potential yield and with a higher content of anthocyanins, polyphenols and greater antioxidant capacity, than the cultivar ‘Romina’. This is a cutting-edge genetic improvement approach, since the results suggest that it is possible to reconcile in this particular case, a high biomass yield with a higher content of bioactive compounds.
4. Expanding the use of the genetic pool
As a corollary of the information gathered from the available literature on the subject under discussion, it was evident that genetic improvement in strawberries was fundamentally aimed at increasing productivity, the sensory quality of strawberries, and adaptation to various environments [9], and in certain countries, there were also relevant experiences in the formation of varieties with resistance to root diseases [71, 135], foliar diseases [11] and to viral complexes [74]. Among the wide genetic diversity existing in the 26 species, only a part of the reservoir has been used, basically from Fragaria x ananassa [11], infrequently, from other octoploid species [74, 136], and exceptionally, with a lower of ploidy level [128].
Several avant-garde approaches have been besought and applied to use the genetic richness of wild species, to expand the genetic base of cultivated strawberries. One is the use of synthetic octoploids to take advantage of the genes of different levels of ploidy and bring them to the octoploid level [137], another is to perform the synthesis of Fragaria x ananassa again, but using a select group of progenitors of both, F. chiloensis as well as F. virginiana, which have been chosen for many characters such as: yield, quality and resistance to adverse factors [4, 6, 105, 138], and one more, is to form synthetic decaploids to introduce the complete genome of both, octoploid and diploid species [128, 139]. The introgression of genes of octoploid species towards the cultivated one [74] has been practiced successfully and with economically impressive results, but its contribution to broadening the genetic base is minimal. The first three day-neutral cultivars released, contributed only 6.25% of F. virginiana ssp. glauca genes.
The collected germplasm of F. chiloensis [117, 140, 141, 142, 143] and F. virginiana [142, 144, 145], are available in the gene banks of certain countries [140], they have been characterized for certain attributes of cyclic flowering [4, 146], horticultural [5], resistance to diseases [89], resistance to pests [111, 112, 147], and at the molecular level [148, 149, 150]. However, it is important to characterize them to deal with global problems like pests, diseases, adaptation, and tolerance to abiotic factors, as well as for their nutraceutical properties. Among the global problems that the strawberry industry is facing, the best cultivars are susceptible to the most important pests and diseases, and regarding genetics, it stands out that there is little information on the sources of resistance to pests. The same situation occurs, towards resistance to low temperatures and there is also a great deficit of information on the richness of nutraceuticals in wild species.
Researchers from Michigan University [4] evaluated 2500 F. virginiana clones and 6000 F. chiloensis clones collected in California, the Pacific coast of North America and Chile. Among them, 38 elite parents were identified, and used to synthesized populations of F. x ananassa. If this germplasm were available, it could be characterized and used to deal with the global problems mentioned. If no sources of resistance are found for all the problems mentioned, the collection of octoploid species should be expanded. The populations of F. chiloensis from Alaska, whose genotypes withstand temperatures of −10°C and whose usefulness for that purpose was mentioned last century [11].
Little documented is the gene pool in species other than the octoploid level. There are likely valuable genes of economic importance that do not exist in octoploid species, that are currently underutilized, and that could contribute to solve emerging problems in the strawberry industry. As an example, the immunity reported to Xanthomonas fragariae, in F. moschata [102], and also, about the resistance in F. pentaphylla [101], and F. vesca [102], for the probable tolerance to Drosophila suzukii in F. vesca [17], to name just a few cases already published.
Under the above-mentioned needs, it is important to continue with the germplasm collections of Asian species [108, 151] since, to date, it is the region with the highest number of reported species, where all levels of ploidy are found, except the hexa and, octoploids. Due to the contrasting environments where they are found, and the molecular genetic diversity existing in regions such as Tibet [152]; the presence of genes for resistance to low temperatures is potentially suspected, and certain indications reinforce this hypothesis. Luo et al. [153] demonstrated the possibility of transferring resistance at low temperatures from a wild pentaploid parent from China. It is also possible that, in Chinese species, there is resistance to moisture deficits and excesses, and resistance to foliar diseases [102, 108]. Tetraploid species are particularly interesting and hypothetically important, since if there were genes for outstanding traits absent in the octoploids [154], their transfer to these in some evolutionarily related species would be relatively less genetically complicated [138]. There is a lack of knowledge of the degree of genetic affinity between the five tetraploid and octoploid species, for the use of the possible genetic richness of the tetraploids at the octoploid level. Classic breeding methods for crosses between species of the same and different ploidy levels have been widely described [11, 74, 75, 137, 139], and they should be surely complemented with recently developed biotechnological techniques [155].
