Blade geometry.
\r\n\tThe protection of biodiversity is a major target of the European Union Marine Strategy Framework Directive, requiring an assessment of the status of biodiversity on the level of species, habitats, and ecosystems including genetic diversity and the role of biodiversity in food web structure and functioning. The restoration of marine ecosystems can support the productivity and reliability of goods and services that the ocean provides to humankind, to maintain ecosystem integrity and stability. Some of the goods produced by the marine ecosystem services are fish harvests, wild plant and animal resources, water, some of the services provided recreation, tourism, breeding and nursery habitats, water transport, carbon sequestration, erosion control, and habitat provision.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-460-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-459-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-544-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"727e7eb3d4ba529ec5eb4f150e078523",bookSignature:"Dr. Ana M.M. Marta Gonçalves",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10845.jpg",keywords:"Non-indigenous Species, Dynamics, Ecosystem Maturation, Ecological Succession, Water Quality, Recovery, Biodiversity, Environmental Status, Ecosystem Services, Goods Production, Carbohydrates, Carrageenan",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 14th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 21st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 9th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 8th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ana Marta Gonçalves (h-index 19) holds a Ph.D. in Biology, from the University of Coimbra, Portugal, in collaboration with Ghent University, in 2011. During her research career obtained several grants is highly international competitive calls, including the MARS award for young scientists funded by The Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ) and the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) grants.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"320124",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana M.M.",middleName:"Marta",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-m.m.-goncalves",fullName:"Ana M.M. Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320124/images/system/320124.jpg",biography:"Ana Marta Gonçalves obtained a Ph.D. in Biology with a specialization in Ecology from the University of Coimbra, Portugal, in collaboration with Ghent University, Belgium, in 2011. Currently, she is an auxiliary researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal, where she is also a member of the Directive Board. 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The syndrome was first described in 1983 by Professor G. Hughes, at Hammersmith Hospital (Hughes Syndrome) [1, 2]. APS is a prothrombotic condition (with related complications such as deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, etc.), belonging to autoimmune diseases of unknown cause, and is strongly associated with pregnancy [1, 2, 3]. Generally, autoimmune diseases namely Sjorgen’s syndrome, Spondylanthritis, rheumatoid arthtritis RA have an incidence of 5–8% in the general population organoid or systemic, and represent the 2nd cause of hospitalization in Internal Medicine Departments and the 3rd cause of morbidity/mortality [1, 2, 3, 4]. APS occurs as primary in the absence of findings of other autoimmune diseases or as secondary in 36% of cases in the context of another autoimmune disease (SEL, Sjogren’s disease, inflammatory bowel disease, etc.), while it is present in about 5% of patients with subclinical SEL or coexists with another underlying systemic autoimmune disease in 6% of cases [5, 6].
The incidence of the syndrome is increased with age. During pregnancy, aPLs detection ranges from 0 to 11%, with an average incidence of about 2%. On the contrary, the syndrome is detected in up to 37% of the patients with systemic erythematosus lupus (SEL). In the nonpregnancy setting, venous thromboses are more common than arterial ones and can be diagnosed by imaging techniques and/or histologic evidence [5, 6, 7].
According to literature APS is the cause for 1 out of 5 Deep Vein Thrombosis (‘DVTs’), 1 out of 5 cases of SLE (arterial stroke) in young patients (age <45 years) and 1 out of 5 miscarriages. Especially for Obstetrics Hughes Syndrome is currently recognized as the leading cause for the miscarriages [5, 6, 7]. In addition, APS is diagnosed as the underlying diagnosis in a still unknown percentage of cases previously misdiagnosed as migraine, Alzheimer’s disease, and Multiple MS. It is estimated that the true incidence of the syndrome can be up to 1–2% or more in the general population [5, 6, 7]. Correlations-Percentages The mean age of APS onset is >30 years, with a female to male ratio of 5:1 and relapses usually take place at the same or similar area of the body. There is no apparent racial preference, but an increased incidence of SEL is reported in African Americans and Spaniards. Patients with SEL have positive aPLs in a percentage of 15–35%, but only about 50% of these patients will develop APS symptoms [5, 6, 7].
Special categories of APS are described usually correlated to the target-organ or the severity of the manifestations. The following are included: Generalized APS, Arterial APS, APS and heart, APS and kidneys, Cerebral APS, Pediatric APS, Neonatal APS, Catastrophic CAPS and Obstetric APS [5, 6, 7].
The 0.8% of the cases is characterized as Catastrophic Antiphospholipid Syndrome (CAPS). It is a very rare and severe form of APS. There are diffuse clots in the small vessels throughout the body. Sometimes it can appear as the first manifestation of APS and even without clinical or serological confirmation of SEL. Early diagnosis is necessary and immediate start of an aggressive treatment is inevitable [5, 7, 8, 9]. CAPS is caused when at least 3 different systems are affected at intervals of days or weeks, with multiple thrombosis in large and small vessels. The organs that are usually affected are: a) kidneys, b) lungs, c) heart, d) small-large vessels with consequences as peripheral limb ischemia, stroke, myocardial infarction, thrombosis of blood vessels of abdominal organs with a mortality rate of 50% [5, 7, 8, 9]. The observed thrombocytopenia is usually mild between 100-150x109/L but severe thrombocytopenia can be also observed. The prevalence of the syndrome in the general population ranges between 2% and 4% meaning 40–50 patients in 100,000 based on the criteria (mean age of diagnosis 34 years) and 7: 1 in the SEL/APS combination [5, 7, 8, 9].
Anticoagulant therapy + corticosteroids.
Anticoagulant therapy + corticosteroids + plasmapheresis.
Anticoagulant therapy + corticosteroids + IV γ-globin.
Anticoagulant therapy + corticosteroids + plasmapheresis + IV γ-globulin.
Diffuse intravascular coagulation is not usually seen in primary or secondary APS but it occurs in about 25% of patients with catastrophic APS. It is estimated that more than 53% of cases are related to the primary syndrome. It is estimated that approximately 10% of patients with primary APS will be diagnosed with another autoimmune, disorder, such as SEL, at some point in their lives which is estimated to coexist in up to 37% of patients with APS. Patients with primary APS and a female/male ratio incidence of 3.5: 1 should not be classified as SEL patients, as they are two different disease entities [5, 7, 8, 9]. Also, aPLs found in a variety of rheumatic and autoimmune diseases should not be confused with APS. The latter includes autoimmune hemolytic anemia, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, rheumatoid arthritis and cutaneous manifestations such as edema. Also, the same antiphospholipid antibodies are detected either temporarily or permanently after various infections, such as hepatitis A, hepatitis B, acquired immune deficiency (AIDS), mumps, toxoplasmosis, erythema etc. The use of certain medicines, such as hydralazine, procainamide, and amoxicillin, phenothiazines may cause a serious differential diagnosis with APS, which requires immediate diagnostic and therapeutic treatment to reduce the increased maternal risk, and in particular perinatal morbidity and mortality due to placental infarction [5, 7, 8, 9].
