Antibiotic effects of some endogenous fungal species.
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He also holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University, Lebanon, and Aix-Marseille University, France. Dr. Abou Jaoudé's broad research interests are in the field of applied mathematics. 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Medicinal plant can be defined as the plant which contains metabolites that can be utilized for therapeutic indications or can be utilized for the synthesis of synthetic drugs. These plants are used in the indigenous system of medicine having no sufficient scientific predictions to confirm their therapeutic efficacy. Every medicinal plant consists of a variety of constituents that are involved in the synthesis and development of new and different kinds of the drug in the medicinal field.
Over 2000 years, China, Korea, and Siberia are major countries where ginseng was used as traditional medicine and commercial cultivation on a minor scale was in Germany, France, Holland, and England. the word ginseng i.e. Jen Sheng is originated from a Chinese word meaning ‘man-herb’ whereas the word Panax means ‘all heal’ in Greek which is a powerful plant that can all and any type of disease. Figure 1 showing Ginseng a man root. It is commonly named as ‘man root’ due to the likeness of a man showing pharmacological uses of the whole body. In 1596, the Compendium of Materia Medica founded by Li Shizen discussed Ginseng as a “superior tonic” as compared to other herbal remedies. The usage of ginseng is worldwide which is entitled as the most popular herbal remedy. It belongs to the genus Panax, the various species include
Ginseng a man root.
These plants are cultivated in Northern Hemisphere countries mostly in China, Japan, Korea, United States, and Canada which requires a relatively cooler climate with temperatures between 0 and 25°C with loamy rich soil, well-drained land, and no direct sunlight, the shades are preferred. The height of the plant is 6 to 18 inches with greenish-yellow corollas with 15–30 flowers where light red, pear-shaped, globular fruits having 2 seeds.
Roots are thickened subcylindrical fleshy after drying the size is 25 cm long having 0.7–2.5 cm diameter, with 2–5 big branches where the outer surface is spirally wrinkled longitudinally with root scars.
The outer surface color differs in various varieties i.e., yellowish-white for Chinese and
After 3–6 years, either in autumn or summer season the roots are separated very carefully from plants due to presence of pest. For the purpose of avoidance of pest infection, the roots are sterilized and prepared. Figure 2 showing plantation of ginseng.
Plantation of ginseng.
The method of preparation is different for white ginseng and red ginseng. In China, white ginseng’ surface skin is removed by peeling and then dried and stored carefully for 12–15 months with less decrease of ginsenoside contents whereas in Korea, red ginseng is sterilized by steam sterilization method at a temperature of 120–130°C for about 3 hours which as a result saponin content is increased and can be stored for 2–3 years with no decrease of photo content.
For more than a thousand years, ginseng was used as traditional herbal medicine as a healer of every type of disease. It was considered the best medicine for main fatigue and spiritlessness [5]. In traditional Chinese medicine, it was used for the treatment of heart and blood vessel disorder and also to make people feel calmer. In the ayurvedic system of medicine, traditionally ginseng was utilized as a cardioprotective, anticancer, and also as antioxidant.
The classification of ginseng’s phytochemistry consists of more than 200 chemical entities from ginseng species. The various groups of phytoconstituents include saponins glycosides, carbohydrates, polyacetylenes, phytosterols, nitrogenous substances, amino acids, peptides, vitamins, volatile oil, minerals, and enzymes.
Saponins are the bioorganic glycoside having at least one glycosidic linkage at C3 between aglycone and sugar chain. On hydrolysis of saponin, molecule converts to glycone moiety i.e. glucose, pentose, galactose, maltose, fructose, or methyl pentose and aglycone moiety (sapogenin). The sapogenin can be classified as triterpenoid, steroid, alkaloid glycosides. Ginseng’s saponins are usually known as ginsenosides which were named by Japanese workers whereas panxosides were named by Russian workers.