5. Conclusions
During the present century, except for explorations in China, strawberry germplasm collections have ceased. In attention to the serious phytosanitary problems of strawberries, international collaboration is important to take advantage of the germplasm collections and populations derived from them, deposited in different repositories, and characterize them for those cases of global problems. Simultaneously with the above, evaluation techniques must be developed to rigorously characterize the germplasm reaction and identify the sources of valuable genes.
Faced with the need to mitigate global phytosanitary problems, genetic resources must provide part of the solution, and use those underused genes to form more rustic strawberry genotypes for biotic and abiotic factors, and with better nutraceutical quality of the fruit.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the generosity of Dr. R.S. Bringhurst (RIP) for donating the germplasm of F. chiloensis for the detection of sources of genetic resistance to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Fragariae.
\n',keywords:"Fragaria spp., resistance to biotic agents, resistance to abiotic agents, nutraceuticals, breeding",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81280.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81280.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81280",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81280",totalDownloads:23,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 29th 2021",dateReviewed:"January 31st 2022",datePrePublished:"May 10th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 15th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The growing increase in global strawberry production and consumption has been spectacular during this century. In 2019, 396,401 ha were planted, and 8.9 million tons of fruit were produced globally, and more than 50% of that volume was in the subtropical climate. The problems and losses caused by diseases and pests are of global importance, particularly with root and crown diseases, the severity and spread of which has been magnified by the cancelation of certain soil fumigants, and by the susceptibility to one or more of the parasites of the group of cultivars currently planted. The use of the genetic reservoir available both in the cultivated species, as in the 26 wild species, is a formidable wealth of genes, partially collected, and characterized, which can be of fundamental importance to introduce new genetic combinations into modern commercial cultivars and to redesign them, so that they have a greater adaptation to stresses caused by biotic and abiotic factors, in addition to an important improvement in the nutraceutical quality of the fruit. This chapter documents the importance of this gene pool in the development of elite cultivars with these qualities.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81280",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81280",signatures:"Pedro Antonio Dávalos-González, Ramón Aguilar-García, Alejandro Rodríguez-Guillén and Alba Estela Jofre-y-Garfias",book:{id:"11338",type:"book",title:"Strawberries",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Strawberries",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nesibe Ebru Yaşa Kafkas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11338.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-199-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-198-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-200-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"267714",title:"Prof.",name:"Nesibe Ebru",middleName:"Yaşa",surname:"Kafkas",slug:"nesibe-ebru-kafkas",fullName:"Nesibe Ebru Kafkas"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Global context",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Global challenges",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Disease resistance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Pest resistance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Outstanding characters of adaptation and resistance to abiotic factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Characters associated with sensory and nutraceutical quality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Expanding the use of the genetic pool",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'FAOSTAT. 2021. Available from: http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx [Accessed: November 17, 2021]'},{id:"B2",body:'Daugovish O, Knapp S, Gordon T, Fennimore S, Muramoto J, Bolda M. Soil pest management in current California strawberry production: A review. Acta Horticulturae. 2021;2021(1309):701-709. 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Journal of Heredity. 