Dysfunction of the vascular epithelium as well as oxidative damage and modifications of phospholipid-bound proteins that interfere with the regulation of coagulation are possible. It occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks some of the normal proteins in the blood. The mechanism by which aPLs causes thrombosis is not fully understood. APLs consist of a heterogeneous group of autoantibodies that react primarily with plasma proteins associated with negatively charged phospholipids (epitope formation). Moreover, also react directly with both phospholipid-binding proteins and phospholipids [10, 11, 12].
However, aPLs have been shown to target not only cell membrane phospholipids, but also plasma proteins. Initially aPLs are directed directly against negative cell membrane phospholipids and autoantibodies are directed against plasma proteins with high affinity for these anionic phospholipids [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. Phospholipids are like building blocks of cell membranes and the appearance of aPLs is due to the “projection” of their anions to the extracellular space [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. This phenomenon is usually happening due to various causes, such as trauma, ischemia, inflammation, infections, or drug interactions. They were first observed in 1906 in 1–5% of the normal population.
The prevailing theory is that APS initially causes a disorder in cell apoptosis procedure resulting in the exposure of cell membrane phospholipids and their subsequent binding to various plasma proteins, such as β2-glycoprotein I. This binding leads, through activation, to generation of intracellular mediators (such as nuclear factor kappa B and mammalian target of rapamycin), and the formation of a phospholipid-protein complex resulting in the discovery of a new epitope, which then becomes target of autoantibodies [10, 11, 12, 13, 14].
Recent studies suggest that oxidized β2-glycoprotein I is capable of binding to and subsequently activating dendritic cells in a similar pathway to the one induced by activation via the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4), resulting in its induction and the production of autoantibodies.
A total of 4 types of aPLs have been isolated [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
Antibodies that give a false positive serological test for syphilis.
Lupus anticoagulants, which are antibodies to plasma proteins that bind to anionic phospholipids and cause prolonged results in laboratory methods of coagulation control, such as activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), kaolin clotting time (Kaoline Clotting)-KCT) and dilute Russell Viper Venom Time (dRVVT). These proteins are prothrombin or annexin V [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
Antibodies to cardiolipin and phosphatidylserine. These antibodies may be IgA, IgG or IgM and may cross-react with lupus anticoagulants.
Antibodies to β2-glycoprotein-I, which are detected in a significant percentage of patients with primary or secondary antiphospholipid syndrome, while in 11% of patients it is the only laboratory finding [14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. This association results in either the discovery of “hidden” antigenic epitopes or the creation of new or simply increasing the concentration of weak antigenic sites in such quantities as to elicit an immune response.
Types of anti-b2 GPI antibodies [14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. There are several types of anti-β2 glycoprotein I antibodies, but not all of them are harmful. Those that target specific β-2 glycoprotein epitopes, such as the epitope in the N-terminal I domain of the molecule, are associated with the onset of clinical manifestations of the syndrome [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
Patients with triple positivity in aPLs: have higher anti-β2GPI – domain I antibody titles, compared to patients with single or double positivity. Almost all anti-β2GPI – domain I IgG antibodies tested positive after 12 weeks, in contrast to innocent transient aPLs, which appear to be immune to infections. Although anti-β2GPI-Domain 1 (β2GPI-D1) IgG antibodies have been associated with thrombosis and pregnancy morbidity in APS patients, these antibodies are found in only one third of the patients [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
Annexin A2 and Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 are receptors for the entire β2GPI molecule. However, the absence of both of these receptors does not lead to the complete inhibition of the binding of the anti-β2GPI antibody, a finding that supports the view that there are additional surface adhesion molecules that play a role. TLR1, TLR2 and TLR6 are potential cell receptors [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
Β2GPI binds to LPS via domain V. Presence of a large amount of LPS probably increases the vascular distribution of APLs, by increasing the expression of TLR2 and especially TLR4. Because the main source of LPS in healthy people is the gut, it is possible that the presence of gut microbes in the gut increases them. Administration of intestinal flora-specific antimicrobial therapy to experimental animals showed a reduction in the thrombotic manifestations of APS [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
Immediate evidence: In experimental models with C6-deficient rats and C5-depleted mice, it was shown that the addition of monoclonal anti-domain I MBB2 did not induce thrombosis or miscarriage. C4d and C3b sections have also been found in deposits on the placenta of women with APS [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
Indirect evidence: In-vivo studies of the efficacy of drugs with C5 action. The non-complement-fixing anti-domain I monoclonal MBB2 [DELTA] Ch2 and the complement inhibitor C5-inhibitor rEV576 prevented the thrombotic complications of APS in vivo in experimental animals.
APLs activate endothelial cells resulting in the expression of adhesion molecules (such as intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 ICAM-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 VCAM-1, E-selectin), and ultimately the overproduction of tissue factor TF.
APLs activate monocytes and cause increased tissue factor expression.
APLs activate platelets resulting in increased glycoprotein 2b-3a expression and thromboxane A2 synthesis. It has also recently been shown that aPLs induce the release of NETs from endothelial cells and these in turn further activate platelets. Their presence is enhanced by other conditions such as neoplasms, myelodysplastic syndromes, paraproteinemias, etc. [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
These proteins (aPLs) normally bind to the phospholipid components of membranes and protect against activation of coagulation mechanisms. Autoantibodies displace these “protective” proteins and promote the formation of clots in the cells of the vascular endothelium resulting in arterial and venous thrombosis. In particular, aPLs antibodies include antibodies to Lupus Anticoagulant (LA), antibodies to cardiolipin (aCL), antibodies to β2GPI (αβ2GPI) and antibodies to other phospholipid-binding proteins and other phospholipids. LA, aCL and αβ2GPI antibodies are important in the diagnosis of antiphospholipid syndrome [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
They occur in people with a genetic predisposition after accidental exposure to infectious agents or in a rheumatic disease environment such as SEL. It is the “second hit” theory required for the full development of the syndrome. Of course, not all people with antiphospholipid antibodies have thrombosis or obstetric complications.
