\r\n\tWe are living in a particularly challenging historical moment. People have learned that no matter how much they control their lives, their environment, and their relationships, everything can be changed instantly, at the fancy of a virus that does not respect age, nationality, ancestry, intelligence, or skills. People learned that the limitless power of science and technology was purely illusory, in the face of an absolute and overwhelming force of nature that was almost no longer recognized. After all, the balance of forces between Nature and science and technology was inevitably shaken and the certainties with which people built their lives were jeopardized by an unpredictable and constantly changing reality. Uncertainty is one of the biggest challenges we face today. Never, as today, people management can make such a difference in their future, both personally and professionally.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tCHROs need to decide where to focus their resources and attention, select their action priorities. This book will aim to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the new challenges of people management and provide keys to (re)think about the new/renewed challenges that the new times, the new “normals” place on those who manage people. From the strategic management of HR to people analytics and HR IT architecture and operation, through the new practices of remote work, this book aims to reflect on the future(s) of people management, illuminating trends and reflecting on potential risks or promising achievements.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-043-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-042-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-044-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"982c56a5fb4684d966f8f5e76b2638f5",bookSignature:"Prof. Diana Dias and Dr. Carla Magalhães",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11603.jpg",keywords:"HR Strategy, Strategic Workforce Planning, Employer Branding, Talent Ecosystem Management, Upskilling and Reskilling, Learning and Development, Performance Management, Rewards and Recognition, HR IT Architecture and Operation, Remote and Hybrid, HR Organization and Governance, HR Shared Services",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 21st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 9th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 8th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Combining Psychology and Management Sciences, Dr. Dias chooses People Management as her field of teaching, learning, work, and research. She was Vice-rector for research, quality, and academic development in Laureate International Universities and also the European Representative in Laureate Research Council (Miami, FL-USA)As a consultant for higher education quality, she works with A3ES, EUA, UNESCO, and OECD. Nowadays she is Dean of two Faculties of Economic, Social and Business Sciences.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Magalhães has more than 20 years of international experience in the Human Resources Management scientific field as a teacher, researcher, and consultor. An active member of several international projects, she took along her career several positions of academic, scientific, and pedagogical coordination.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"450553",title:"Prof.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Dias",slug:"diana-dias",fullName:"Diana Dias",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/450553/images/system/450553.jpg",biography:"Diana Dias, graduated in Psychology, specializing in career management at the University of Porto. Her PhD in Educational Sciences dealing with the theme of academic integration in Higher Education culminated entirely in her experience and field work, not only as a teacher, but also as a researcher in the field of Academic Management in Higher Education. She is recognized by the Portuguese Psychologist Board as a specialist in Work and Organizational Psychology.\r\nIn 2022, she will present Aggregation Exams in Management and in 2017, it accumulates as the aggregation title already atributed at the University of Minho in the specialty of Learning Psychology.\r\nOver the course of his career, she has taken on various academic management positions, directing two Higher Schools and coordinating scientifically and pedagogically several Undergraduate, Masters and Postgraduate Degrees, with emphasis on the scientific design and coordination of the Degree and Doctorate Degree in Psychology, as well. as a Licentiate and Master's Degree in Human Resources Management. She was part of the Executive Committee of a Doctorate in Management and scientifically coordinated the Doctorate in Psychology. She was Pedagogical Director at ESAI – Higher School of Real Estate Activities, where she is also President of the Council for Quality Assurance. She was Dean for Research and Academic Innovation at the European University, after 5 years as Vice-Dean.\r\nFull professor at Universidade Lusófona, she is Dean of FCESE - Faculty of Economic, Social and Business Sciences at Universidade Lusófona do Porto and Strategic Director of the School of Economic Sciences and Organizations at Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologia (Lisbon).\r\nShe is also a researcher and member of the Scientific Council of CIPES-Center for Research on Higher Education Policies, classified as Excellent by the FCT.\r\nShe has a vast scientific work published in indexed scientific journals and is the author of several books in the areas of Management, Psychology and Education.\r\nConsultant in Higher Education policies, she has been working with several relevant national and international entities, namely, POCH, DGEEC, A3ES, CNE, USA, UNESCO and OECD.",institutionString:"Lusofona University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"452431",title:"Dr.",name:"Carla",middleName:null,surname:"Magalhães",slug:"carla-magalhaes",fullName:"Carla Magalhães",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003LeuV6QAJ/Profile_Picture_1643029510060",biography:"PhD in Business Sciences (specialization in Human Resources), by Minho University (Braga/Portugal), in partnership with Getúlio Vargas Foundation (Rio de Janeiro/Brazil). Master in Public Administration (specialization in Human Resources and Marketing), by Brazilian School of Public and Business Administration of Getulio Vargas Foundation (Rio de Janeiro). Associate Professor at Faculty of Social and Business Economic Sciences of Lusófona University (Porto/Portugal), where coordinates the 1st study cycle of Human Resources Management and Development and directs the Lifelong Training Unit. Invited Professor at the School of Economics and Management of Minho University. Researcher at the Center for Population, Economy and Society Studies (CEPESE) and an associate member of Transdisciplinary Research Center for Innovation & Entrepreneurship Ecosystems (TRIE), both in Portugal.",institutionString:"Lusofona University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429339",firstName:"Jelena",lastName:"Vrdoljak",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429339/images/20012_n.jpg",email:"jelena.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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1. Introduction
Anchorage dependent cells require a suitable substrate or scaffold for attachment, adhesion and growth. Conventionally cells are detached from substrates by mechanical or enzyme treatment, which can affect cell re-adhesion, viability etc. Poly (N-isopropylacrylamide) [PNIPAAm] is a well known temperature sensitive polymer with LCST of 32 ºC and serve as a good substrate facilitating cell detachment without the use of proteolytic enzymes. Polymer and copolymers with N-isopropylacrylamide [NIPAAm] been proved to be excellent for cell detachment by temperature treatment. The co-monomers provide functional groups that bind to biological molecules and form hybrid polymer for enhanced cell function. This chapter reviews and compares different smart intelligent surfaces, method of preparation, characterization techniques and applications of cell sheet engineering. PNIPAAm based surfaces are able support cell growth and then to detach without any chemical reagent step. These thermo responsive substrates avoid the problem associated with scaffold based tissue engineering.