1915;VI:324-331'},{id:"B117",body:'Luby JJ, Hancock JF, Cameron JS. Expansion of the strawberry germplasm base in North America. In: Dale A, Luby JJ, editors. The Strawberry into the 21st Century. Vol. 1991. Portland: Timber Press; 1991. pp. 66-75'},{id:"B118",body:'Kennedy C, Hasing TN, Whitaker V. Characterization of Fragaria virginiana and F. chiloensis in a minimal-chill, winter annual production system. HortScience. 2014;49:848-855. DOI: 10.21273/HORTSCI.49.7.848'},{id:"B119",body:'Cai W, Zurn JD, Bassil NV, Hummer KE. Perpetual flowering in strawberry species. HorScience. 2017;52:1496-1500. DOI: 10.21273/HORTSCI12025-17'},{id:"B120",body:'Hancock JF, Lavín A, Retamales JB. Our Southern strawberry heritage: Fragaria chiloensis of Chile. HortScience. 1999;(34):814-816. DOI: 10.21273/HORTSCI.34.5.814'},{id:"B121",body:'Darrow GM. Strawberries in Mexico, Central America, Colombia and Ecuador. Ceiba. 1953;3:179-185'},{id:"B122",body:'Aguilar-García R, Dávalos-González PA, Rodríguez-Guillén A. La clorosis Férrico-Manganésica en fresa y su manejo. Technical Book (in Review). Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones, Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias. Celaya, Gto. México: Campo Experimental Bajío; 2021. p. 48'},{id:"B123",body:'Torum AA, Kakar YA, Bicen B, Erdem N, Serce S. In vitro screening of octoploid Fragaria chiloensis and Fragaria virginiana genotypes against iron deficiency. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry. 2014;38:169-179. DOI: 10.3906/TAR-1305-83'},{id:"B124",body:'Popenoe W. The frutilla, or Chilean strawberry. The Journal of Heredity. 1921;12(457):466. DOI: 10.1093/OXFORDJOURNALS.JHERED.A102048'},{id:"B125",body:'Darrow GM. Exploration in South America for strawberries and other small fruits. Fruit Varieties and Horticultural Digest. 1957;12:5-7'},{id:"B126",body:'Lavín A. Caracterización botánica, fisiológica y agronómica de ecotipos chilenos de Fragaria chiloensis (L) Duch. recolectados en las X y XI regiones de Chile. Informe final. Proyecto Fondecyt. 1997;1940083'},{id:"B127",body:'Finn CE, Retamales JB, Lobos GA, Hancock JF. The Chilean strawberry (Fragaria chiloensis): Over 1000 years of domestication. HortScience. 2013;48:418-421. DOI: 10.21273/HORTSCI.48.4.418'},{id:"B128",body:'Noguchi Y, Mochizuki T, Sone K. Breeding of a new aromatic strawberry by interspecific hybridization Fragaria x ananassa x F. nilgerrensis. Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science. 2002;71:208-213. DOI: 10.2503/JJSHS.71.208'},{id:"B129",body:'Lei J, Xue L, Guo RX, Dai HP. The Fragaria species native to China and their geographical distribution. Acta Horticulturae. 2016;1156:37-46. DOI: 10.17660/ACTAHORTIC.2017.1156.5'},{id:"B130",body:'Lei J, Hue L, Dai HP, Deng MQ. The taxonomy of Chinese Fragaria species. Acta Horticulturae. 2014;1049:289-294. DOI: 10.17660/ACTAHORTIC.2014.1049.37'},{id:"B131",body:'Bringhurst RS, Rae H, Voth V. Ascorbic acid in California strawberries. 1974 SNB Pomology Report # 9. Strawberry News Bulletin. 1975;XXI Number 5. Watsonville, California: California Strawberry Advisory Board;'},{id:"B132",body:'Wang SY. Antioxidants and health benefits of strawberries. Acta Horticulturae. 2014;1049:49-62. DOI: 10.17660/ACTAHORTIC.2014.1049.1'},{id:"B133",body:'Yildiz H, Ercisli S, Hegedus A, Akbulut M, Topdas EF, Aliman J. Bioactive content and antioxidant characteristics of wild (Fragaria vesca L.) and cultivated strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa) fruits from Turkey. Journal of Applied Botany and Food Quality. 2014;87:274-278. DOI: 10.5073/JABFQ.2014.087.038'},{id:"B134",body:'Mahoney L, Davis TM, Curran-Celentano J. Investigation of cyanidin and pelargonidin contents in the genus Fragaria L. Acta Horticulturae. 2009;842:915-918. 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Resistance in Fragaria chiloensis and F. x ananassa to the aphids Chaetosiphon fragaefolii and C. thomasi. HortScience. 1982;17:959-960'},{id:"B148",body:'Becerra V, Paredes M, Lavín A. Biochemical and molecular diversity in the Chilean strawberry and its implications for plant breeding. HortScience. 2005;40:1642-1643. DOI: 10.21273/HORTSCI.40.6.1642'},{id:"B149",body:'Gambardella M, Cadavid A, Díaz V, Pertuzé R. Molecular and morphological characterization of wild and cultivated native Fragaria in Southern Chile. HortScience. 2005;40:1640-1641. DOI: 10.21273/HORTSCI.40.6.1640'},{id:"B150",body:'Carrasco B, Garcés M, Rojas P, Saud G, Herrera R, Retamales JB, et al. The Chilean strawberry [Fragaria chiloensis (L) Duch.]: Genetic diversity and structure. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 2007;132:501-506. DOI: 10.21273/JASHS.132.4.501'},{id:"B151",body:'Zhao MH, Wu WM, Lei JJ, Quian YM, Wuang ZG, Yuan J. Geographical distribution and morphological diversity of wild strawberry germplasm resource in China. Acta Horticulturae. 