The ginsenosides are considered as the main constituents of ginseng having different pharmacological activities such as anti-fatigue, anti-cancer, anti-aging, anti-oxidant, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-obesity, and many more in ginseng root, berry, leaf, and stem. The basic structure of ginsenosides consists of a steroid nucleus with seventeen carbon atoms arranged in four rings. On the position of the hydroxyl group on carbon-20 shows are stereoisomers where every ginsenoside have at least 2 (carbon-3 and -20) or 3 (carbon-3, −6, and − 20) hydroxyl groups, which are free or bound to monomeric, dimeric, or trimeric sugars. Total gensenosides can be classified as oleanane, dammarane and ocotillol types. Ginsenoside Ro is an oleanane type whereas Gensenoside-Ral-3, G-Rbl-2, and G-Rh2 are dammarane type are subclassified into two types i.e., protopanaxadiols and protopanaxatriols. Pseudoginsenosides F11 and its derivatives such as makonoside-Rs are representative of ocotillol type ginsenosides [6]. Ginsenosides Rb2, Rb3, and Rg1 are showed on root hair, root and leaf whereas ginsenosides Rb3 and Rh1 were present in large amounts, and ginsenosides Rb1 and Rc were found in large amount main roots [4]. Figure 3 showing various examples of ginsenosides. The pharmacological response of each ginsenoside is dependent on the type, position, and glycone moieties attached by the glycosidic bond at C-3, C-6, and C-20 positions. Among Panax species, more than 100 ginsenosides are isolated. More than 200 ginsenosides have been isolated and identified. The pharmacological effects include anti-electroconvulsive, memory enhancer, cardiac cell protector, coronary vascular dysfunction, antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiobesity, anti-foot and mouth disease, antiaging, antiulcer, antifatigue, and many more.
Examples of Ginsenosides.
The bioavailability of ginsenosides is very poor. The absorption of ginsenosides in the intestinal mucosa is energy-dependent. The biliary excretion in active transport results in a shortage of its biological half-life and lower systemic exposure level [3, 7, 8, 9].
Among carbohydrates, the polysaccharides have considered highest content in the ginseng, which are classified into two parts according to their monosaccharide’s structure i.e. ginseng starch like glucans and ginseng pectin. Neutral and acid polysaccharides are present in ginseng. These polysaccharides attribute pharmacological activity as immunomodulating, antioxidant, anti-depressant anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antiproliferative activities by playing a vital role on nervous system disorders through regulation of signaling pathway, immune system and inflammatory response [10]. Two bioactive ginseng polysaccharides named GP50-dHR and GP50eHR showed antidiarrheal effects [11].
Organic compounds containing carboxyl and amine groups are known as amino acids. The concentration of amino acid in ginseng is large which is useful in human health that is applied in pharmaceutical and food applications. All the basic, acidic, and neutral amino acid including histidine, lysine, arginine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, serine, alanine, glycine, proline, valine, tyrosine, leucine, and threonine plays as the major content of ginseng [12].
The organic polymer with the repeating unit of polymerization of acetylene is known as polyacetylene. The total amount of polyacetylene in ginseng was reported as 0.020–0.073%. The anti-proliferative effect was reported in bioactive panaxynol and panaxydol, major polyacetylene in
The pharmacological effects, qualities, and chemical content of volatile oil are varied to species to species of ginseng. More than 369 volatile oil compounds are identified in the ginseng species. Heterocycles, aldehydes, fatty acids, sesquiterpenoids, sesquiterpene hydrocarbon, alkane hydrocarbons, and fatty acid ester. Reported sesquiterpenoid includes bicyclogermacrene, calarene, (E)-β-farnesene, β-phellandrene, α-humulene where sesquiterpene hydrocarbon includes (E)-caryophyllene, aromadendrene, β-farnesene, α- neoclovene, β-neoclovene, bicyclogeracrene, α-panasinsene, β- panasinsene, ginsenol, panasinsenol A, panasinsenol B [15, 16, 17].
Ginseng is considered a miracle source of multifaceted pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, immune-booster, antidiabetic, and antioxidant activities. Figure 2 is showing various pharmacological uses of ginseng. The bioactive of ginseng has the power of interaction with membrane-bound ion channels, cell membranes, and extracellular and intracellular receptors which as consequences causes alteration at the transcriptional level. The extracts of Ginseng had shown protective effects on hepatocytes and liver injury. Figure 4 showing Ginseng Pharmacological Potential. Previously demonstrated that both neurotrophic effects in learning and memory enhancement and also cause neuroprotective action for prevention of neuron degeneration [18, 19, 20].
Ginseng pharmacological potential.
Inflammation is an uncontrolled response that is the result of disorders including metabolic disorder, autoimmune diseases, cardiovascular disorder, or allergies; on the other hand, it is a response of our body to hazardous stimuli such as injury to tissues. For the treatment of suppressing and controlling inflammatory crisis various steroids, nonsteroids anti-inflammatory, and immunosuppressant are utilized. The inflammatory responses are classified as acute inflammation and chronic inflammation. Acute inflammation is for 7 days or a week whereas chronic inflammation extends for the past four weeks. During inflammation, cytokines are produced by Th1 cells (IL-2, interferon [IFN]-γ, TNF-α, and so on) will be decreased by Th2 cells releasing IL-4, IL-6, IL-10 and transforming growth factor-β. The mutual balance between Th1 and Th2 responses in inflammation immediately attenuate acute inflammation conditions back to normal whereas various conditions with imbalanced Th1/Th2 responses result in chronic inflammation [21].