2. Cell sheet engineering
Tissue engineering involves ex vivo expansion of anchorage dependent cells in three dimensions to provide functional tissues (Langer and Vacanti, 1993). Prof. Robert Langer, Dr. Joseph and Dr. Charles Vacanti proposed the concept of tissue engineering in order to overcome the limitations of organ transplantation. Over the past 20 years, using the technology of tissue engineering, many kinds of tissues such as bone, heart valves, cartilage, corneal epithelium, cardiac muscles and skin have been successfully reconstructed (Yang et al, 2005; Nishida et al, 2004). Most anchorage dependent mammalian cells must adhere to a solid substrate in order to proliferate and manifest their function. The substrates used for cell growth should possess many features like the ability to encourage cell adhesion, spreading and proliferation. Also it is essential that the cells are easily detached from the substrate after it has grown. Conventionally enzymatic proteolysis of extracellular matrix (ECM) with trypsin or other proteolytic enzymes used to detach cells from substrates which can affect cell re-adhesion, cell viability etc (Kumashiro et al, 2010). Thermoresponsive polymers are of great interest in tissue engineering applications specifically in cell sheet detachment. The effect of these stimuli responsive polymers was first studied by Heskins and Guillet in early 1960’s (Heskins and Guillet, 1968). The smart behavior of these polymers is because of its change in molecular conformation in response to a temperature change in the surrounding environment. N-isopropylacrylamide [NIPAAm] is a well characterized thermo responsive polymer that shifts its phase properties above and below its lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of 32 C. Above the LCST, polymer will be hydrophobic resulting in the attachment and growth of cells while below the LCST it turns hydrophilic enabling the detachment of cells as a single cell or as a uniform cell sheet. Since the cell sheet could keep the cell junctions and deposited extra cellular matrix along with it, physiological functions and bioactivity of the cell sheet are similar to the cells in tissue, which could provide potential application as an engineered tissue. Polymer and copolymers with NIPAAm has been proved to be excellent for cell detachment by temperature variation. The group of Okano and coworkers done a lot of studies in thermoresponsive, Poly(NIPPAm) based polymers and proposed a new approach in tissue engineering called cell sheet engineering (Yamada et al, 1990).
3. Mechanism of cell attachment and detachment from the thermoresponsive surfaces
Cells initially attach to a surface by a process called passive adhesion in which the adherence is due to the physicochemical interaction such as hydrophobic interactions, coulomb forces and van der Waal’s forces. Then the cells bind to a specific site on adhesive protein by a process called active adhesion via a receptor protein called integrin. Conventionally enzymes are used to detach cells from substrates, resulting in the destruction of cell membrane proteins and ECM which can affect cell re-adhesion and viability. But cell detachment from thermoresponsive surfaces retain their cellular structure and functions in which cell detachment occurs in a two step mechanism via a passive step, followed by an active step. In the passive step cell detachment is induced by the hydration of PNIPAAm chains on the substrate whereas in active step change of cell shape and detachment from the surface is driven by cytoskeletal action and metabolic process (Okano et al, 1995).
4. Methods of preparation of temperature responsive intelligent surfaces
Thermoresponsive polymers can be grafted on different substrates such as silicon, glass, quartz, polyethyleneterephthalate sheets etc but commonly grafted on Tissue Culture grade Poly Styrene (TCPS). The choice of substrate, method of application of thermoresponsive polymer on the substrate and thickness of the grafted polymer has a major role on cell attachment and detachment phenomena (Elloumi-Hannachi et al, 2010). It is reported that a grafting thickness of 15 to 20 nm is a prerequisite for efficient cell attachment and detachment (Akiyama et al, 2004).
Many types of polymerization techniques can be used for grafting the thermoresponsive surfaces such as Electron beam irradiation, Gamma radiation, Plasma polymerization, UV irradiation and Atom transfer radical polymerization.
4.1. Electron beam induced polymerization
Electron beam polymerization (EB) is a popular method used for producing thermoresponsive surfaces for cell sheet engineering (Yamato et al, 2001). NIPAAm monomer is covalently bonded onto the TCPS (tissue culture polystyrene) dishes by the irradiation of electron beam on to the monomer. Electron beam method facilitates even, thin grafting and the large scale production of temperature responsive culture dishes even though it is expensive. The thickness is controlled by monomer concentration and radiation energy (Nagase et al, 2009).
4.2. Gamma irradiation
Gamma radiation is another method for the grafting of thermoresponsive surfaces on TCPS (Akiyama et al, 2004; Anil Kumar et al, 2007). This study also revealed that grafting by gamma irradiation is comparable with conventional electron beam irradiation and facilitates batch processing of polymerization and grafting of PNIPAAm. Moreover it avoids most sophisticated equipment like electron beam accelerator. The efficacy of the grafted surface was confirmed by the successful growth of different cell lines such as L-929 (mouse subcutaneous connective tissue fibroblast), NRK-49F (normal rat kidney), SIRC (rabbit corneal epithelium), and HOS (human osteosarcoma) and detachment of the cell sheets while maintaining the cell-cell and cell-extra cellular matrix contact.
4.3. Plasma polymerisatiom
Plasma polymerization is a different single step method which facilitates the preparation of thermoresponsive coatings on a solid substrate. A plasma glow discharge of NIPAAm monomer vapour was used to deposit PNIPAAm onto solid surfaces such as silicon, glass or TCPS. The cell adhesion/detachment studies showed to be insensitive to the grafted layer thickness. But this method is not suitable for large scale production due to the difficulties related with continuous treatment and size (Canavan et al, 2005).
4.4. UV irradiation
UV irradiation is a yet another approach for the grafting of thermoresponsive coatings on to the solid substrate. Photopolymerisation and photografting of PNIPAAm is done on TCPS by UV irradiation (365 nm for 5 to 30 min) using photo initiators such as benzophenone (Nagase et al, 2009).
4.5. Atom transfer radical polymerization technique (ATRP)
ATRP facilitates the preparation of surfaces with dense polymer brushes from surface immobilized ATRP initiators (Mizutani et al, 2008). Preparation of PNIPAAm brushes on poly(4 vinyl benzyl chloride) coated TCPS surface using ATRP and application of these grafted surfaces to thermoresponsive cell culture substrates were studied by Mizutami etal. Attachment/ detachment process is favorable only in thinner surface less than 30 nm.
4.6. Reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer polymerization technique (RAFT)
RAFT polymerization technique allows the preparation of thermoresponsive PNIPAAm brushes with controlled chain length and graft density for cell sheet harvest. Chain length and density of PNIPAAm grafted on the surfaces have a significant effect on the thermoresponsive cellular behavior.
4.7. Oxygen plasma treated PIPAAm surface
Oxygen plasma treated PNIPAAm film is a promising material as a cell culture substrate in cell sheet engineering (Shimizu et al, 2010).A cast and dried film of thermoresponsive PNIPAAm was fabricated and treated with high intensity oxygen plasma. This novel method of cell sheet has mechanical strength with high stability and low cost.
4.8. Solution casting method
Most of the above techniques are expensive and might not be reachable to all researchers. An auxiliary simple and cost effective approach is the coating of thermoreponsive polymer onto the TCPS by solution casting method. Thickness of coating obtained by this method is reported to be in micron level and astonishingly doesn’t affect the cell attachment and proved to be efficient for cell sheet attachment and detachment process (Joseph et al, 2010; Varghese et al, 2010).
5. Different methods of characterization of thermoresponsive substrates
Different characterization techniques are employed for the physicochemical and biological evaluation of thermoresponsive substrates which is very important. Physicochemical characterization techniques such as Attenuated total reflectance Fourier Transform spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), Nuclear magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (NMR) are used for the qualitative and quantitative detection, while Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Ellipsometry, surface Plasmon resonance, Profilometry are used for the determination of thickness of the grafting or coating.