2009;842:593-596. DOI: 10.17660/ACTAHORTIC.2009.842.126'},{id:"B152",body:'Peng M, Zong X, Wang C, Peng F. Genetic diversity of strawberry (Fragaria ananassa Duch.) from the Motuo county of the Tibet plateau determined by AFLP markers. Biotechnology and Biotechnological Equipment. 2015;29:876-881. DOI: 10.1080/13102818.2015.1050968'},{id:"B153",body:'Luo G, Xue L, Guo R, Xu W, Lei J. Creating cold resistant strawberry via interploidy hybridization between octoploid and dodecaploid. Euphytica. 2017;213:194. DOI: 10.1007/s10681-017-1980-7'},{id:"B154",body:'Zhao J, Xue L, Che XD, Jiang S, Lei JJ, Dai HP. Investigation and classification of the five tetraploid Fragaria species native to China. Acta Horticulturae. 2021;1309:51-56. DOI: 10.17660/ACTAHORTIC.2021.1309.8'},{id:"B155",body:'Pérez de Castro AM, Vilanova S, Cañizares J, Pascual L, Blanca JM, Díez MJ, et al. Application of genomic tools in plant breeding. Current Genomics. 2012;13:179-195. DOI: 10.2174/138920212800543084'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Pedro Antonio Dávalos-González",address:null,affiliation:'
National Institute of Forestry, Agricultural and Livestock Research (INIFAP), Mexico
National School of Higher Studies León Unit, National Autonomous University of Mexico (ENES-León, U.N.A.M). León, Mexico
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Heat stress decreases the secretion of luteinizing hormone and estradiol resulting in reduced length and intensity of estrus expression, increased incidence of anoestrus and silent heat in farm animals. Oocytes exposed to thermal stress lose its competence for fertilization and development into the blastocyst stage, which results in decreased fertility because of the production of poor quality oocytes and embryos. Furthermore, low progesterone secretion limits the endometrial functions, and subsequently embryo development. In addition, the increased secretion of endometrial prostaglandin F2 alpha during heat stress threatens the maintenance of pregnancy. In general, the percentage of conception rate was found to be reduced by 4.6% for each unit increase in temperature humidity index (THI) above 70, and heat stress during pregnancy further slows down the growth of the foetus and results in lower birth weight. In tropical and subtropical regions, during hot days, the testicular temperature may increase and impair both the spermatogenic cycle and semen quality, which culminates in decreased bull fertility. The effects of heat stress on livestock can be minimized via adapting suitable scientific strategies comprising physical modifications of the environment, nutritional management and genetic development of breeds that are less sensitive to heat stress. In addition, the summer infertility may be countered through advanced reproductive technologies involving hormonal treatments, timed artificial insemination and embryo transfer, which may enhance the chances for establishing pregnancy in farm animals.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Govindan Krishnan, Madiajagan Bagath, Prathap Pragna,\nMallenahally Kusha Vidya, Joy Aleena, Payyanakkal Ravindranathan\nArchana, Veerasamy Sejian and Raghavendra Bhatta",authors:[{id:"89780",title:"Dr.",name:"Veerasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Sejian",slug:"veerasamy-sejian",fullName:"Veerasamy Sejian"},{id:"177210",title:"Dr.",name:"Raghavendra",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatta",slug:"raghavendra-bhatta",fullName:"Raghavendra Bhatta"},{id:"177220",title:"Dr.",name:"M",middleName:null,surname:"Bagath",slug:"m-bagath",fullName:"M Bagath"},{id:"201967",title:"Dr.",name:"Govindan",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnan",slug:"govindan-krishnan",fullName:"Govindan Krishnan"},{id:"201968",title:"Ms.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Pr",slug:"archana-pr",fullName:"Archana Pr"},{id:"201969",title:"Ms.",name:"Pragna",middleName:null,surname:"Prathap",slug:"pragna-prathap",fullName:"Pragna Prathap"},{id:"201970",title:"Ms.",name:"Aleena",middleName:null,surname:"Joy",slug:"aleena-joy",fullName:"Aleena Joy"},{id:"201971",title:"Dr.",name:"Vidya",middleName:null,surname:"Mk",slug:"vidya-mk",fullName:"Vidya Mk"}]},{id:"55006",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68650",title:"Immunocastration as Alternative to Surgical Castration in Pigs",slug:"immunocastration-as-alternative-to-surgical-castration-in-pigs",totalDownloads:1904,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Surgical castration of piglets is a routine practice in pig production used to prevent the incidence of boar taint of pig meat, which may