Ginseng has suggested anti-inflammatory activity which was proven by various in vivo, in vitro, and clinical studies. Gensenosides Rb1, Rg1, Rg3, Re, Rd., Rh1, Rc, Rf, Rg5, Rg6, Rh3, Rk1, Ro, and Rz1 have been reported as anti-inflammatory responses due to negative regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine expressions (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and enzyme expressions in M1-polarized macrophages and microglia [22]. Ginsenosides Re and Rp1 can suppress the NF-κB signaling pathway whereas ginsenosides Rc inhibits macrophage-derived cytokines. Clinical studies concluded a 38% higher more survival rate for patients who took ginseng as compared to patients who had not taken ginseng [21]. Extract of
According to the world health organization, cancer is considered the second leading cause of death globally an estimated 9.6 million deaths or one in six deaths, in 2018. Cervical, thyroid, lung, colorectal, and breast cancer are common cancer diseases in women whereas stomach, liver, prostate, lung, and liver cancer are common cancer in men. Cancer can be defined as the growth of abnormal cells in uncontrolled conditions in almost any organ or tissue of the body, if beyond their usual boundaries then goes inside adjoining parts of the body and spread to other organs. At metastasizing process, results in cancer death. Cancer can be prevented by implementing evidence-based strategies by avoiding the risk factors use of tobacco, use of alcohol, less consumption of fruits and vegetables. For the treatment of cancer, chemotherapy is the most common therapy for treatment. Administration of chemotherapeutic agents as result gives a reduction in bone density and immunosuppression.
For many years, natural products have been a good source of agents for treating cancer and plants played a huge role in anti-cancer product development. Ginseng is a universal herb that is utilized for the prevention and treatment of cancer. It has been acting as a chemopreventive and also used to improve the quality of life among patients with cancer [24, 25]. Ginseng as an herbal drug is consumed and mentioned in the Pharmacopieas formulation in various countries like United Kingdom, China, Japan, France, Austria, and Germany. In Western Europe and Asian countries, it is commonly utilized as a combinational drug to improve cancer chemotherapy. Ginseng is responsible for the inhibition of the growth of human cancer cells of prostate cancer, lung cancer, and colon cancer. Figure 5 is showing Ginsenoside anticancer activity.
Ginsenoside anticancer activity.
According to the world health organization, cancer is considered the second leading cause of death globally an estimated 9.6 million deaths or one in six deaths, in 2018. Cervical, thyroid, lung, colorectal, and breast cancer are common cancer diseases in women whereas stomach, liver, prostate, lung, and liver cancer are common cancer in men. Cancer can be defined as the growth of abnormal cells in uncontrolled conditions in almost any organ or tissue of the body, if beyond their usual boundaries then goes inside adjoining parts of the body and spread to other organs. At metastasizing process, results in cancer death. Cancer can be prevented by implementing evidence-based strategies by avoiding the risk factors use of tobacco, use of alcohol, less consumption of fruits and vegetables. For the treatment of cancer, chemotherapy is the most common therapy for treatment. Administration of chemotherapeutic agents as result gives a reduction in bone density and immunosuppression.
For many years, natural products have been a good source of agents for treating cancer and plants played a huge role in anti-cancer product development. Ginseng is a universal herb that is utilized for the prevention and treatment of cancer. It has been acting as a chemopreventive and also used to improve the quality of life among patients with cancer [24, 25]. Ginseng as an herbal drug is consumed and mentioned in the Pharmacopieas formulation in various countries like United Kingdom, China, Japan, France, Austria, and Germany. In Western Europe and Asian countries, it is commonly utilized as a combinational drug to improve cancer chemotherapy. Ginseng is responsible for the inhibition of the growth of human cancer cells of prostate cancer, lung cancer, and colon cancer. Figure 5 is showing Ginsenoside anticancer activity.
The anticancer action is by modulation of diverse signaling pathways, including regulation of cell proliferation mediators (cyclins and CDKs), growth factors (c-myc, vascular endothelial growth factor, and EGFR), tumor suppressor (p53 and p21), cell mediators (Bcl-2, caspases, Bcl-xl, death receptors), inflammatory response molecules (COX-2 and NFκB), protein kinase (JNK, Akt, and AMP-activated protein kinase) It acts on its cellular and molecular targets through various pathways by inhibiting the tumor by regulation of the cell cycle and inhibition of angiogenesis and invasion [26].