The presence and quantity of PNIPAAm on the thermoresponsive surface can be determined by the technique ATR-FTIR (Akiyama et al, 2007). The presence of characteristic peak of amide carbonyl group around 1650 cm-1 showed the presence of NIPAAm. The amount of PNIPAAm on the surface of TCPS significantly affects cell adhesion behaviour. The quantity of grafted PNIPAAm could be detected by the ratio of peak intensities (I1650/I1600) in ATR-FTIR.
NMR technology also provides quantitative as well as qualitative assessment of thermoresponsive surface (Joseph et al, 2010).This techniques provides detailed structural information about the polymers and gives a better understanding about the polymerization mechanism.
Water contact angle measures the hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity of the surface and a contact angle of 70° proved to be optimal for cell sheet adhesion and detachment (da Silva et al, 2007). The thermoresponsive surface wettability changes of free end linear and multipoint attached PNIPAAm surfaces were investigated using the Wilhelmy plate technique. A large contact angle change was observed for an end grafted PNIPAAm surfaces whereas a small contact angle change for multipoint attached surfaces due to the restricted chain conformation of the multipoint attached grafted surfaces.
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is widely used for the detection of LCST. The LCST of homopolymer PNIPAAm lies around 32 °C and copolymers of PNIPAAm centered below or above 32°C depending upon the hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity of the comonomer.
Xray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) is one of the efficient methods for the qualitative assessment of the presence of PNIPAAm on different substrates (Jun and Okano, 2010)The elemental composition of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen on the grafted thermoresponsive surface, could be determined and should be in good agreement with the values based on the stochiometry of the monomer, NIPAAm.
AFM can be used for the quantitative and qualitative characterization of thermoresponsive surfaces such as to observe the nano texture of the surface and to measure surface roughness and the thickness of the PNIPAAm coating (Jun and Okano, 2010). Profilometry is another method to visualize the surface morphology and the quantitative analysis of surface roughness and thickness from the surface profile measurement (Joseph et al, 2010). Determination of thickness from ellipsometry and surface plasmon resonance is very difficult because of the similarity in refractive index of both PNIPAAm and polymeric substrates (Nagase et al, 2009).
Biological evaluations of thermoresponsive surface is the most important characterization technique for cell sheet engineering and are done by cytotoxicity analysis, cell activity measurement, thermoresponsive efficacy, viability analysis and cell sheet characterization etc. The cytocompatibility, specific cytocompatibility, thermoresponsive efficacy studies are usually done using L929 cells, SIRC cells, HOS, NRK 49 F,Human fetal lung fibroblasts (TIG-1), primary cells from rabbit cornea, rat primary hepatocytes etc (Anil Kumar et al, 2007; Joseph et al, 2010; Varghese et al, 2010). Cells were maintained in MEM (Minimum essential medium) supplemented with 10% FBS (fetal bovine serum), 100 IU/mL pencilin and 100 µg/ml streptomycin at 37° C in a 95 % humidified atmosphere with 5 % CO2. The cytotoxicity analysis can be done by using direct contact method, indirect contact method;.High density polyethylene and zinc diethyl dithiocarbamate stabilized polyvinylchloride discs are usually used as negative and positive controls respectively. The cytotoxic evaluation is done by the comparison of the morphology of cells with positive and negative controls. MTT {(3-(4,5-dimethyl thiazol -2-yl) -2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide} cell culture assay is usually used to evaluate the cell proliferation. Absorbance is measured using a multiwell plate reader at 540 nm. Cell viability is usually determined using neutral red staining. The thermoresponsive efficacy of the substrate is evaluated by retrieving the cell sheets by lowering the temperature below the LCST of the polymer and the viability of the retrieved cell sheet is determined using FDA (fluorescein diacetate) staining and observed under a fluorescence microscope. The cell sheet characterization is done by immuno staining technique using antibodies against proteins characteristic to tissue of interest.
6. Various thermoresponsive substrates for cell sheet engineering
Thermoresponsive substrates designed for cell sheet engineering have mainly used PIPAAm and its copolymers for cell adhesion and detachment. The use of thermoresponsive substrate to detach the confluent cell sheets without the use of conventional enzymatic treatments was first reported by Takezawa et al in 1990 (Takezawa et al, 1990). In this study they have used PIPAAm as a substratum by conjugating it with collagen for the culture of human dermal fibroblasts. These fibroblasts monolayer were harvested at reduced temperature by the dissolution of the dish coating. By the same time Yamada et al reported the successful culture of bovine hepatocytes on PNIPAAm grafted TCPS (Yamada et al, 1990). Homopolymer of NIPAAm has been reported to be grafted by various methods such as Electron beam polymerization, UV irradiation, Gamma irradiation etc and proved to be an excellent substrate for cell sheet engineering.
Copolymerization of NIPAAm with hydrophobic or hydrophilic monomer can modulate LCST for the systematic regulation of cell attachment and detachment. Thermoresponsive copolymers based on N-isopropylacrylamide-Co-glycidylmethacrylate(NGMA), N-isopropylacrylamide-methylmethacrylate (NMMA), (Varghese et al, 2010) N-isopropylacrylamide-butylmethacrylate (Tsuda et al, 2004) and NIPAAm-MMA-phosphorylated HEMA (Thomas et al, 2010) were successfully used as a substrate for cell sheet harvesting. Thermoresponsive copolymer NGMA was clearly identified as potential substrate for cell culture harvesting system for generating 3D synthetic tissue. NGMA was synthesized by solution polymerization followed by the coating on TCPS surfaces by solution casting method. Copolymerisation of PIPAAm with the hydrophobic monomer glycidylmethacrylate results in a decrease of LCST. Thermoresponsive copolymer NMMA was also reported to be synthesized and coated by the same methodology mentioned above and proved to be an ideal thermoresponsive substrate with good cytocompatibility for cell culture and tissue reconstruction. Hydrophobic monomer n butylmethacrylate (BMA) has been copolymerized with PNIPAAm to reduce the LCST of NBMA inorder to modulate the cell adhesion/detachment from culture dishes and revealed to be an efficient substrate for cell sheet engineering. Poly (N-vinylcaprolactum-co- N- isopropylacrylamide) PNVCL-co-PNIPAAm grafted on TCPS dishes by EB irradiation were efficiently applied to detach viable cell sheets from culture surfaces (Lim et al, 2007).
The spontaneous recovery of cell sheet is important for maintaining the viability of retrieved cell sheets. PNIPAAm grafted onto porous membranes facilitate the acceleration of cell sheet detachment by providing rapid water movement between the interface of cell sheets and membrane surfaces (Kwon et al, 2000). Another method for the acceleration of cell sheet detachment is by cografting of a hydrophilic polymer Polyethylene glycol (PEG) with the thermoresponsive polymer PNIPAAm (Kwon et al, 2000). Copolymerisation with 2-carboxyisopropylacrylamide (CIPAAm), {P(IPAAm-co-CIPAAm)} grafted surface accelerates the cell detachment process because of the presence of hydrophilic carboxyl group (Ebara et al, 2003).