develop in entire male pigs as they reach puberty. This practice is being presently questioned in the European Union, and there is a strong initiative to end it. The initiative is presently voluntary; however, key stakeholders of European pig production sector have signed a declaration, and the actions undertaken by them already affect the business. Before such new concepts in pig production can be implemented, alternative solutions are needed, one of them being immunocastration. The present chapter will thus focus on the presentation of immunocastration as one of the promising alternatives to surgical castration. Theoretical and practical aspects of immunocastration in pig production will be described, and the advantages and disadvantages of this alternative will be summarised. Physiological principles of immunocastration and impacts on metabolism, growth performance, body composition and meat quality will be described and aspects of public acceptability reviewed.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Marjeta Čandek-Potokar, Martin Škrlep and Galia Zamaratskaia",authors:[{id:"23161",title:"Dr.",name:"Marjeta",middleName:null,surname:"Čandek-Potokar",slug:"marjeta-candek-potokar",fullName:"Marjeta Čandek-Potokar"},{id:"198220",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Škrlep",slug:"martin-skrlep",fullName:"Martin Škrlep"},{id:"198221",title:"Prof.",name:"Galia",middleName:null,surname:"Zamaratskaia",slug:"galia-zamaratskaia",fullName:"Galia Zamaratskaia"}]},{id:"55696",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69444",title:"Estrus Cycle Monitoring in Wild Mammals: Challenges and Perspectives",slug:"estrus-cycle-monitoring-in-wild-mammals-challenges-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1874,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The knowledge of reproductive physiology is of paramount importance to guide reproductive management and to make possible future application of assisted reproduction techniques (ARTs) aiming ex situ conservation of wild mammals. Nevertheless, information on the basic reproductive aspects of wild mammals remain scarce, and appropriate management practices have not yet been developed for all the species. This chapter discusses the methods most currently used for reproductive monitoring in wild females. Additionally, the difficulties regarding their use in different species and the possibilities of these procedures in captivity or in free-living mammals are addressed.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Alexandre R. Silva, Nei Moreira, Alexsandra F. Pereira, Gislayne C.X.\nPeixoto, Keilla M. Maia, Lívia B. Campos and Alana A. Borges",authors:[{id:"90066",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Rodrigues",surname:"Silva",slug:"alexandre-silva",fullName:"Alexandre Silva"},{id:"177090",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexsandra Fernandes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"alexsandra-fernandes-pereira",fullName:"Alexsandra Fernandes Pereira"},{id:"177093",title:"MSc.",name:"Gislayne Christianne Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto",slug:"gislayne-christianne-xavier-peixoto",fullName:"Gislayne Christianne Xavier Peixoto"},{id:"198314",title:"Prof.",name:"Nei",middleName:null,surname:"Moreira",slug:"nei-moreira",fullName:"Nei Moreira"},{id:"198315",title:"MSc.",name:"Keilla Moreira",middleName:null,surname:"Maia",slug:"keilla-moreira-maia",fullName:"Keilla Moreira Maia"},{id:"198316",title:"MSc.",name:"Lívia Batista",middleName:null,surname:"Campos",slug:"livia-batista-campos",fullName:"Lívia Batista Campos"},{id:"198317",title:"MSc.",name:"Alana Azevedo",middleName:null,surname:"Borges",slug:"alana-azevedo-borges",fullName:"Alana Azevedo Borges"}]},{id:"56522",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69549",title:"Role of Melatonin in Reproductive Seasonality in Buffaloes",slug:"role-of-melatonin-in-reproductive-seasonality-in-buffaloes",totalDownloads:1751,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Buffaloes are characterized by seasonal reproductive activity. Anestrus buffalo heifers and lactating buffaloes were used to study the effect of melatonin treatment on the resumption of ovarian activity during out-of-breeding season. Buffaloes of treated group were injected or implanted with melatonin (18 mg melatonin/50 kg body weight). Using CIDR-eCG protocol preceded with melatonin successfully achieved estrus behavior and induced conception rate during out-of-breeding season. Furthermore, the reproductive performance of buffaloes during out-of-breeding season was clearly improved by melatonin implantation in conjunction with CIDR-eCG protocol due to the luteotrophic effect of melatonin expressed as increasing diameter of CL (corpus luteum) and progesterone concentration. This improvement resulted in greater values of conception rate, in melatonin implanted compared to not implanted buffaloes. Melatonin implantation in anestrus buffalo heifers increased the diameter of largest follicles and melatonin concentration but progesterone and luteinizing hormone (LH) concentrations were decreased. In addition, melatonin implantation in anestrus lactating buffaloes increased the SOD (superoxide dismutase) enzyme activity. Sustained release of exogenous melatonin significantly protects against oxidative stress while increasing beneficial total antioxidant capacity (TAC) concentration in summer-stressed anestrus buffaloes. Melatonin implantation in conjunction with CIDR-eCG protocol successfully improved some blood metabolites, in anestrus buffalo heifers during out-of-breeding season under tropical conditions.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Tamer Awad Ramadan",authors:[{id:"197651",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamer",middleName:"Awad",surname:"Ramadan",slug:"tamer-ramadan",fullName:"Tamer Ramadan"}]},{id:"54974",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68651",title:"Markers for Sperm Freezability and Relevance of Transcriptome Studies in Semen Cryopreservation: A Review",slug:"markers-for-sperm-freezability-and-relevance-of-transcriptome-studies-in-semen-cryopreservation-a-re",totalDownloads:1603,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Advances in sperm assessment techniques have offered new perspectives to improve the technology of semen cryopreservation. This review addresses some recent achievements in the proteomics of seminal plasma and spermatozoa and exemplifies its importance as markers for sperm fertility following cryopreservation. Recent advances in transcriptome studies on sperm RNA-Seq data have generated new information aimed to unravel the physiological roles of RNAs in the sperm-egg fertilization processes and their associations with male fertility. The relevance of the sperm freezability markers and the potential associations of RNA-profiling sequences with the sperm biological functions have been discussed.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Leyland Fraser",authors:[{id:"199650",title:"Dr.",name:"Leyland",middleName:null,surname:"Fraser",slug:"leyland-fraser",fullName:"Leyland Fraser"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"79344",title:"Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis and Its Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control",slug:"epidemiology-of-bovine-mastitis-and-its-diagnosis-prevention-and-control",totalDownloads:285,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Mastitis is an inflammation of mammary glands that is prevalent in dairy bovines. It causes a significant proportion of economic losses to the dairy farmers in India. Cattle and buffalo farming contribute significantly to the economy of the state. Various infectious agents such as bacteria, fungi, and algae may cause mastitis. Hence, it is essential to understand the etiological agents and predisposing factors that lead to mastitis in susceptible bovine populations in Madhya Pradesh state so that appropriate prevention and control strategies can be implemented. In this chapter, epidemiology, diagnosis, prevention, and control measures of mastitis in general and in India, the state of Madhya Pradesh, in particular, will be presented.",book:{id:"10589",slug:"mastitis-in-dairy-cattle-sheep-and-goats",title:"Mastitis in Dairy Cattle, Sheep and Goats",fullTitle:"Mastitis in Dairy Cattle, Sheep and Goats"},signatures:"S.D. Audarya, D. Chhabra, R. Sharda, R. Gangil, R. Sikrodia, J. Jogi and N. Shrivastava",authors:[{id:"291434",title:"Dr.",name:"N.",middleName:null,surname:"Shrivastav",slug:"n.-shrivastav",fullName:"N. Shrivastav"},{id:"317236",title:"Dr.",name:"S.D.",middleName:null,surname:"Audarya",slug:"s.d.-audarya",fullName:"S.D. Audarya"},{id:"344698",title:"Dr.",name:"D.",middleName:null,surname:"Chhabra",slug:"d.-chhabra",fullName:"D. Chhabra"},{id:"344699",title:"Dr.",name:"R.",middleName:null,surname:"Sharda",slug:"r.-sharda",fullName:"R. Sharda"},{id:"344700",title:"Dr.",name:"R.",middleName:null,surname:"Gangil",slug:"r.-gangil",fullName:"R. Gangil"},{id:"344702",title:"Dr.",name:"R.",middleName:null,surname:"Sikrodia",slug:"r.-sikrodia",fullName:"R. Sikrodia"},{id:"344703",title:"Dr.",name:"J.",middleName:null,surname:"Jogi",slug:"j.