Τhe “two-hit theory” has been proposed, i.e. that in the manifestation of the disease only the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies is not sufficient but a second thrombotic risk factor must coexist (e.g. age, hypertension, infection, inflammation, diabetes mellitus, obesity, smoking, pregnancy and obstetrics, surgery, etc.) [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
Regarding the pathophysiology of obstetric complications, trophoblast and perishable blood vessel thrombosis is at the heart of this process. Various mechanisms have been proposed that lead to this result:
aPLs bind to Αnnexin V molecules and reduce the active levels of the protein in the blood. Annexin V is a protein that covers the negatively charged phospholipids of the cell membrane when exposed to the extracellular space, thus making it impossible to activate the thrombosis mechanism, which would occur under other conditions. The reduction of the levels of this protein activates the thrombosis of the small vessels of the trophoblastic villi and consequently the abnormal penetration of the trophoblast into the myometrium.
aPLs may reduce the levels of endogenous anticoagulant proteins C and S.
aPLs can bind to and activate endothelial cells. This results in the production of cellular inflammatory agents (VCAM-1, ICAMP1, E-selectin), which eventually attract monocytes to the area, which contribute to the production of clots and the apoptosis of endothelial cells.
Binding of aPLs to the cell membrane β2-glycoprotein-1 complex and phospholipids reduces the efficacy of this complex, as an anticoagulant.
Binding of aPLs to platelet cell membrane components, such as phosphatidylserine, results in their injury, which promotes their adhesion and activation of the prothrombotic chain. Finally, the activation of the complement seems to play an important role in the pathophysiological chain of events, which may be necessary in those processes that lead to fetal death or intrauterine growth retardation [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
“APL profile” includes: the type of autoantibodies and the presence of 2–3 types of autoantibodies. The title of aPLs is mid-high instead of low and their persistent positivity is certified by multiple tests. APS is characterized by the following lab test results [19, 20, 21, 22].
Persistent presence of antiphospholipid antibodies (at least 2 positive results during a period of >12 weeks) including lupus anticoagulant, anticardiolipin antibodies and b2-glycoprotein 1α antibodies [19, 20, 21, 22].
Risk factors: pregnancy, labour, contraceptives, malignancy, infection (E-coli, Shigella, Salmonella, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus etc), injury, surgical procedures, operations, fractures, drugs, no compliance to the anticoagulant therapy and many other factors [19, 20, 21, 22].
Usually there is severe thrombocytopenia, positive direct Coombs, microangiopathic hemolytic anemia, DIC findings in some patients and the presence of a heterogeneous group of antiphospholipid antibodies.
Laboratory confirmation is done with clotting assays for the detection of lupus anticoagulant and with solid phase assays-Elisa for the detection of anti-cardiolipin and anti-β2 glycoprotein antibodies [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24].
The positive ACA IgG, Wolf Anticoagulant, ANA, ds-DNA, ENA (Ro, La) etc. are a heterogeneous group of IgG/IgM antibodies directed against plasma proteins involved in coagulation cataract activation. They are attached to PLs of the outer membrane of cells. While these antibodies cause thrombosis in vivo, in vitro prolong phospholipid-dependent coagulation tests. Detection of lupus anticoagulant (coagulation tests – 3-step procedure) prolongs the phospholipid-dependent coagulation time. Lupus anticoagulant is considered positive when it is detected in at least one of the two methods with the following diagnostic criteria – steps:
Screening procedure when prolongation is observed in at least one of the phospholipid-dependent coagulation methods
Activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT),
Russel snake venom dilution time (dRVVT)
Mixing patient plasma 50:50 with normal plasma fails to correct prolonged screening test time
Confirmation of the presence of coagulation inhibitor and not the absence of coagulation factor mixing test: Proof that the prolongation is due to the presence of coagulation inhibitor.
The addition of extra phospholipids corrects the prolonged clotting time. Confirmation test: Evidence that this inhibitor is directed against phospholipids [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24].
Presence of antibodies against cardiolipin (aCL) – IgG moderately to strongly positive (>15–20GPL) – IgM(> 15 – 20MPL) moderate to strongly positive, but with the simultaneous presence of LA [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24].
They are directed against epitopes resulting from modulatory changes in the β2GPI (domains-V) molecule after binding to cardiolipin. They are directed directly against cardiolipin (CL). They are associated with infections, syphilis, in healthy individuals and are not related to APS [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24].
Antibodies against β2GPI (anti-β2GPI), β2-glycoproteinI (β2 GPI) natural anticoagulant plasma protein associated with negatively charged molecules: phospholipids, heparin, lipoproteins (oxLDL), activated PLTs/Ecs, apoptotic cell membranes.
They turn directly against β2-GPI and are a heterogeneous population that recognizes epitopes in different regions (I-V) of the protein.
Antigen: purified human β2GPI with tight adhesion to plates for low avidity binding of antibodies and detection of domain I in situ.
Anti-LA/β2GPIs are positively associated with a particularly increased risk of thromboembolic complications and detection with new methods offers new opportunities for risk assessment [19, 20, 21, 22].
ELISA: αCL/β2GPI detects various antibody specificity es with relatively low clinical utility – their exclusion from the criteria has been widely discussed, they are still a diagnostic criterion but current screening guidelines should be followed faithfully [19, 20, 21, 22].
aβ2GPI antibodies: correlate very well with the clinical manifestations of APS – They are positive in patients with thrombosis who have negative LA and aCLs.
If aPL title > 40 GPL or IU at least 2 times in 12 week interval then APS is diagnosed. The most important are Abs against β2GPI and against prothrombin which show LA activity. Lupus anticoagulant is part of the APS antibody spectrum, reacting in the liquid phase. In contrast, other aPLs such as anti-CL and anti-β2-glycoprotein (β2-GPI-1) antibodies are detected by solid-phase immunoassay. For the APS diagnosis it is necessary to use both solid phase methods and coagulation tests for LA [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24].
Prothrombin antibodies: They have good association with LA, use in seronegative APS.
Antibodies to Annexin V, II Associated with thrombosis in APS.
Proteins against protein C and S: Lower sensitivity and specificity than aCLs/IgG.
Antibodies against vimentin (anti-Vim/CL: Positive (55%) in seronegative SN-APS, their use needs documentation.
The diagnosis of the syndrome should be avoided when a period of <12 weeks or > 5 years separates the clinical from the laboratory characteristics (regardless of the most presented first) [24, 25, 26].