Ginseng extract can induce chemosensitization of the conventional anticancer agent through multidrug resistance (MDR-1) associated protein. Ginseng had also shown a reduction of drug-induced toxicity when used in combination with anticancer drug for example ginsenosides Rh4 and Rk3 reduces the cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in dose dependant level where the reason and structure–activity relationship with other ginsenosides are remained to be studied by Baek
In clinical studies, Ginseng is acting as a tonic in combination with chemotherapy which concluded that ginseng with the other anticancer drug, for example navebine, Vinorelbine, enhances the short term therapeutic efficiency of lung cancer where the study was conducted by 63 patients. The result showed an improvement in the patient’s quality of life. Researchers are focusing on purified ginsenosides which gives the result to a rapid specific mechanism of action rather than using ginseng extract.
Ginseng polysaccharides are also reported as an anticancer agent which includes fractions such as WGPA-1-RG, WGPA-2-RG, WGPA-1-HG, WGPA-2-HG, WGPA-3-HG, and WGPA-4-HG that acts by regulating the immune response of host organisms whereas Ginseng pectin reported inhibiting the action of proteins linked with cancer progression [24].
Antimicrobial activity was derived from the Greek words anti-meaning against, mikros meaning little, and bios meaning life which can be defined as the activity against the growth of microorganisms or by their killing. The microorganisms include bacterial, fungi, parasites or viruses. Antiviral activity is defined as the action of killing a virus or suppression of its ability to replicate and inhibition of the virus for multiplication and reproduction. It is used in the treatment of infectious disease caused by a virus where the virus responsible for the disease include influenza, herpes simplex type 1 and type 2, herpes zoster, viral hepatitis, encephalitis, infectious mononucleosis, HIV/AIDS, and many more. Viruses are nucleic acid i.e. DNA or RNA and a protein coat.
Novel antiviral formulation therapies and vaccines are in recent progress of research scientists which supported to prevent and shorten the duration of the extremity of viral infection. Due to the continuous growth of new infection of the Ebola virus and respiratory syndrome coronavirus, it is compulsory to develop advanced novel therapeutic approaches. The main problem in the development of novel antiviral agent is mutation process in the viral mutation that as result in drug resistance and immune evasion. Recently the development of novel antiviral formulation has the target to develop broad-spectrum antiviral and immunomodulators which improve and inhibit the host resistance to the viral infection In large population infection, vaccination is the main measure of treatment of disease [29, 30].
In vitro and in vivo antiviral activity of Panax Korean red ginseng extract was determined on respiratory syncytial virus infection (RSV) which as a result showed improved the survival of human lung epithelial cells against RSV infection and also inhibited RSV replication by suppressing the expression of RSV-induced inflammatory cytokine genes and also enhanced level of interferon-γ producing dendritic cells which are subsequent to RSV infection [30].
Antiviral activity of fermented
Antifungal is an agent for the treatment and prevention of fungal infections which selectively eliminates fungal pathogen from a host with minimal toxicity to the host. Fungi examples are yeast,
The root of ginseng, Notoginseng was investigated antifungal activities against
Antibacterial and antifungal effect of ginseng powder on gram-positive, gram-negative, and
Antioxidant activity is the limitation and inhibition of nutrient oxidation by restraining oxidative chain reactions. Herbal antioxidants prevent destructive processes caused by oxidative stress by stabilizing or deactivate free radicals before they attack targets in a biological cell. Cancer, diabetes, inflammation, senile dementia, asthma, liver damage, and many other diseases are closely related to free radicals. Free radicals are originated from various sources such as pollution, alcohol, tobacco, smoking, pesticides, phagocytic cells etc. In vitro and in vivo antioxidant effect of
The antioxidant effect of
Ginseng as a supertonic herbal drug should be in novel approaches that get rid of the limitation of the conventional drug. Novel approaches will help in increase of bioavailability, minimize drug physical and chemical degradation and loss, prevention of harmful side-effects, protecting toxicity and enhancement stability. This will help to overcome problems associated with herbal medicine. Herbal Novel drug delivery includes nanoparticles, liposomes, phytosomes, nanoemulsion, microsphere, transferosomes, nanocapsules and ethosomes are reported using extract and marker Nanoparticles and nanocomposite technology of ginseng had reported previously [37, 38].