-jogi",fullName:"J. Jogi"}]},{id:"55696",title:"Estrus Cycle Monitoring in Wild Mammals: Challenges and Perspectives",slug:"estrus-cycle-monitoring-in-wild-mammals-challenges-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1870,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The knowledge of reproductive physiology is of paramount importance to guide reproductive management and to make possible future application of assisted reproduction techniques (ARTs) aiming ex situ conservation of wild mammals. Nevertheless, information on the basic reproductive aspects of wild mammals remain scarce, and appropriate management practices have not yet been developed for all the species. This chapter discusses the methods most currently used for reproductive monitoring in wild females. Additionally, the difficulties regarding their use in different species and the possibilities of these procedures in captivity or in free-living mammals are addressed.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Alexandre R. Silva, Nei Moreira, Alexsandra F. Pereira, Gislayne C.X.\nPeixoto, Keilla M. Maia, Lívia B. Campos and Alana A. Borges",authors:[{id:"90066",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Rodrigues",surname:"Silva",slug:"alexandre-silva",fullName:"Alexandre Silva"},{id:"177090",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexsandra Fernandes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"alexsandra-fernandes-pereira",fullName:"Alexsandra Fernandes Pereira"},{id:"177093",title:"MSc.",name:"Gislayne Christianne Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto",slug:"gislayne-christianne-xavier-peixoto",fullName:"Gislayne Christianne Xavier Peixoto"},{id:"198314",title:"Prof.",name:"Nei",middleName:null,surname:"Moreira",slug:"nei-moreira",fullName:"Nei Moreira"},{id:"198315",title:"MSc.",name:"Keilla Moreira",middleName:null,surname:"Maia",slug:"keilla-moreira-maia",fullName:"Keilla Moreira Maia"},{id:"198316",title:"MSc.",name:"Lívia Batista",middleName:null,surname:"Campos",slug:"livia-batista-campos",fullName:"Lívia Batista Campos"},{id:"198317",title:"MSc.",name:"Alana Azevedo",middleName:null,surname:"Borges",slug:"alana-azevedo-borges",fullName:"Alana Azevedo Borges"}]},{id:"76529",title:"Mastitis in Small Ruminants",slug:"mastitis-in-small-ruminants",totalDownloads:203,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Bacterial mastitis in small ruminants is a complex disease, with massive economic loss in dairy sheep/goat industry due to poor productivity. The current mastitis prevention strategy relies on culling of infected ewes or does and or the use of antimicrobial agents to eliminate the bacterial infection. This has a potential risk for developing antibiotic resistant bacteria, posing human health risk from consumption of raw sheep or goat dairy products. Existing experimental and licensed vaccines on the market are ineffective against reducing the risk of mastitis in herds or flocks. Raising the needs for development of improved vaccines against mastitis for use in sheep and goats. This review examines, current understanding of the pathological processes and immunological responses against bacterial mastitis, using S. aureus as an example. By highlighting the protective defense mechanism induced in the udder against S. aureus mastitis. Based on evidence from published studies on pathological process and protective immune response mechanism, the need for improved vaccines for prevention of mastitis in small ruminant is highlighted and the development of a vaccine capable of enhancing immune response mechanism, that reduce the establishment of intramammary infection through induction of local IgA, IgG2 and Th17 immune responses is proposed.",book:{id:"10589",slug:"mastitis-in-dairy-cattle-sheep-and-goats",title:"Mastitis in Dairy Cattle, Sheep and Goats",fullTitle:"Mastitis in Dairy Cattle, Sheep and Goats"},signatures:"Christine T. Mwenge Kahinda",authors:[{id:"335924",title:"Dr.",name:"Christine T.",middleName:"Christine",surname:"Mwenge Kahinda",slug:"christine-t.-mwenge-kahinda",fullName:"Christine T. Mwenge Kahinda"}]},{id:"55491",title:"Mitigation of the Heat Stress Impact in Livestock Reproduction",slug:"mitigation-of-the-heat-stress-impact-in-livestock-reproduction",totalDownloads:4302,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Heat stress affects the fertility and reproductive livestock performance by compromising the physiology reproductive tract, through hormonal imbalance, decreased oocyte quality and poor semen quality, and decreased embryo development and survival. Heat stress decreases the secretion of luteinizing hormone and estradiol resulting in reduced length and intensity of estrus expression, increased incidence of anoestrus and silent heat in farm animals. Oocytes exposed to thermal stress lose its competence for fertilization and development into the blastocyst stage, which results in decreased fertility because of the production of poor quality oocytes and embryos. Furthermore, low progesterone secretion limits the