IgA anticardiolipin antibodies
anti-β2 glycoprotein I IgA antibodies
antiphosphatidylserine antibodies
anti-phosphatidylethanolamine antibodies
anti-prothrombin antibodies
antibodies against the phosphatidylserine-prothrombin complex
APLs are a very heterogeneous family of antibodies and more than 30 different antibodies have been reported in patients with APS called ‘antibody burst’. Their positivity does not offer much in the absence of clinical findings although confirmation is necessary for the duration of the symptoms. Ultimately the history and clinical picture determine the treatment [24, 25, 26, 27, 28].
Presence of positive lupus anticoagulant (LA) in plasma, in at least two tests with an interval of at least 12 weeks between them offers reliable criteria for diagnosis.
Moderate presence of high title of anticardiolipin antibodies (aCL) IgG or IgM in serum or plasma (eg> 40 IgG phospholipid units-GPL/mL or IgM phospholipid units-MPL/mL or> 99th percentile) in at least two intervals between them for at least 12 weeks.
Moderate presence of high titer anti-beta-2 glycoprotein I IgG or IgM antibodies in plasma or serum (> 99th percentile) in at least two tests with an interval of at least 12 weeks [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26].
Extension Activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT)
Falsely positive test for syphilis
Low levels of total protein S
Hemolytic anemia. It occurs quite frequently and is particularly associated with the presence of anticardiolipin IgM antibodies
Thrombopenia. It is quite common in patients with APS (22% at diagnosis, 30% overall) and is associated with paradoxical thrombosis even with low platelet counts. It is of course possible that when their number is <50,000/μL there is a coexistence risk of bleeding, making the treatment of these patients particularly difficult and urgent.
Positive antinuclear antibodies are often found at low titers, without necessarily being associated with the presence of SLE [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26].
Coagulation methods for detecting anticoagulant lupus are affected by oral anticoagulant therapy (coumarin, newer anticoagulants), but also by therapeutic doses of standard heparin. For this reason, testing should be done before starting or after cessation of these drugs. In contrast, administration of low molecular weight heparin in prophylactic doses of aspirin or clopidogrel does not appear to significantly affect the detection of anticoagulant lupus.
APS is diagnosed in up to 40% of women with a history of miscarriage, intrauterine fetal death (> 18th week of gestation) or placental vascular disease, ie preeclampsia, intrauterine fetal growth retardation, placental abruption. However, in a percentage of 50–60% the causes remain unclear [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
recurrent vascular thrombosis (venous and/or arterial, and/or capillary), and/or with
obstetric vascular complications:
abortions <10th week of pregnancy
delayed miscarriages
endometrial death
preeclampsia and/or eclampsia, or HELLP syndrome
intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]
The findings of some studies raise the suspicion of a subtype triggered by gestational APS, with a transient increase in antiphospholipid antibodies only during pregnancy.
The morbidity of pregnancy is certified by the following parameters:
≥1 unexplained fetal death > 10th week (morphologically healthy fetus)
≥1 preterm birth <34th week (preeclampsia or severe placental insufficiency)
≥3 consecutive miscarriages <10th week after exclusion of other pathologies such as anatomical, hormonal, chromosomal abnormalities, history of thromboembolic episodes
at least 1 unexplained fetal death in the 2nd or 3rd quarter (> 10 W)
at least 1 birth at gestational age <34 W, due to preeclampsia or placental insufficiency
According to the International Consensus Criteria of 2006, any of these antibodies, if tested positive in at least two laboratory tests at least 12 weeks apart, in combination with a clinical thrombosis or obstetric complication, leads to the diagnosis of APS.
There must be at least one laboratory and one clinical criterion for the diagnosis of primary APS. Antiphospholipid antibodies are detected by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in which the phospholipid cardiolipin is used as the antigen. It is actually a complex of cardiolipin with a serum protein called β2-glycoprotein I (β2-GPI). The above protein plays an inhibitory role in blood clotting, and when the complex binds to antiphospholipid antibodies, its effectiveness as an anticoagulant decreases [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42].
Laboratory findings usually show high titers of IgG or IgM antibodies against cardiolipin or lupus anticoagulant, which must be detected in the same patient in two different samples taken at least 6 weeks apart. The above mechanism is due to the frequent recurrent thrombi that affect both the large and small vessels of the arterial or venous limb. In addition, mild cytopenia occurs quite often, which usually subsides with the end of pregnancy.
Arterial or venous thrombosis.
Presence of anticardiolipin antibodies, IgG, IgM, Anti-beta2-GPI and Lupus anticoagulant [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42].
Adverse outcomes of pregnancy.
APS can be diagnosed, if one or more of the clinical criteria and one or more of the laboratory criteria are met.
Although a causal association between obstetric complications and antibody detection is difficult to identified, however the lupus anticoagulant is the major predictor of labor adverse events including both mother and fetus. Although spontaneous abortions before the 10th week are relatively common in the general population, it seems that this risk is higher in patients with the syndrome. Fetal demise due to insufficient blood flow is most probably caused by placental insufficiency triggered by placental infarctions [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42].
This placental insufficiency is likely to be associated with delayed intrauterine fetal development, severe preeclampsia, premature rupture of the membranes, premature placental abruption, and preterm fetal death (preterm and preterm death) in the 20th week of pregnancy, which usually has the worst outcome, as well as the increased risk of premature ejaculation [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42].
Regarding the relationship of aPLs with preeclampsia, their detection seems valuable only in cases of severe preeclampsia before the 34th week of pregnancy. For cases of severe intrauterine fetal growth retardation, there are studies that report its relationship to the presence of antibodies, while other studies do not seem to reach this conclusion.
The risk of miscarriage in women with antiphospholipid antibodies is higher from the 10th week of pregnancy onwards. But also in women with a history of six miscarriages before the 10th week of pregnancy, antiphospholipid antibodies are detected in rates of 10 to 20% without the presence of other clinical manifestations [42, 43, 44].
Pregnancy complications in women with APS are due to decreased placental perfusion based on local thrombosis, which is probably caused by the interaction of aPL with annexin V of the trophoblast resulting in inhibition of its anticoagulant activity. Other manifestations of aPL include thrombocytopenia (40–50%), hemolytic anemia (14–23%), renal disease that has only recently been recognized as a consequence of APS, and Liveto redicularis [42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48]. Female patients with APS and kidney disease from antiphospholipid antibodies typically have high blood pressure, which is an additional serious risk to their pregnancy and can lead to the complications mentioned above [42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48].