A novel multifunctional liposome system was developed in a combination of three ginsenosides with paclitaxel using the thin-film hydration method. Antitumor activity was analyzed by GC, MTT, cell cycle, and apoptosis assays method. The result concluded that ginseng liposome was acting as tumor-targeting therapy with dual effect as chemotherapy adjuvant and functional membrane material [39]. Nanoginseng showed better antitumor activity and high drug load efficiency and capacity, excellent biocompatibility with reduced damage to normal tissues [40]. Nanocapsulated red ginseng extract using bioactive coating materials chitosan enhanced antithrombotic activities by both in-vitro and ex vivo platelet aggregation assay method [41]. Phytosome
The traditional system of medicine including the Chinese system of medicine and Ayurvedic system of medicine already mentioned ginseng as man herb acting as a supertonic which is used for the treatment of all type of disease cancer, cardiovascular disorder, impotence, diabetes, palpitation, insomnia, hyperdynamic, anorexia, and many more. Unique cultivation and collection techniques are discussed. More than 200 phytochemical are reported where main classes include saponins glycosides, carbohydrates, polyacetylenes, phytosterols, nitrogenous substances, amino acids, peptides, vitamins, volatile oil, minerals, and enzymes. The miracle ginseng consist of anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, immune- booster, antidiabetic, and antioxidant activities pharmacological actions of which latest anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant pharmacological activities is discussed where not only in vivo and in vitro studies is discussed but also clinical trial is highlighted. Novel formulation phytosome, nanocapsulated, nanoparticles for cancer, inflammation, and neurological disorder developed to enhance bioavailability and target delivery of drug. It can be concluded that focusing the herb in research and development of the pharmaceutical industry in private and government agencies in future development would be beneficial and helpful to eliminate the toxic effect of supertonic ginseng.
Endophytic microorganisms are microorganisms that live in the plant tissue beneath the epidermal cell layers without harming or infecting the host plant, endophytic microorganisms that live in the intercellular space of tissues and thereby they can invade living cells [1].
Endophytic fungi account for a high percentage of the current group of endophytic plant microorganisms. They are considered a source of many new substances, including many active substances with interesting biological effects. These fungal forms can be detected incidentally in the deep tissues of normally growing host plants. They are endogenous to the host plant and, thanks to their strong biosynthetic capacity, are able to produce a large number of metabolites. This may lead to the emergence of new bioactive substances and promises to develop production on an industrial scale. In addition, the substances produced by endophytic fungi are considered as an agent to help balance the microflora on the host plant to prevent pathogens [2, 3].
Endophytic fungi can be easily isolated from a surface-sterilized piece of plant tissue. The number of endophytic fungi found was also very variable when examining different plant samples, this number can range from one to several hundred strains.
The presence of endophytic fungi in plant tissues can be explained in many different ways. But perhaps the most plausible is the hypothesis that endophytic fungi arose from some plant pathology in the evolution of plants. The tree also has a microflora, in which there are strains that exist dormant and cause disease only when the tree is old and weak or facing adverse living conditions. The interaction between the host plant and the pathogenic microorganism during long-term development has resulted in genetic mutations from the pathogenic microorganisms to yield useful strains of endophytic fungi without causing disease [1].
Between endophytic fungi and host plants there is a symbiotic relationship, mutualism or mutualism, etc. The symbiotic or mutualistic relationship between endophytic fungi and plants is shown quite closely. At times they are closely linked as a single individual and contribute to the distinctive character of the tree.
Endophytic fungi promote ecological adaptation of host plants. In some plant species with endophytic fungi, it has been found that they have increased drought tolerance or tolerance of aluminum toxicity in water sources, in habitats, etc. In addition to protecting plants against a number of factors detrimental to the host such as herbivores or insects, many natural products produced by endophytic fungi have also been observed, monitored and concluded on the ability to prevent, inhibit or kill many different pathogens that invade plant tissues. That is also the reason why some endogenous fungal strains can produce phytochemicals that give the host plant a unique and distinctive character [3, 4].
For example: in the early 1990s, a novel taxol-producing endophytic fungus,
Young plant tissues are more suitable for isolating endophytic fungi than mature tissues because adult tissues often contain many different types of fungi, making isolation difficult. Collected plant samples should be stored at 4°C until endophytic fungi are isolated, and isolation should be carried out as soon as possible to avoid airborne bacterial contamination.
To obtain endophytic fungi with biological activity, it is necessary to select plant species that are outstanding in terms of biology, age, endemism, botanical history, and habitat of the host plant. Many studies have shown that medicinal plants and plants living in special environments are frequently studied to screen for endophytic fungi that produce antibiotic substances [1].
With these plants, the unusual environment and harsh natural conditions force the tree to survive, a special element is needed to make the plant highly resistant. And one would expect that factor to be beneficial endophytic fungi [4].
A number of plants have been used according to folk experience, from generation to generation for wound healing, antifungal, antibacterial, etc.
Plants with unusually long lifespans, growing in areas of great biological change, or living in ancient soils are also ideal research subjects to provide endogenous fungi new. Plants surrounded by plants infected with the pathogen, but not infected, are more likely to harbor endophytic fungi with antimicrobial activity than other host plants.
For example: 2008, Tuntiwachwuttikul et al., found an endogenous fungal that was active against pathogens on banana plant
Endemic plant species that have a normal lifespan, or occupy a certain area of land in the wild.