Biomolecule immobilizing thermoresponsive cell culture dishes are known to be the next generation thermoresponsive substrates in cell sheet engineering (Jun and Okano, 2010). Regulation of cellular metabolisms and functions in culture are important aspects in cell sheet engineering. The simple approach to enhance the cellular activities are by immobilization or coating of bioactive compounds such as collagen, fibrin, elastin and arginine–glycine–aspartic acid (RGD) containing peptides on the cell culture substrate (Ebara et al, 2004). Anchoring of these bioactive compounds to this thermoresponsive substrate through chemical bonds is expected to increase the stability of the modified surface to a prolonged period. The interactions of these biomolecule ligands and cell membrane receptors have an important role in cell spreading, proliferation, differentiation, and signal transduction. This can be achieved either through coating or by the use of coupling agents or else by copolymerizing with an analogue of Isopropylacrylamide.
Cell adherence and growth on the thermoresponsive substrate is improved by coating cell adhesion promoters such as collagen, laminin and fibrin (Moran et al, 2007). But repeated washing will remove the coating of biomolecules. Immobilization is the process which helps to increase the stability and make possible their repeated or continued use.
Copolymerizing with an analogue of isopropylacrylamide, 2-carboxyisopropylacrylamide (CIPAAm) which has a carboxylate side chain that favours the immobilization of bioactive molecules onto thermoresponsive substrates. The synthetic cell adhesive peptide Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) found in extracellular matrix proteins has been successfully immobilized onto the grafted polymer chains via the above mentioned method using the coupling agents 1-Ethyl-3-[3-dimethylaminopropyl]carbodiimide hydrochloride [EDC]. The cells adhered and spread well on these surface even in the absence of serum. Another method of immobilization is by the coupling of biotinylated biomolecules onto streptavidin immobilized thermoresponsive substrate by affinity binding without any coupling agents. The co-immobilisation of cell adhesive peptide RGDs and cell growth factor insulin facilitated the cell adhesion and cell proliferation respectively.
The epoxy ring opening of GMA moiety is well known for incorporating diverse type of biomolecules. The uniqueness of the thermoresponsive substrate such as N-isopropylacrylamide-co-glycidylmethacrylate is that, it facilitates the immobilization of biomolecules without any coupling agents by the presence of unreacted epoxy rings.
The biomolecule immobilized surfaces facilitates cell adhesion, culture and harvest of cell sheets which enables serum free cell culture and enzyme free cell harvesting.
8. Supports for the transfer of cell sheet
A cell sheet carrier is a support which facilitates the transfer of retrieved cell sheets. An ideal material as a cell sheet carrier should possess the features like biocompatibility, surface pliability, mechanical strength, hydrophilicity, presence of surface reactive groups which enable easy modification etc. Polyvinylidene fluoride membranes in the form of annular ring, fibrin gel coated membranes are some of the systems which have been used till today. Polyion complex gels are further developed as cell sheet carriers (Tang et al, 2007) but possess limited mechanical strength and have application difficulties. A further innovative development in this field is the cell culture substrate with combined properties of thermoresponsiveness and cell sheet carrier tool. Modified over head projection transparency sheet based on polyethyleneterephthalate coated with thermoresponsive N-isopropylacrylamide-Co-glycidylmethacrylate is reported to be an efficient cell culture substrate as well as a cell sheet carrier tool (Joseph et al, 2010). The study demonstrated that a simple modification of commercially available PET sheets by hydrolysis followed by coating of thermoresponsive NGMA forms a biocompatible substrate for scaffold free cell sheets as well as a cell sheet carrier tool.
9. Clinical applications of cell sheet engineering
Cell sheet engineering favours the formation of scaffold free transplantable three dimensional tissues from thermoresponsive cell culture substrate. This technology has been used in corneal surface reconstruction, myocardial tissue reconstruction, regeneration of damaged periodontal tissue, treatment of oesophageal ulceration, treatment for type 1 diabetes etc (Elloumi-Hannachi et al, 2010). Some of the clinical applications reported till dates are reported below. This technology in corneal surface reconstruction has been successfully applied to the patients suffering from unilateral or bilateral corneal stem cell deficiencies due to alkali burns or Stevens Johnson syndrome. These reconstructed corneal surfaces are able to restore the vision. Cell sheet technology for the treatment of oesophageal ulceration enhances the wound healing and reduces the host inflammatory responses. This is reported to be the first clinical case in the world which is applied to endoscopy with successful wound healing and improved post operative quality of life. Transplantation using cell sheets derived from periodontal ligament is reported to be useful for the regeneration of damaged periodontal tissue. Cell sheet technology using pancreatic islets has been used for the treatment of type1 diabetes. Another clinical application of cell sheet engineering is its use in the treatment for dilated cardiomyopathy and cardiovascular tissue repair by myocardial tissue reconstruction. This smart culture surfaces have already been used in clinical trials and thus it offers a new frontier in the biomedical field.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/19036.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/19036.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19036",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19036",totalDownloads:3350,totalViews:211,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:85,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 4th 2010",dateReviewed:"June 29th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 29th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/19036",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/19036",book:{id:"314",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials"},signatures:"Nithya Joseph, Anil Kumar P R and TV Kumary",authors:[{id:"56551",title:"Dr.",name:"TV",middleName:null,surname:"Kumary",fullName:"TV Kumary",slug:"tv-kumary",email:"tvkumary@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"121843",title:"Dr.",name:"Nithya",middleName:null,surname:"Joseph",fullName:"Nithya Joseph",slug:"nithya-joseph",email:"nithyajoseph16@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"121844",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar PR",fullName:"Anil Kumar PR",slug:"anil-kumar-pr",email:"pranilkumar@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Cell sheet engineering",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Mechanism of cell attachment and detachment from the thermoresponsive surfaces",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Methods of preparation of temperature responsive intelligent surfaces",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Electron beam induced polymerization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Gamma irradiation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3. Plasma polymerisatiom",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4. UV irradiation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.5. Atom transfer radical polymerization technique (ATRP)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.6. Reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer polymerization technique (RAFT)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.7. Oxygen plasma treated PIPAAm surface",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.8. Solution casting method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Different methods of characterization of thermoresponsive substrates",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Various thermoresponsive substrates for cell sheet engineering",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"7. Biomolecule immobilizing thermoresponsive substrates",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"8. Supports for the transfer of cell sheet",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"9. Clinical applications of cell sheet engineering",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AbrahamT. N.RajV.PrasadT.AnilP. R.KumarK.SreenivasanKumaryT. V.2010A novel thermoresponsive graft copolymer containing phosphorylated HEMA for generating detachable cell layers. Journal of Applied Polymer Science\n\t\t\t\t\t11515262'},{id:"B2",body:'AkiyamaY.KikuchiA.YamatoM.OkanoT.2004Ultrathin poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) grafted layer on polystyrene surfaces for cell adhesion/detachment control. 