Spontaneous venous thrombosis at age <45 years (deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism)
Arterial thrombosis in a person <45 years of age (myocardial infarction), without risk factors
Recurrent pregnancy loss
Thrombosis and vascular diseases associated with SLE
Recurrent thrombocytopenia of unknown etiology
Neurological manifestations
Acquired heart valve disease
Liveto redicularis
Patients with a false positive RPR test
Prolongation of any coagulation test [42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54].
Finally, for the presence of antiphospholipid syndrome, women of reproductive age who have any of the following characteristics should be screened (other than those mentioned above): False positive test for syphilis, stroke and venous thrombosis without other predisposing prolongation of aPTT, SLE and autoimmune hemolytic anemia [48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58].
Of course, from the medical history of the pregnant woman should always be sought the episodes of venous thrombosis that are usually observed in the veins of the lower extremities, which are not necessarily accompanied by episodes of pulmonary embolism, but also in rarer localizations, such as the sphenoid sinuses of the skull and the small visceral vessels. Autoantibodies and microthrombotic mechanisms could affect the normal implantation, the trophoblasts’ expansion and the development of effective fetoplacental circulation leading to abortions of the first trimester [48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58].
At older gestational ages endometrial death is attributed to massive placental thrombosis while the mechanisms associated with other complications (preeclampsia) are unknown. In terms of laboratory findings, moderate to high IgG or IgM antibodies to cardiolipin (20–50 GPL, 20–80 MPL respectively) or lupus anticoagulant should be detected [48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58].
Patients who present with clinical manifestations of APS could be permanently negative for the three main autoantibodies. Women with positive aPLs are more likely to have thromboembolic events, miscarriage or fetal death, intrauterine growth retardation, severe preeclampsia, and placental abruption. However, the presence of these antibodies cannot exclude the possibility of a successful pregnancy and/or estimate the risk of potential complications. The existence of a burdensome obstetric or pathological history seems to play a more important role, since the reporting of thrombotic episodes, SLE or fetal death is associated with a 40% chance of premature birth and a greater than 30% chance of intrauterine growth retardation. From the beginning of pregnancy until the 20th week, visits should be made every 15 days and then every week until delivery [52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60].
Ultrasound examination of fetal development, but also the evaluation of the amount of amniotic fluid, should begin in the 16th week and be repeated every month unless there is a pathological finding. There is evidence that bilateral presence of notches in the uterine arteries, on Doppler screening at 24 weeks, can detect with satisfactory sensitivity those patients who develop preeclampsia and IUGR if they have a positive lupus anticoagulant. The umbilical artery test with Doppler from the 26th week until childbirth offers great help, while for the same period of time a weekly cardiotocographic test (non-stress test) should be performed, as well as an ultrasound control of the amount of amniotic fluid. The most commonly used regimen involves the administration of aspirin (80 mg daily) and heparin, either crystalline or low molecular weight, in prophylactic doses [60, 61, 62, 63, 64].
The patient’s health condition before pregnancy will determine the resumption of therapy after childbirth. Thus, two to three days after delivery, women taking coumarin derivatives before pregnancy (due to a history of a thromboembolic event) should discontinue heparin (after an INR of 2–2.5) and resume taking these drugs. To decrease the possibility of a new thromboembolic event, women with a thrombotic history during the late pregnancy should be treated with prophylactic doses of heparin or coumarin derivatives for 6 weeks postpartum. For women without a thrombotic history, the anticoagulant therapy could be continued for the first five postpartum days at most. Compared to conventional heparin, less complications were related to low molecular weight heparins. Regarding the duration of the treatment, some recommend the prophylactic administration until the completion of the 37th week, then proposing induction of labor and others the administration until the automatic onset of labor with the simultaneous administration of vitamin K antagonists.
Hyperimmune γ-globin is no longer recommended because there is no clear evidence of improved perinatal outcome. Coumarin is not administered particularly in the 1st and 3rd trimesters as potential teratogens and due to easy passage through the placenta coagulation disorders in the fetus and because they are associated with greater maternal morbidity. Their administration is indicated only in rare cases of contraindication to heparin or aspirin [60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68].
Complications of anticoagulant therapy in pregnancy include embryopathy (nasal hypoplasia, spotted epiphyses), CNS abnormalities (Dandy-Walker syndrome, visual atrophy), fetal bleeding, hemorrhagic manifestations, skin allergies, thrombocytopenia and osteoporosis [60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72].
The basic principles of APS treatment include the systematic monitoring of the pregnant woman, the continuous assessment of the condition of the fetus, the administration of medication and the selection of the most appropriate time and manner of delivery. Despite the lack of large cross investigations, the usual therapeutic directions includes the corticosteroids, the aspirin, heparin, hyperimmune gamma globulin and coumarins.
Treatment should be applied only when the risk of complications is considered to be higher and after a thorough discussion with the pregnant woman. The prognostic factors of poor outcome are the title of anticardiolipin antibodies and the obstetric history [60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72].
Aspirin significantly reduces the risk of thrombosis by blocking platelet aggregation. It is considered safe during pregnancy. Until now, there are no final conclusions regarding the efficacy of the above therapy as monotherapy. Hydroxychloroquine inhibits aPL-B2GPI complexes on phospholipid surfaces, annexin A5, TF tissue factor, TLPs
The choice of time and method of delivery depends mainly on the presence or absence of complications of the disease during pregnancy. In any case of intrauterine suffocation of the fetus, induction of labor is required with all the possible harmful consequences of prematurity. In asymptomatic forms of the disease and when there are no signs of fetal difficulty, childbirth is preferred as much as possible at the end of pregnancy.
Worldwide, the route of delivery has been the subject of intense controversy and it is not clear if vaginal delivery or cesarean (c-)section is safer for the mother. Thus, prelabour c-section or vaginal delivery should be guided by obstetric criteria [60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72].
APS (primary or secondary) is a chronic systemic autoimmune disorder that mainly affects young women of childbearing age. APL can impair trophoblast function and can cause implantation failure by not allowing fusion of the cytotrophoblast and can also developing small thrombophilia increase abortion rate. Natural killer cells attach to the cytotrophoblast of the embryo. However, the mechanisms by which such cells may or may not affect the embryo is not proven. Moreover, after the implantation, there is a slight inflammatory response. Patient with recurrent miscarriages and infertility develop less prominent reaction that may prevent the fetus from implantation [72, 73, 74].
The effect of the syndrome on pregnancy is accompanied by a multitude of serious complications that significantly increase the rates of maternal and especially perinatal morbidity and mortality.