Endophytic fungi are very abundant, according to a study by Matsushima in 1971 conducted on some angiosperms and conifers in North America and Panama, which suggested that most of the endophytic fungi belong to the
2008, Huang et al. also found endogenous fungi present in 27/29 surveyed medicinal plants. The frequency of occurrence of endophytic fungi is relatively high, mainly the genera
Strains of class
According to the statistics of scientists studying three plant families in Southeast Arizona - USA, forests in North Carolina and Northern forests shows that:
Surveying the host plant representing the Fagaceae family obtained 44 endogenous fungal strains in which the genus
Surveying
Surveying plants
Many endogenous fungi in plants have been isolated, they have the ability to produce biologically active substances such as antibiotic, antibacterial, antifungal, tumor suppressor, antioxidant and other biological activities.
Many studies on antibacterial and antifungal activities are produced from endogenous fungi, mainly belonging to the following groups: alkaloids, peptides, steroids, terpenoids, phenols, quinines and flavonoids, etc. These compounds account for only a part small in the total number of active substances produced by endophytic fungal species, they are clearly an excellent and novel potential source for the production of new antibiotics. This holds great promise for solving the problem of drug resistance in bacteria because these antibiotics are novel and highly active compounds Table 1.
Endophytic fungi | Isolation source | Antibiotic | Antimicrobial effects | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pestalopyrone Hydroxypestalopyrone | Plant antibiotics | [4, 6] | ||
Trees that grow in the rivers of Papua New Guinea | Hydroxyl jesterone | Antifungal plant disease | [7] | |
Acid colletotric | Antimicrobial | [4] | ||
Metabolites | Antibacterial, anti-fungal that causes diseases for humans and plants | [4] | ||
Volatile matter | Inhibits bacteria and fungi | [4] | ||
CR 337: New pentaketide | [4] | |||
Pyrrocidines A, B | Fungi | [4] | ||
Cryptocandin Cryptocin | [4] | |||
8 types of medicinal plants found in 3 different regions of western India | Extract from fermented juice | [4] | ||
Lead of | Chaetoglobosin A and C | [4, 6] | ||
Mangroves | 7-epiaustdiol Stemphyperylenol Secalonic A | [4, 7] |
Antibiotic effects of some endogenous fungal species.
Besides,
Since 1990,
Many studies have demonstrated the importance of endophytic fungi in the production of insect repellents, which have many implications for crop protection and increase in agricultural yields Table 3.
Antioxidants are substances that react with free radicals generated during oxidation, thus preventing or slowing down this process. Antioxidants prevent and treat diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular (atherosclerosis, hypertension, ischemia), diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases (Parkinson’s disease), arthritis and aging, etc. Endophytic fungi in higher plants are a source of many new antioxidant active substances Table 4 [11, 12].
Endophytic fungi | Isolation source | Metabolites | Biological impact | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pestacine Isopestacine | Strong anti-oxidant Anti-fungal | [9] | ||
Graphislactone A | Stronger antioxidant than BHT and ascorbic acid | [10] | ||
Phenolic, flavonoid | Strong anti-oxidant | [10] | ||
Metabolites | Strong anti-oxidant | [10] |
Antioxidant effects of some endophytic fungal species.
Endogenous fungi are also known as a source of many other biological metabolites, such as anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, hypoglycemic, immunosuppressive, etc. used to prevent rejection in organ transplants and can be used to treat autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, insulin dependent diabetes also known from endogenous fungi.
Endophytic fungi of the genus
Endophytic fungi | Isolation source | Metabolites | Biological impact | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Plants in the African Rainforest | Nonpeptidal (L-783,281) | Lowers blood sugar with a mechanism similar to insulin but taken orally | [4] | |
Subglutinol A Subglutinol B | Decreased B and T lymphocytes (immunosuppression) | [4] | ||
NF-B inhibitor | Reduce the incidence of cancer | [4] | ||
Acid torreyanic | Anti-cancer agent | [4] | ||
Camptothecin | Anti-cancer compounds | [4] | ||
Cytoskyrin | Antimicrobial Potential agent for cancer treatment | [4] | ||
New isoflavone | Inhibits the growth of Hep-2 and Hep G2 cancer cells | [4] | ||
Hexaketide γ-lacton Oblongolides Z | Anti-herpes simplex virus type 1 | [4] | ||
Phomopsis-H76 A, B and C | Formation of vessels in the sub-intestinal vasculature | [4] |
Endogenous fungi producing other biologically active substances.
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Eurotiomycetes
Order: Eurotiales
Family: Trichocomaceae
Genus:
The characteristics of color (black, brown, yellow, red, white, blue, etc), growth rate, edge of mushroom cluster and surface texture of mushroom cluster vary depending on species and growing conditions. The mycelium of
The spore-bearing head includes the spores: spore, flask, vesicle and spore stalk. The properties of each component vary from species to species and are characteristics that help identify species. Most species have the same shape, size, and color of spore-bearing heads as the cluster Figure 2.