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Biotechnol Bioeng\n\t\t\t\t\t1062303310'},{id:"B25",body:'TakezawaT.MoriY.YoshizatoK.1990Cell Culture on a Thermo-Responsive Polymer Surface. Nat Biotech\n\t\t\t\t\t89854856'},{id:"B26",body:'TangZ.KikuchiA.AkiyamaY.OkanoT.2007Novel cell sheet carriers using polyion complex gel modified membranes for tissue engineering technology for cell sheet manipulation and transplantation. Reactive and Functional Polymers\n\t\t\t\t\t671113881397'},{id:"B27",body:'TsudaY.KikuchiA.YamatoM.SakuraiY.UmezuM.OkanoT.2004Control of cell adhesion and detachment using temperature and thermoresponsive copolymer grafted culture surfaces. J Biomed Mater Res A 6917078'},{id:"B28",body:'VargheseV.RajV.SreenivasanK.KumaryT.2010In vitro cytocompatibility evaluation of a thermoresponsive NIPAAm-MMA copolymeric surface using L929 cells. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine\n\t\t\t\t\t21516311639'},{id:"B29",body:'YamadaN.OkanoT.SakaiH.KarikusaF.SawasakiY.SakuraiY.1990Thermo-responsive polymeric surfaces; control of attachment and detachment of cultured cells. Die Makromolekulare Chemie, Rapid Communications\n\t\t\t\t\t1111571576'},{id:"B30",body:'YamatoM.KwonO. H.HiroseM.KikuchiA.OkanoT.2001Novel patterned cell coculture utilizing thermally responsive grafted polymer surfaces. J Biomed Mater Res\n\t\t\t\t\t551137140'},{id:"B31",body:'YangJ.YamatoM.KohnoC.NishimotoA.SekineH.FukaiF.OkanoT.2005Cell sheet engineering: recreating tissues without biodegradable scaffolds. Biomaterials\n\t\t\t\t\t263364156422'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Joseph Nithya",address:"",affiliation:'
Division of Implant Biology, Biomedical Technology WingSree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, India
Studying corporate culture is an up-to-date direction of research, already quite relevant in the modern complex of management sciences. In the 1980s the idea that effective leadership and long- term business success are connected with creating a healthy corporate structure in the company was first put forward in the book “Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life” by Terence Deal [1]. The same ideas were outlined in the book “Organizational Culture and Leadership” by Edgar Schein [2]. The most comprehensive study of the interrelation between positive corporate culture and performance is considered to be the book “Corporate Culture and Performance” by John Kotter and James Heskett [3].
In the corporate governance theory, there are a number of approaches to defining corporate culture. For example, М. Albert and F. Khedouri [4] define corporate culture in the following way, “Atmosphere or climate in an organization is called its culture. The culture reflects prevailing habits, customs, and reflections in an organization.”
In Howard Schwartz’s and Stanley Davis’ opinion [5], corporate culture is a “complex of convictions and expectations shared by the members of an organization, these convictions, and expectations shape norms which sufficiently determine the behavior of individuals and groups in an organization.”
According to Elliott Jaques [6], сorporate culture is a “way of thinking and mode of action which grew into the habit and became a tradition, is more or less shared by all employees of the enterprise, and which should be learned and at least partly adopted by new staff members to “blend in.”
According to A. Krylov [7], “Corporate culture is a set of a set of ideas, values, generally accepted patterns and norms of behavior typical for a particular organization; the joint experience of the members of an organization, formed in the course of collective activity and expressed in both material and spiritual forms.”
The Asia Pacific region is increasingly perceived as the century’s geopolitical center. With one-third of the world’s population, a significant share of the world’s trade and production, it seems that the weight of this region is going to be highly relevant in the foreseeable future.
Some countries in the Asia-Pacific region are major importers of conventional weapons, including South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Australia. There are also defense industries in the region that are being developed towards a more self- sufficient production, such as the industries in North Korea and China. The growing economy of China, in particular, has facilitated an increase in military spending which provides consistent financial support to their defense industries.
The new data from SIPRI’s Arms Industry Database shows that sales of arms and military services by companies listed in the Top 100 have increased by 47 per cent since 2002 (the year from which comparable data is first available). The database excludes Chinese companies due to the lack of data to make a reliable estimate.
For the first time since 2002, the top five spots in the ranking are held exclusively by arms companies based in the United States: Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Northrop Grumman, Raytheon and General Dynamics. These five companies alone accounted for $148 billion and 35 per cent of total Top 100 arms sales in 2018. Total arms sales of US companies in the ranking amounted to $246 billion, equivalent to 59 per cent of all arms sales by the Top 100. This is an increase of 7.2 per cent compared with 2017.
A key development in the US arms industry in 2018 was the growing trend in consolidations among some of the largest arms producers. For example, two of the top five, Northrop Grumman and General Dynamics, made multibillion-dollar acquisitions in 2018. US companies are preparing for the new arms modernization program that was announced in 2017 by President Trump. Large US companies are merging to be able to produce the new generation of weapon systems and therefore be in a better position to win contracts from the US Government.
The combined arms sales of the 10 Russian companies in the 2018 ranking were $36.2 billion—a marginal decrease of 0.4 per cent on 2017. Their share of total Top 100 arms sales fell from 9.7 per cent in 2017 to 8.6 per cent in 2018. This can be explained by the higher Top 100 total in 2018 due to the substantial growth in the combined arms sales of US and European companies.
Among the 10 Russian companies listed in the Top 100, the trends are mixed: five companies recorded an increase in arms sales, while the other five showed a decrease. Russia’s largest arms producer, Almaz-Antey, was the only Russian company ranked in the top 10 (at 9th position) and accounted for 27 per cent of the total arms sales of Russian companies in the Top 100. Almaz-Antey’s arms sales rose by 18 per cent in 2018, to $9.6 billion [8].
2. Research of corporations of the military-industrial complex
2.1 The theoretical basis for the research of corporate culture
Works of scientists have served as a methodological framework of this research. There are several typologies of corporate cultures, for convenience’s sake, each of them will be represented in a table. Depending on the influence of an organization’s activity on the final result positive and negative corporate cultures are discerned, their salient features are outlined in Table 1 [9].
Typologies of cultures can also base on corporate structure flexibility. Corporate culture typology according to Jeffrey Sonnenfeld [10] is outlined in Table 2.
Type of corporate culture
Description
Baseball team
Decisions are made quickly; talent, innovation, and initiative are encouraged.
Club
This type is characterized by loyalty, devotion and good teamwork.
Academy
This type is characterized by a focus on the gradual growth of employees.
Fortress
This type is common for companies, which lost their former positions on the market as a result of wrong decisions or bad adaptation to the external environment changes.
Table 2.
Corporate culture typology according to Jeffrey Sonnenfeld.
Organizational psychologists and managers use different variants of corporate culture typology. For instance, an Irish expert on organizational psychology Charles Handy identifies the following types of corporate culture [11]:
Power culture
Role culture
Task culture
Person culture.
One of the notable results of a strong corporate culture is low staff turnover thanks to the consensus among the staff on the mission and values of the organization [12].
Another important result is the improvement of the company’s reputation among such stakeholders as shareholders, customers, suppliers, and the government.
Basing on the factors that influence corporate culture formation and development, it is analyzed through the “externalist” approach, where corporate culture establishment strongly depends on the national culture and is closely connected with the external environment, as well as through the “internalist” approach, where corporate culture is shaped in accordance with organizational culture.