There is an urgent need to create a new laboratory method, which will detect with great sensitivity and specificity all antiphospholipid antibodies and for this purpose large multicenter studies are already being done, the results of which are awaited.
I would like to warmly thank Ms. Dr. Lefkou Eleftheria and Associate Professor Panagiotis Skendros, who with their vast experience and valuable help and guidance on resolving various problems related to antiphospholipidemic syndrome contributed significantly to complete the background of the chapter.
Wind is an abundant resource available in the earth’s atmosphere, and the need for renewable energy is demanding due to climate change and the energy crisis. Wind energy is low carbon footage leads to importance in research increasing the efficiency and use of the wind resource even in low wind speed. In the case of renewable and carbon-free emission energy production; firstly, solar power gains less attraction due to the less efficient and cannot produce energy on a night or cloudy days. Secondly, hydropower depends on rainfall; has a high impact on river ecosystems and forest environments. Additionally, tidal power and geothermal energy are far away from mass energy production. At last, carbon-free energy production can be achieved in nuclear energy but gain a vast life risk during a disaster and handling nuclear waste is a big challenge. Therefore, wind energy gains significance in the technological and political community in fighting climate change without compromising the modern depend and national economy.
In Denmark, 28% of wind energy is generated at total consumption in 2018 [1], and wind energy capacity almost doubled in 2020, where China had a major part of 72 GW [2]. The wind farm located in China (Gansu Wind Farm) with a capacity of 7965 MW is the world’s largest and the second-largest is located in India (Muppandal Wind Farm) with a capacity of 1500 MW [3]. Wind energy production is increasing globally by installing wind turbines in large offshore farms located in agricultural lands, valleys and hills. In addition, onshore wind turbines on the sea bed and new initiatives for installing wind turbines in urban areas (University Campus or highway street lights) [4].
The power extraction from the wind is by converting the wind energy into useful mechanical energy by rotating the turbine or through vibration. The latest research trends in wind energy are in the construction of horizontal wind turbines (liftbased rotation), vertical wind turbines (drag-based rotation) and bladeless wind turbines (aero-elastic-based vibration). The other significant research focused on the pattern of sitting wind to gain more aerodynamic efficiency to get more power output in farm and urban areas, the aerofoil and flow control mechanism in the blade increase the power output efficiency and decrease the cutoff wind velocity. The major challenges in wind energy are turbine transportation and installation, especially in the hilly area, bird’s attack in turbines, the need for extensive land acquisition and recycling of retired wind turbines.
The wind played an important role in ancient civilization in developing sailing boats, kites, agriculture, and metrology. In the ancient period, there are a lot of myths about wind being raised and a hole in the sky which blew it from the sky to earth. In Greek mythology, the God of the Sea, Aeolus, is a guardian of the wind. Feng Po (Wind God) had a sack with an opening that controlled the wind in China. In 3500 BC, Egyptians used wind power to sail the boat in the Nile river, and in Persia, 500 BC millstone, the water pump is driven using wind power. In 1300–1850 AD windmill was designed for water pumping and large-scale milling, which is similar to modern wind turbine design [5]. In 1887, a wind turbine was firstly used to generate electricity built by Prof. James Blyth in Scotland. In 1900, 30 MW of power was generated with around 2500 windmills in Denmark. A Smith Putnam 75—feet wind turbine blade generated 1.25 MW of power for local energy needs gained colossal importance and possibilities in the wind energy sector. In 1975, a wind turbine was developed by NASA—with a composite material blade with pitch control, steel tube tower installed with aerodynamics and structural design ignited more possibilities in the max power output and led to building large wind turbines for energy production [6]. Today, the Sea Titan three-bladed wind turbine can generate 10 MW of power with a rotor diameter of 190 m.
Aerodynamics is a branch of fluid dynamics, the study of the motion of air with forces and moments that act on the body. Aerodynamics plays a vital role in the flight of the aeroplane and helicopter, rocket technology, designing high speed and fuel-efficient cars, reducing the drag on the athlete in sports events and a lot more engineering applications. For example, the aerodynamics of the wind turbine is an important area to increase power output and design a large turbine blade.
The forces and moments on the body are due to pressure and shear stress distribution (Figure 1). The pressure acts perpendicular to the surface, which acts as a load on the wind turbine and shear stress is the frictional force tangential to the surface. The pressure difference between the bottom of the blade and the top of the blade generates the lift force (Eq. (1)) (perpendicular to freestream velocity) the wind turbine blade generates the power by rotating the generator.
Aerodynamic forces in the aerofoil.
Where,
The lift force on the wind turbine blade is proportional to the square of the wind velocity gains essential parameters in the wind energy generation. The blade span area depends on the length and width of the blade throughout the cross-section and
Reynolds number (Re) is a non-dimensional number used to predict the behavior of the fluid at varying environments and used to model the scale-down model [8]. The Reynolds number is named after Irish-born Osborne Reynolds, who predicted the different flow patterns by inducing die in the pipe flow. Reynolds number (Re) is the ratio of inertial force to viscous force (Eq. (2)).
Where,
Re = Reynolds number
η´ = dynamic viscosity of air (Pa.s/Kg m−1 s−1)
The flow pattern is differentiated into laminar flow and turbulent flow. Both possess different characteristics in nature. Laminar flow is a smooth and regular streamline pattern, whereas turbulent flow is a random and irregular flow pattern. The critical Reynolds number is 5 × 105 transition between the laminar to turbulent flow over a flat plate.
In 1904, Ludwig Prandtl developed the theory boundary layer [9], the flow field around the body had two areas where flow is frictional and non-frictional. The boundary layer is the area where the friction of the flow is considered due to viscous characteristics. The thickness of the boundary layer is a distance between the surface to freestream velocity of flow, the velocity at the surface is zero (
Velocity profile in boundary layer.
Pressure is a dimensional quantity (Eq. (3)) (SI unit N/m2) and important variable to express the force that acts on the body. The pressure must be expressed in the dimensionless quantity pressure coefficient (
To measure the pressure coefficient, the pressure tapping is distributed around the model’s surface in the wind tunnel. To measure the pressure coefficient, on the surface of the model in the wind tunnel the pressure tapping will be distributed around the surface. The tubes will be connected to multi-tube manometer or pressure sensors to measure the pressure difference at the tappings (
Aerodynamics lift is a complex topic for understanding, the lift generated by wings made the heavier than air flight possible. There is much debate on how the wing or turbine creates lift with aerofoil cross-sections. When the fluid flow over an object, the force exited due to the fluid motion where the lift is perpendicular to the freestream and drag is parallel to the freestream. Concentrating on the lift produces a high lift with minimum drag on the streamlined body like an aerofoil.