Structure of the asexual reproductive organs of
Some common
Endophytic fungi | Isolation source | Metabolites | Biological impact | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chlorophyll, flavonoids, carbohydrates, phenolics, total proteins contents | To improve the growth and the secondary metabolites contents of tomato | [16] | ||
Kojic acid | Antibacterial ( | [17] | ||
The ethyl acetate extract | Antifungal ( | [18] | ||
Lectin | Anti-cancer MCF7 | [19] | ||
Antibacteria ( | [20] | |||
Tropical Tree Species of India, Tectona | Duroquinone, Adamantine derivative, Dodecanoic acid, tetradecanoic acid, pentadecanoic acid and Myristic acid | Insecticidal | [21] | |
The ethyl acetate extract | Antifungal ( | [22] | ||
The ethyl acetate extract | Anticancer Promoted plant growth | [23] | ||
Gibberellins, indoleacetic acid | Antibacteria | [24] | ||
R7 | Linoleic acid | Antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities | [25] | |
(Z)-N-(4-hydroxystyryl) formamide (NFA) | Improves drought resistance in rice as an antioxidant | [26] | ||
Flavonoid, terpenoid and saponin | Antibacteria | [27] | ||
The compounds into the fermentation broth under specific culture conditions | Antibacteria | [28] | ||
A new antibacterial polyketide (−) palitantin | Antibacteria ( | [29] | ||
KC 582297 | The seaweed | The ethyl acetate extract | [30] | |
(JAS-2) | The ethyl acetate extract | Antibacterial, antifungal and anti-oxidant | [31] | |
Terrequinon A Terrefuranon Na-Acetyl aszonalemin | Anti-cancer | [32] | ||
Dehydrocurvularin 11-methoxycurvularin 11-hydroxycurvularin | ||||
Improved plant biomass and other growth features under high temperature stress (40∘C) | Modulate host plants growth under heat stress | [33] | ||
The ethyl acetate extract | Increases biomass production, increases synthesize different enzymes | [34] | ||
Silymarin | [35] | |||
Secalonic acid | Anticancer (TNBC) cells. | [36] | ||
The ethyl acetate extract | Against | [37] | ||
Seven antibiotics | Antimicrobial | [38] | ||
Taxus yew barks | Taxol | Antitumor | [39] | |
The ethyl acetate extract | Antimicrobial | [40] |
Endophytic
In many plants, the microflora is entirely endophytic fungal. This suggests that endophytic fungi may have a more favorable biological interaction than endophytic bacteria with respect to host plants. The strains of endogenous fungi with active substances are very diverse in both morphology and reproduction, and some strains have very special forms of reproduction.
Identification of
Conditions affecting the biological activity of the endophytic fungus Aspergillus
pH: Importantly affects the growth, metabolism of fungi, enzyme activity, intermediate products, dissociation, dissolution, etc., thus affecting the biosynthesis of active ingredients antibacterial of fungi.
Temperature: Like other microorganisms, the temperature of the environment also greatly affects the growth and development of fungi.
Oxygen concentration: Oxygen concentration is very important and necessary for the survival and growth of aerobic microorganisms.
Carbon source-nitrogen source: The choice of carbon and nitrogen sources greatly affects the activity of secondary substances. Different carbon sources such as dextrose, lactose, sucrose, fructose, starch, molasses and glycerol are believed to be suitable carbon sources for metabolism in various fungi. Organic and inorganic nitrogen sources such as NaNO3, yeast extract, meat extract and soybean meal, NH4NO3, (NH4)2SO4, etc. can help increase biological activity in fungi [2, 41, 42].
All the optimization was performed based on % inhibition of bacterial growth when challenged with 10 μg/μl metabolite concentration. Among different media used, potato dextrose broth (PDB) and sabouraud’s dextrose broth (SDB) proven to be better media for growth of fungus as well as metabolites production 1% yeast extract and 4% dextrose resulted in higher cell inhibition. Ethyl acetate served as good extracting solvent [19].