The authors tried to study the experience of corporate culture formation in the largest corporations basing on generally accepted international standards. The biggest companies of the MIC were chosen as the research base.
2.2 Research of the largest corporations of the military-industrial complex in the world
According to the ranking of hundred largest military-industrial companies in the world as of 2016 made by Stockholm International Peace Research Institute in 2019. THE SIPRI TOP 100 ARMS-PRODUCING AND MILITARY SERVICES COMPANIES, 2019. The world’s largest military manufacturers are Lockheed Martin (USA) Boeing (USA), Raytheon (USA), BAE Systems (UK), and Northrop Grumman Corp (USA) according to SIPRI rating (Table 3) [13].
Position in SIPRI ranking
Name of the company
Annual volume of weapon sales, billion US dollars
1
Lockheed Martin (USA)
47.3
2
Boeing (USA)
29.2
3
Northrop Grumman Corp (USA)
23.4
4
Raytheon (USA)
26.2
5
General Dynamics Corp (USA)
22.0
6
BAE Systems (UK)
21.2
7
Airbus Group (Trans–European France-Germany-Italy)
11.7
8
Leonardo (Italy)
9.8
9
Almaz-Antey (Russia)
9.6
10
Thales (France)
9.5
Table 3.
The world’s largest military-industrial companies according to SIPRI ranking [13].
The SIPRI rating does not include Chinese companies, due to lack of data, but indirectly, we can conclude that one of the largest Chinese military-industrial complex companies is the Aviation Industry Corporation of China (AVIC) - a Chinese state-owned company, a manufacturer of aircraft, part of the Chinese military-industrial complex. It is ranked 159 in the Fortune Global 500.
The top 10 also does not include the Japanese corporation Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) (25th place).
Analyzing the corporate culture tools of the world’s leading military-industrial complex holdings in the USA and Europe Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Raytheon, BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman Corp, Airbus Group, one can see a standardized approach to corporate culture (Table 4).
Documents
Lockheed Martin
Boeing
Raytheon
BAE Systems
Northrop Grumman
Airbus
AVIC
MHI
Code of conduct
+
+
+
+
+
+
—
+
Code of corporate governance
+
+
—
—
—
+
—
+
Anti-corruption policy
+
+
+
—
+
+
—
+
Social reporting
—
—
+
+
+
+
+
+
Table 4.
Corporate culture documents of largest military-industrial companies [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Raytheon, BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman Corp companies have formed a single standard package of regulatory documents: Code of conduct and Anti- corruption policy the main theses of which coincide almost verbatim.
We should also note Raytheon’s Social responsibility report in a single document [14], BAE Systems Corporate responsibility report (2017) [15], Northrop Grumman’s Corporate responsibility report (2017) [16], AVIC Social Responsibility Report 2017 [17] while the rest of the companies post this information on the official website. BAE Systems’ Code of conduct [18] also contains anti-corruption clauses, with a provision that the Code of conduct contains General corporate rules that may be applied in accordance with the local legislation. Northrop Grumman’s standards of business conduct [19] contain anti-corruption standards, and the company has a separate Anti- corruption compliance program.
Airbus [20], MHI [21] have clear instructions for employees on how to behave in the most common typical ethically difficult situations (Table 5).
Directions
Lockheed Martin
Boeing
Raytheon
BAE Systems
Northrop Grumman
Airbus
AVIC
MHI
Fair treatment
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Human rights protection
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Intolerance for discrimination and harassment
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Inclusiveness
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Labor protection
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Calculation of labor costs and other expenses
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Responsibility for the use of assets
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Protection of confidential information
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Prevention of conflicts of interest
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Fair competition
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Fight against insider trading
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Table 5.
Main directions of ethical policy largest military-industrial companies [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Raytheon, BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman Corp, Airbus, MHI have demonstrated a pragmatic approach, i.e. reflected in the codes of ethics theses and provisions that are binding by law (prohibition of discrimination, respect for human rights, prevention of conflicts of interest, fair competition, prohibition of insider information), or are a reflection of the political mainstream in the main host countries (anti-discrimination, protection minority rights, “gender choice,” anti-sexual harassment, inclusion) (Table 6).
Directions
Lockheed Martin
Boeing
Raytheon
BAE Systems
Northrop Grumman
Airbus
AVIC
MHI
Prevention of conflicts of interest
+
+
+
+
+
—
+
Intolerance for corruption
+
+
+
+
+
+
—
+
Gift policy
—
—
+
—
—
+
—
+
Table 6.
Main directions of anti-corruption policy of largest military-industrial companies [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Raytheon, BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman Corp have disclosed standard approaches to combating corruption in their anti-corruption policies, identified conflicts of interest and how to resolve them. In addition, it can be noted that the Raytheon Corporation, Airbus, MHI have formulated a clear policy regarding gifts, their limits, which makes it easier for staff to understand the acceptable limits (Table 7).
Directions
Lockheed Martin
Boeing
Raytheon
BAE Systems
Northrop Grumman
Airbus
AVIC
MHI
Additional social guarantees
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Staff training
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Cooperation with universities, schools
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Support for the military and their families
+
+
+
+
+
—
—
Volunteering
+
+
+
+
—
Sports support
—
—
—
Culture support
—
—
—
Child support
—
—
—
—
—
Culture support
—
—
—
—
+
Support for pensioners, disabled people
—
—
—
—
—
Local support
—
—
—
+
—
Trade union support
—
—
—
—
—
Table 7.
Main directions of social policy of largest military-industrial companies [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Raytheon, BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman Corp have all demonstrated a pragmatic approach to social policy, i.e. education was singled out as areas of social policy, in fact, creating a personnel reserve of students/schoolchildren, since the likelihood of recruiting young professionals who have already completed training in corporate programs is very high. A similar situation arises with a detailed examination of support programs for servicemen /veterans, they usually consist in professional retraining for civilian specialties of servicemen and veterans leaving the reserve. Because Since servicemen leave for the reserve at a young and middle age, they also form a personnel reserve for corporations, already trained in the necessary specialties. Supporting volunteering is also beneficial for corporations because allows you to unite teams performing noble social tasks, and the bulk of the costs - time, effort, negotiations, organization - lies with the volunteer workers themselves. At the same time, social areas that do not bring direct benefits to corporations are ignored. Features of BAE Systems is that it implements programs of assistance to military personnel and their families in countries that are the main customers - Great Britain, USA, Australia, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
The Chinese corporation AVIC in its principles of CSR - citizen of the world, public welfare, one belt has demonstrated its commitment to the policies of the Government and the Communist Party of the PRC, such as.
One belt - One way
Building a welfare society.
This approach to CSR can be easily explained by the status of AVIC as a state company (Table 8).
Mechanisms
Lockheed Martin
Boeing
Raytheon
BAE Systems
Northrop Grumman
Airbus
AVIC
MHI
Bureau/Commission on ethics
+
+
+
+
+
+
—
+
Hotline
+
+
+
+
+
+
—
+
Obligatory training
+
+
+
+
+
+
—
+
Protection against accountability in case of reporting
+
+
+
+
+
+
—
+
Table 8.