The aerofoil shape is used in aeroplane wings, wind turbines and propellers to generate the lift and based on the application and need the different aerofoil profiles are used. Consider a wind turbine aerofoil where the wind flow over it causes a pressure distribution with high pressure in the bottom and low pressure on the top cause a lift generation on the turbine to rotate the generator to produce electricity. The shape of the aerofoil creates an uneven pressure when fluid moves over it to generate the lift, but how is the uneven pressure distribution formed on the aerofoil? It is a tricky question to answer. We discuss two widely accepted explanations of lift generation in the aerofoil. The following explanation is based on Newton’s third law of motion, where the fluid nature is considered in lift generation. When fluid flows over an aerofoil, the fluid will suddenly experience the aerofoil where the flow moves upward, called upwash and downward called downwash. Due to the large fluid volume displacement, every action has an equal and opposite reaction, the aerofoil creates lift as a reaction force by turning down the incoming air. In conclusion, the lift is created due to uneven pressure distribution, but the pressure distribution is complex and has a different explanation based on the approach.
We will now discuss how the aerofoil shape and orientation affect lift generation. At freestream velocity
(a)
The flow control technique (flaps and slats) alters the lift slope and increases the
(a)
A wind turbine is a mechanical device that converts the kinetic energy of the incoming airflow striking the blade surface, producing considerable lift on the airfoils; thereby, rotation of blades is effected and successfully converted to electrical power through gearbox assembly. According to the mode of operation, wind turbines can be classified as follows.
Each type of wind turbine mentioned in (Figure 5) above can be summarized as:
Horizontal axis wind turbine: It is a type of wind turbine in which the rotor’s axis of rotation is parallel to wind flow.
Dutch type grain grinding windmill: It operates at the thrust exerted by wind, and the number of blades in a turbine is four. Wooden slats have been used for making the blades of the turbine.
Multiblade water pumping windmill: Blades of this type of turbine are made of metal or wood and the selection of a site depends on the water availability of the area. It operates at low velocities and is also called a fan mill.
High-speed propeller-type wind machines: The working of this turbine is only dependent on the aerodynamic force generated when wind flows on the airfoil surface of the blade section. They find their applications in the electricity generation of our modern era. The selection of the airfoil section forms the core of the blade design of modern wind turbines.
Vertical axis wind turbine: It is a type of wind turbine in which the rotation axis is placed vertical or perpendicular to the ground.
The Savonius rotor: This wind turbine consists of a drum cut into two halves and attached opposite to the vertical shaft. The rotor torque is generated due to wind flow on concave and convex surfaces.
The Darrieus turbine: This type of wind turbine has two or more blades made flexible and attached in the shape of a bow to the vertical shaft. The rolling action of blades generates the torque.
Classification of wind turbines.
Rotor: Rotor blades of wind turbines work under the principle of an aircraft wing. The airflow on their surface creates pressure difference; blades rotate to produce electrical power.
Nacelle: It forms the housing, which contains gearbox, generator, drive train, brakes, etc.
Blades: Blade is a critical part of any wind turbine design as they are responsible for lift and power by rotation. The blade section close to the rotor is the hub, whereas the section away from the rotor is the tip of the blade. Hub is designed thicker, and the blade’s tip is thinner to facilitate the airflow.
Tower: It is designed to hold the rotor blades and whole assembly off the ground. Usually, a tower is constructed 50–100 m above the ground surface or water (in the case of offshore wind turbines).
Brake: The braking system is specifically designed to stop the whole machine when there is a flaw or damage in a component of the turbine. The braking system demands higher cycle rates and reliability. The brake pad of the modern turbine is coated with Kevlar to ensure longevity and robustness.
Gearbox: The gearbox is used to is to increase the rotational velocity of the low-speed rotor to an electrical generator by gearing arrangement. The gearbox ratio varies from 15:1 to 30:1, depending on the power output of turbines.
Anemometer: Instrument used to measure the velocity of incoming wind flow, and it transmits the wind speed to the controller.
Controller: A wind turbine controller is a series of systems connected to monitor the operation of the wind turbine and adjacent turbines (wind farm). It is responsible for the initiation and shutdown of the system in adverse conditions.
Yaw system: The orientation of the wind turbine towards the incoming wind is done by the yaw system. It has two systems; active and passive yaw systems and comprises mainly of yaw drive, yaw brake, and yaw bearing.
Horizontal axis wind turbine (Figure 6) blades demand a pre-requisite of specific terminologies and mathematical formulas, which converge to a critical section called blade element momentum theory [10]. The preliminary step in blade element momentum theory is dividing the blade into equal sections and let each sectional element has a radius “
Horizontal axis wind turbine mechanism.
The output power (
Where,
Betz law states that “The power extracted from the wind is independent of wind turbine design in the open flow. Therefore, it is impossible to capture more than 59.3% of Kinetic energy from the wind.” From the Betz law, power is validated from the above equation.
The angle of attack (
Tip speed ratio: Tip speed ratio of the wind turbine is defined as the ratio of blade tip velocity to the wind velocity as mentioned in (Eq. (5)).
The tip speed ratio of wind turbines should be greater than 4 for electrical power generation applications. The optimum value for TSR is 6 for a horizontal axis wind turbine blade.
The number of blades (B) is an essential criterion in the power performance of blades. In horizontal axis wind turbines, the number of blades is chosen to be three as it is 40% more efficient when blades are reduced (wobbling) or increased (high drag). In the case of vertical axis wind turbines, blade number varies from 2, 3, or 4 depending on the operating conditions.
Once the number of blades is fixed, the immediate next step in blade design is evaluating the relative wind angle (
In Eq. (6),
Schematic representation of blade elements.
The design lift coefficient is measured from the properties of airfoil used in a wind turbine blade. For example, if the analyst uses NACA 4418 airfoil [10] for the wind turbine analysis, the aerodynamic properties of an airfoil can be extracted from the lift curve and lift-drag curve.
Maximum lift coefficient, (
Critical angle of attack, (
Zero lift angle,
Design lift coefficient,
The next step in the design process is the evaluating the chord length of airfoil sections in the blade by using (Eq. (7)) below:
Pitch angle (
Mathematically pitch angle is calculated using (Eq. (8)) by the difference between blade angle and angle of attack.