Addition of vegetable oil to the environment: Vegetable oil can be used to supplement the carbon source during lovastatin production in
Trace elements: Fe and Zn are necessary for the biosynthesis of some antibiotics. It is possible that these two minerals have a positive effect on the antibiotic biosynthesis of
Salt concentration: Salt concentration affects the antibacterial activity of
Endophytic fungal populations of the genus
In the world, there are many studies on the role and application of biologically active substances produced by endogenous fungi. Some endophytic fungal strains have the ability to produce important antibiotics to prevent the invasion of pathogenic organisms to host plants, which are significant in the control of plant diseases and insect pests. Some endogenous fungi are able to synthesize biologically active substances used as anticancer drugs, produce tumor suppressor antibiotics, immunostimulants, and antioxidants, and have biological activities. These compounds mainly belong to the groups of alkaloids, steroids, flavonoids and terpenoid derivatives and other substances, etc. Endogenous fungi also perform a resistance mechanism against plant diseases by producing substance with antibacterial activity. Screening for antimicrobial compounds from endogenous fungi is a way to kill resistant bacteria in humans and plants. In addition, the natural metabolites of endogenous fungi also help to protect natural resources and meet the requirements of pharmaceutical production from plant origin by fermentation. Many biologically active substances are produced by endogenous fungi during growth and development. Finding and discovering those active ingredients is the goal that biopharmaceutical researchers are constantly reaching for.
There is a complex relationship between endophytic fungi and host plants, the interaction between host and endophytic fungi can be endogenous or symbiotic depending on genetic predisposition, developmental stage, nutritional status and environmental factors.
Commensalism helps the endogenous fungi to survive by being supplied with nutrients without affecting the host plant. Mutual beneficial relationships of endophytic fungi and host plants through the provision of energy, nutrients, shelter as well as protection under environmental stress. On the other hand, endophytic fungi indirectly benefit from host plant growth by producing secondary metabolites that help host plants adapt to abiotic factors such as light, drought and stress such as herbivores, insect and nematode attacks or pathogens.
Schulz and Boyle in 2005, the authors proposed that the endophysis of endophytic fungal is a balanced antagonism between host and endophytic fungi, and provided endogenous virulence and protective capacity of the balanced host plant showed no significant symptoms.
Once the host-endophytic interactions become imbalanced, or disease in the host plant or host defense tissues kills the pathogenic endophytic fungi. Whether the interaction is balanced or unbalanced depends on the host-endophytic condition, virulence of the fungi, host defenses, toxicity, environment, and nutritional status and growth stages of the host plant and endophytic fungi.
Therefore, commensal relationships require a balance between the defense responses of the host plant and the nutritional requirements of the endophytic fungi. In agreement with the 2006 study by Kogel et al., endophytic fungi share structural similarities with pathogens and both have many similar virulence factors, such as production of Metabolites and exoenzymes are required to infect and colonize the host plant, so endophytic fungi are subject to self-recognition, the host plant can respond to defensive responses as a disease agent. In addition, the cell wall of endogenous fungi is often associated with the production of macromolecular compounds in plants. Thus, endogenous fungi avoid or overcome nonspecific resistance to invasion by programming the invading cells to harbor pathogenic structures and to maintain integrity in the host cell for a long time [4, 46].
Isolation of endophytic fungi from medicinal and other plants may result in methods to produce biologically active agents for biological utilization on a large commercial scale as they are easily cultured in laboratory and fermentor instead of harvesting plants and affecting the environmental biodiversity.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. He has published more than 190 research papers and authored five books.",institutionString:"Yunnan University",institution:{name:"Yunnan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",biography:"Prof. António J. R. Neves received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 2007. Since 2002, he has been a researcher at the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro. Since 2007, he has been an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Informatics, University of Aveiro. He is the director of the undergraduate course on Electrical and Computers Engineering and the vice-director of the master’s degree in Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of several other research organizations worldwide. His main research interests are computer vision, intelligent systems, robotics, and image and video processing. He has participated in or coordinated several research projects and received more than thirty-five awards. He has 161 publications to his credit, including books, book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers. He has vast experience as a reviewer of several journals and conferences. As a professor, Dr. Neves has supervised several Ph.D. and master’s students and was involved in more than twenty-five different courses.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"11317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Javier Gallegos-Funes",slug:"francisco-javier-gallegos-funes",fullName:"Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11317/images/system/11317.png",biography:"Francisco J. Gallegos-Funes received his Ph.D. in Communications and Electronics from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico) in 2003. He is currently an associate professor in the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Higher School) at the same institute. His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology"},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions"},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",scope:"Plant Physiology explores fundamental processes in plants, and it includes subtopics such as plant nutrition, plant hormone, photosynthesis, respiration, and plant stress. In recent years, emerging technologies such as multi-omics, high-throughput technologies, and genome editing tools could assist plant physiologists in unraveling molecular mechanisms in specific critical pathways. The global picture of physiological processes in plants needs to be investigated continually to increase our knowledge, and the resulting technologies will benefit sustainable agriculture.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",keywords:"Plant Nutrition, Plant Hormone, Photosynthesis, Respiration, Plant Stress, Multi-omics, High-throughput Technology, Genome Editing"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 16th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},subseries:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"