Mechanisms for implementing ethical policy of largest military-industrial companies [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
The mechanisms for implementing ethical policies provided by Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Raytheon are highly effective because require a minimum of implementation costs, the creation of small divisions to resolve ethical issues at the same time removes significant risks from the line and senior management of the company, allows you to get faster feedback and is an additional control mechanism for lower-level managers and personnel, at Airbus these functions are assigned to the legal department (Table 9).
Type/company
Lockheed Martin, Boeing Raytheon, BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman Corp, AVIC
Airbus, MHI
Authoritarian/democratic/liberal
Moderately authoritarian
Authoritarian
Sonnerfeld type
Academy
Academy
Cameron-Queen type
Hierarchical
Hierarchical
Ch. handy type
Role culture
Role culture
Deal and Kennedy type
High-stakes culture
High-stakes culture
Table 9.
Diagnosing the type of corporate culture of largest military-industrial companies (developed by the authors).
Authority and hierarchy are determined by the specifics of a large company; if we consider holdings belonging to the largest corporations, then these properties are manifested to a greater extent, since The very scale and complexity of large holdings presupposes a hierarchical organizational structure, a unified approach to managing all enterprises of the holding.
At the same time, the specificity of corporate governance balances authoritarianism, adding such elements of democracy as collegiality of the supreme governing body - general meeting of shareholders, collegiality of the Board of Directors, Committees of the Board of Directors, Management Board, the presence of independent control bodies - auditors, auditors, internal control services and bureaus/ethics commissions. The presence of uniform ethical rules for employees and additional rules for managers brings us closer to a democratic corporate culture and the presence of transparent accountability. The most stringent regulation of employee behavior is provided for by Airbus and MHI.
The culture of “High-stakes (we put on our company)” is a high level of risk and extremely slow feedback. This culture includes, as mentioned earlier, enterprises of the defense industry, which are aimed at obtaining the advantages of enterprises with this type of culture: extremely high investment, a solid approach and a long decision-making process, relatively low staff turnover, resilience and long-term prospects.
The type of corporate culture “Academy” is characterized by a focus on the gradual growth of employees who are ready for long-term cooperation with the company. In such companies, the traditions and customs of the company are highly respected. This is especially true for the Boeing Corporation, which shows pride in its more than 100 year history.
2.3 Research of the largest Russian corporations of the military-industrial complex
This study supports an inference that anti-corruption policy is developed and implemented by the majority of the companies under research.
As a comparison, the largest Russian military-industrial complex companies included in the SIPRI index were selected (Tables 10 and 11).
Place in the SIPRI rating
Corporation
Arms sales per year, billion US dollars
9
Almaz-Antey
9.6
15
United Aircraft Corp
5.4
18
United Shipbuilding Corp
4.7
26
Tactical Missiles Corp
3.6
33
United Engine Corp.
3
43
High Precision Systems
2.6
52
Russian Helicopters
1.8
53
KRET
1.8
Table 10.
The largest military-industrial companies in Russia according to the SIPRI rating in 2018 [13].
Documents
United Aircraft Corp
United Shipbuilding Corp
Almaz-Antey
Russian Helicopters
Tactical Missiles Corp
Code of ethics
+
—
—
+
—
Corporate governance code
—
—
—
—
—
Anti-corruption policy
+
+
—
+
+
Social report
—
—
—
—
—
Table 11.
Documents of corporate culture of Russian military-industrial companies [27, 28, 29, 30].
Anti-corruption mechanisms, such as regulation of receiving gifts and prevention of conflicts of interest are closely integrated with ethical norms and ethical policy mechanisms, almost all companies under research have hotlines and ethics commissions, which deal with both ethical issues and corruption violations (Tables 12–14). It should be noted that an essential gap in both global and national industry leaders is the lack of internal Corporate governance code, the fundamental document reflecting the quality of corporate culture and corporate governance, all the more so as its existence is recommended by the Corporate governance code approved by the Bank of Russia [22]. Another significant drawback is the absence of social reporting. The absence of such a single document is all the more surprising given that all the studied enterprises have a social policy that is implemented in practice.
Directions
United Aircraft Corp
United Shipbuilding Corp
Almaz-Antey
Russian Helicopters
Tactical Missiles Corp
Prevention of conflicts of interest
+
+
—
+
+
Intolerance for corruption
+
+
—
+
+
Gift policy
+
+
—
+
—
Table 12.
The main directions of anti-corruption policy of Russian military-industrial companies [27, 28, 29, 30].
Mechanisms
United Aircraft Corp
United Shipbuilding Corp
Almaz-Antey
Russian Helicopters
Tactical Missiles Corp
Bureau/Commission on ethics
+
+
—
+
—
Hotline
+
+
—
+
+
Obligatory training
—
—
—
+
—
Protection against accountability in case of reporting
The main directions of ethical policy of Russian military-industrial companies [27, 28, 29, 30].
Studying the ethical policy of Russian companies, we can conclude that companies are guided mainly by the mandatory rules adopted in Russia by the state and society, the emphasis is made on observing human rights, fairness, labor protection, protection of confidential information, prevention of conflicts of interest and fight against corruption, with lack of attention to issues of special rights of minorities and inclusiveness which are relevant in the society of the United States, the EU, the countries of the British Commonwealth.
The main directions of social policy were analyzed on the basis of corporate reporting data (Table 15).
Directions
United Aircraft Corp
United Shipbuilding Corp
Almaz-Antey
Russian Helicopters
Tactical Missiles Corp
Additional social guarantees
+
+
+
+
+
Employees training
+
+
+
+
+
Cooperation with universities and schools
+
+
+
+
+
Support for militaries and their families
—
—
—
—
—
Volunteering
—
+
—
—
—
Support for sports
—
+
—
—
+
Support for culture
—
+
—
—
+
Support for children
—
+
+
—
+
Support for pensioners and disabled people
—
+
+
+
+
Support for the local population
—
—
—
—
+
Support for trade unions
Table 15.
The main directions of social policy of Russian military-industrial companies [27, 28, 29, 30].
The Almaz-Antey Air and Space Defense Corporation [23] does not provide internal documents and reports for public access, the information on social and personnel policy is posted on the official website o the corporation. JSC “Russian Helicopters” [24], United Aircraft Corp [25], United Shipbuilding Corp [26] reflect their social policy in their annual reports. JSC “Russian Helicopters” developed the Code of corporate ethics [27], Anti-corruption policy [28]. JSC “Corporation “Tactical Missiles Corp” developed the Anti-corruption regulation and the Basic social policy [29]. JSC “Concern” Almaz-Antey developed Human Resources and Social Policy [30].
In comparison with the reviewed best practices, it was found that insufficient attention is paid to the following corporate culture tools:
Development of corporate documents
Social reporting
Support for minorities
Inclusiveness
Support for volunteering
Support for military personnel and their families
Support for veterans, retirees and reservists
Educational activities for specialized schoolchildren and students
2.4 Analysis of the mechanisms of corporate culture
To assess the effectiveness of the mechanisms of corporate culture with the participation of the authors in 2018–19, an analysis of the mechanisms of corporate culture was carried out using the method of expert assessment.