endometrial functions, and subsequently embryo development. In addition, the increased secretion of endometrial prostaglandin F2 alpha during heat stress threatens the maintenance of pregnancy. In general, the percentage of conception rate was found to be reduced by 4.6% for each unit increase in temperature humidity index (THI) above 70, and heat stress during pregnancy further slows down the growth of the foetus and results in lower birth weight. In tropical and subtropical regions, during hot days, the testicular temperature may increase and impair both the spermatogenic cycle and semen quality, which culminates in decreased bull fertility. The effects of heat stress on livestock can be minimized via adapting suitable scientific strategies comprising physical modifications of the environment, nutritional management and genetic development of breeds that are less sensitive to heat stress. In addition, the summer infertility may be countered through advanced reproductive technologies involving hormonal treatments, timed artificial insemination and embryo transfer, which may enhance the chances for establishing pregnancy in farm animals.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Govindan Krishnan, Madiajagan Bagath, Prathap Pragna,\nMallenahally Kusha Vidya, Joy Aleena, Payyanakkal Ravindranathan\nArchana, Veerasamy Sejian and Raghavendra Bhatta",authors:[{id:"89780",title:"Dr.",name:"Veerasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Sejian",slug:"veerasamy-sejian",fullName:"Veerasamy Sejian"},{id:"177210",title:"Dr.",name:"Raghavendra",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatta",slug:"raghavendra-bhatta",fullName:"Raghavendra Bhatta"},{id:"177220",title:"Dr.",name:"M",middleName:null,surname:"Bagath",slug:"m-bagath",fullName:"M Bagath"},{id:"201967",title:"Dr.",name:"Govindan",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnan",slug:"govindan-krishnan",fullName:"Govindan Krishnan"},{id:"201968",title:"Ms.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Pr",slug:"archana-pr",fullName:"Archana Pr"},{id:"201969",title:"Ms.",name:"Pragna",middleName:null,surname:"Prathap",slug:"pragna-prathap",fullName:"Pragna Prathap"},{id:"201970",title:"Ms.",name:"Aleena",middleName:null,surname:"Joy",slug:"aleena-joy",fullName:"Aleena Joy"},{id:"201971",title:"Dr.",name:"Vidya",middleName:null,surname:"Mk",slug:"vidya-mk",fullName:"Vidya Mk"}]},{id:"79839",title:"Antimicrobial Usage for the Management of Mastitis in the USA: Impacts on Antimicrobial Resistance and Potential Alternative Approaches",slug:"antimicrobial-usage-for-the-management-of-mastitis-in-the-usa-impacts-on-antimicrobial-resistance-an",totalDownloads:164,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Mastitis is the most frequently diagnosed disease of dairy cattle responsible for the reduction in milk quantity and quality and major economic losses. Dairy farmers use antibiotics for the prevention and treatment of mastitis. Frequent antimicrobial usage (AMU) undeniably increased antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in bacteria from dairy farms. Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (ARB) from dairy farms can spread to humans directly through contact with carrier animals or indirectly through the consumption of raw milk or undercooked meat from culled dairy cows. Indirect spread from dairy farms to humans can also be through dairy manure fertilized vegetables or run-off waters from dairy farms to the environment. The most frequently used antibiotics in dairy farms are medically important and high-priority classes of antibiotics. As a result, dairy farms are considered one of the potential reservoirs of ARB and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs). To mitigate the rise of ARB in dairy farms, reducing AMU by adopting one or more of alternative disease control methods such as good herd health management, selective dry-cow therapy, probiotics, and others is critically important. This chapter is a concise review of the effects of antimicrobials usage to control mastitis in dairy cattle farms and its potential impact on human health.",book:{id:"10589",slug:"mastitis-in-dairy-cattle-sheep-and-goats",title:"Mastitis in Dairy Cattle, Sheep and Goats",fullTitle:"Mastitis in Dairy Cattle, Sheep and Goats"},signatures:"Benti D. Gelalcha, Getahun E. Agga and Oudessa Kerro Dego",authors:[{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego"},{id:"332974",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Benti D.",middleName:"Deresa",surname:"Gelalcha",slug:"benti-d.-gelalcha",fullName:"Benti D. Gelalcha"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"302",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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