The twist angle at each section of the blade is calculated using (Eq. (9)) by subtracting the blade pitch with the pitch at the tip:
In this expression,
The twist angle reduces from the hub to zero at the tip. From the above data, we can create a table for the geometric design of the horizontal axis wind turbine blade, as shown in Table 1. The geometrical modeling of the blade can be done using commercial software ANSYS (or) SOLIDWORKS.
S. No. | Radius of element ( | Chord length ( | Twist angle ( |
---|---|---|---|
1 | |||
2 | |||
… | … | … | … |
10 |
Blade geometry.
Computational analysis (3D) of the blade is a tedious process as modeling of the blade is a complex process to the core. The computational domain involves a stationary element and a rotational element to perform the moving reference frame approach, as shown in (Figure 8). Moving reference frame involves varied translation and rotational velocities of individual cell zones of the mesh. Stationary equations are generated and solved for stationary element. The rotating element is solved by moving reference frame equations such as centripetal acceleration and Coriolis acceleration in the momentum equation. The flow variables in one zone are extracted to calculate the adjacent zone by transforming the local reference frame in the interface between the cell zones.
Computational domain of wind turbine blade.
Usually, the computational domain for horizontal axis wind turbine blade is designed as follows.
Diameter of inner cylinder = 1.5 D
Length of inner cylinder = 0.5 D
Diameter of outer cylinder = 5 D
Length of outer cylinder = 20 D
Distance between the cylinder and upstream domain =
The meshing of domain involves creating unstructured mesh [11] around the domain with tetrahedral elements as they give good results during the simulation. The exploded view of mesh and meshing elements around the blade (Figure 9).
Mesh elements of wind turbine blade.
Simulation of the turbine blade is done using commercial software such as ANSYS-FLUENT/CFX. The turbulence model suitable for external flows [12] such as wind turbine flows is the
Experimental analysis of wind turbine blades involves modeling and fabrication of blade setup as its preliminary step. Fabrication of blade is done using 3D printing of reinforced composite material.
The velocity profile of the rotor is extracted by fixing a pitot tube with equal holes in the X and Y-axis along the surface. Then, the pressure difference readings can calculate the velocity using (Eq. (10)) derived from (Eq. (3)).
Flow control [12] is one of the essential phenomena to be addressed in aerodynamics. As the name says, the flow control mechanism aims to control the flow of wind, thereby delaying the flow separation leading to the generation of lift and power output. Flow control is primarily classified into two types: active flow control and passive flow control mechanism.
Active flow control mechanism involves an instantaneous change in the design of the installation the installed device to increase the
Vortex generator was introduced by Taylor [18] during 1947 as thin plates arranged in a spanwise manner projecting on the airfoil surface. Intensive research in Vortex generators had its roots in the 1970s when Kuethe [19] performed analysis on wave-type vortex generators with (
Effect of leading-edge VG on the power curve.
Triangular Vortex generator.
The performance comparison is shown in (Figure 12) depicts the increment in output power due to the addition of vortex generators. The vortex generators placed in the airfoil surface’s whole span predominantly produce a 6% increase in power output with a mean wind speed of 7.15 m with a counter-rotating arrangement. The optimum dimensions suggested are pair width of vortex generators should be 0.1 c and pair spacing between generators is 0.15 c where “c” is chord length of airfoil. It also deduces vortex generators used to suppress the sensitivity of the blade to dirt accumulation on the leading edge. The following research step is optimizing the design and performance prediction of turbines [22] installing vortex generators [23]. Integrating vortex generators in wind turbines is the next giant leap in aerodynamic research.
Influence of span-wise location of vortex generator on power output.
Design risks and modifications in the vortex generators are studied [24] thoroughly for different radius as tabulated in Table 2.
Radius | Radius | Modification |
---|---|---|
0–30 m | Laminar flow is observed at 25% radius. Forward placement of VG leads to early transition and increased drag penalty. | VGs are placed aft outboard of the blade. |
0–45 m | Vortex generators are positioned to stall at a velocity range of 14.3–15.6 m/s where a portion of the blade is installed sharply, leading to adverse effects. | The slope of the chordwise VG locations is increased, leading to the smooth progression of the stall. |
5–60 m | A stall angle closer to maximum peak rotor power may lead to an unwanted increase in the rotor power. As a result, outboard sections are less significant and sometimes lead to additional drag. | Removal of unwanted outboard vortex generators will compromise the drag penalty. |
Design risk and modification for varied dimension.
The design of the vortex generator depends on parameters such as:
Height of vortex generator: In most analyses, the boundary layer thickness (
Spacing between generators: The spacing between a pair of vortex generators depends on the chord length of the airfoil element of the surface and flow characteristics.
Position of vortex generator: The position of the vortex generator is fixed by the prediction of flow separation point in the blade surface extracted from the CFD analysis of the blade.
A triangular vortex generator [25] is designed for a wind turbine blade as a sample analysis as it is simple and effective under varied operating conditions.
In a preliminary analysis, one of the airfoil elements in BEM analysis is taken, and the vortex generator is placed at different locations in the chordwise direction. The meshing of an airfoil with VG involves special near-wall mesh. The flow can be captured on the surface without any jumps in this mesh type.
From the wall shear analysis, we can predict the flow separation point, forming the underlying basics for consequent 3-dimensional analysis.
The flow separation point is decided by fixing the vortex generator in different positions on the elemental surface and it is evident from CL vs. angle of attack (Figure 13) and recirculation zone (Figure 14) that the highest lift is obtained when the vortex generator is placed on the flow separation point [26]. The experimental analysis is validated from the CFD analysis to get qualitative results [27].
Lift coefficient vs. angle of attack.
Recirculation zone behind the vortex generator.
Wind turbine aerodynamics is one of the intriguing sections in the field of aerodynamics with much varied scope in the future years. Wind turbine blade analysis is practically a tedious and challenging area as the design parameters are vast, and each of them has a specified impact on the turbine performance either directly or indirectly. Effects of climatic change, terrain location, the wind rose of a particular area, environmental effects of the wind turbine, impact of blade materials in performance, height of tower and impact of the surrounding environment on the turbine’s performance. Research on offshore turbines and bladeless turbines has started and improvement of performance with considerable cost will be the key objective. The effect of ocean currents, ecosystem, and airflow in the ocean are exciting areas to ponder as energy conservation will be the prime focus for the future. Wind energy, the cheapest energy source, will be looked upon in the immediate future. The chapter gives a preface to the concept of aerodynamics and explains wind turbine terminologies to briefly explain the design and analysis of turbines to form a formidable and appealing pre-requisite for researchers to begin their work on wind turbine analysis.
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He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. 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He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"9",type:"subseries",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11405,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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