When applying the method of expert assessments, 10 experts were involved, who are middle managers, specialists in large companies. The evaluation criterion is the effectiveness of the implementation of the corporate culture tool. The form of participation of experts is face-to-face, the type of answers is ranging, the main method is the Delphi method (Table 16) [31].
Corporate culture tools / the expert’s №
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Corporate documents
8
7
7
8
7
8
7
8
7
6
Social reporting
7
6
8
7
8
7
8
7
8
7
Minorities
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
Inclusiveness
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
Volunteering
4
5
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
4
Militaries
5
4
6
5
5
6
5
3
5
5
Veterans
6
8
5
6
6
5
6
6
4
8
Schoolchildren / students
3
3
4
4
3
3
3
4
3
3
Table 16.
Step 1. Results of the first step of evaluation of the effectiveness of the corporate culture tools implementation [31].
Step 2. Calculation of weight values of experts’ opinions depending on their competence (Table 17).
Calculation of weight values
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Ki
2
2
2
1.5
1
2
1.5
2
1
1.5
Table 17.
Step 2. Calculation of weight values of the experts’ opinions depending on their competence [31].
Ki (average) 1.65.
Ki=K3+Ka2E1
Ki-coefficient of competence of the i-th expert, considering the degree of familiarity with the question discussed (Кз) and substantiation of the answer (Ka):
Kk and Ka are evaluated on a scale from 1 to 2, where 1 is the medium level of competence, 2 is the high level of competence; i = 1..m — sequential numbers of experts; m – the quantity of experts m = 10.
Step 3. Calculation of weight values of the experts’ opinions depending on their competence (Table 18)
Corporate culture tools/the expert’s №
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Weighted average
Corporate documents
9.6
8.4
8.4
7.2
4.2
9.6
6.3
9.6
4.2
5.4
7.3
Social reporting
8.4
7.2
9.6
6.3
4.8
8.4
7.2
8.4
4.8
6.3
7.1
Minorities
1.2
1.2
2
0.9
1.2
1.2
1.8
1.2
0.6
0.9
1.2
Inclusiveness
2.4
2
1.2
1.8
0.6
2.4
0.9
2.4
1.2
1.8
1.7
Volunteering
4.8
5
3.6
3.6
2.4
4.8
3.6
6
3
3.6
4
Militaries
6
4
7.2
4.5
3
7.2
4.5
3.6
6
4.5
5.1
Veterans
7.2
9.6
6
5.4
3.6
6
5.4
7.2
2.4
7.2
6
Schoolchildren/students
3.6
3
4.8
3.6
1.8
3.6
2.7
4.8
1.8
2.7
3.2
Table 18.
Step 3. Calculation of the effectiveness of the corporate culture tools implementation, considering the experts’ competence [31].
X¯j=∑i=1mXij⋅Ki∑i=1mKiE2
Xij – evaluation of the relative importance (in points), set by the i-th expert to the j-th element; j = 1 … n – sequential numbers of the studied elements; n — the number of elements of the objectives tree n = 8.
Step 4. Identifying the most promising ways to improve corporate culture.
To identify more accurately the importance of the corporate culture tools and to develop an algorithm for their implementation, an abstract economic model is suggested for consideration. This model determines the qualitative characteristics of the modeled object, which is the modernization of corporate culture. When building the model, the main approaches of the multifactor model are used, namely, the analysis of the individual factors influence separately and as a whole on the modeled object.
GfK Consumer Life conducted international research that identified 10 crucial types of corporate social responsibility from the consumers’ point of view, which got top positions in the rating (Table 19) [32].
No.
Type of corporate social responsibility
Importance Russia, %
Importance world, %
1
Providing good jobs
61
48
2
Production of high-quality goods and services
45
41
3
Fair prices of products and services
41
27
4
Protection of the employees’ health and safe production
40
37
5
Participation in social programs
23
9
6
Being environment-friendly
20
37
7
Fair tax payments
12
19
8
Investments in research and technology
11
16
9
Supporting the local area
10
8
10
Educational support
9
8
Table 19.
Crucial types of corporate social responsibility from the consumers’ point of view.
Within the framework of the study conducted by KPMG and Effie in 2018, the finalists of the competition between companies implementing the sustainable development goals Effie Awards Russia 2017 in their social projects were marked. The finalists pointed out in their projects the following sustainable development goals out of 169 sustainable development goals (Table 20) [33].
No
Sustainable development goals
% of the goal representation in the finalists’ projects
1
Good health and well-being
30
2
Industrialization, innovation, and infrastructure
30
3
Quality education
8
4
Responsible production and consumption
8
5
Partnership for sustainable development
8
6
Decent work and economic growth
5
7
Peace, justice and effective institutions
5
8
Eradication of poverty
3
9
Clean water and sanitation
3
10
Sustainable cities and communities
3
Table 20.
Rating of sustainable development goals.
The corporate culture tools analyzed by the authors are currently highly recommended for all companies and mandatory for large businesses and companies with public ownership.
Internationally this is regulated by:
The United Nations Convention against Corruption adopted by the UN General Assembly on 31 October 2003, which applies a broadside approach to identifying and preventing corruption risks in both public and private sectors;
The Organization for economic cooperation and development (OECD) Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions;
The US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA);
The UK Bribery Act 2010, etc.
In Russia, there are the following legislative norms that recommend and require to implement anti-corruption policy and prevent conflicts of interest:
The Federal law of December 25, 2008, N 273-FZ “On Countering Corruption”;
The Corporate governance code approved by the Bank of Russia.
Methodical recommendations of The Federal Agency for State Property Management (Rosimushchestvo) on the organization of risk management and internal control in the field of prevention and combating corruption and on the organization of the Board of Directors work in a joint-stock company;
Anti-Corruption Charter of the Russian Business approved by The Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Federation.
Today there are three main concepts, on which modern theories of corporate social responsibility are based.
Stakeholders concept. A stakeholder is an individual or organization that exerts influence on or is influenced by the activities of another organization, its products, services, and related production performance indicators [34].
Corporate citizenship implies the responsibility of companies for what is happening in the country and the mutual responsibility of the state and business to the society [35].
The concept of corporate sustainability, which is the newest concept in the field of corporate social responsibility. Its founder J. Elkington introduced the concept of a triple bottom line of a corporation’s activities, which includes financial and environmental dimensions complying with the idea of eco-efficiency with the addition of the assessment of social and broad economic impact [36].
In Russia, large companies and companies with public ownership are guided by the approach to social responsibility, defined by the Concept of long-term socio-economic development of the Russian Federation [37]. There are no binding forms of social reporting, similar to annual financial statements, but the most widely used ones in the world at present are the UN Global Compact, and The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) [38].
The stability of the Asia-Pacific region is attracting major attention owing to its increasing relevance in the current globalized world. China has been predicted to be a world power in a few decades. The size and progress of the development of its defense industry are one of the most relevant factors influencing the current global arms market and the security stability in the region.
The region’s nations place greater emphasis on foreign sales and exportation of their defense products. However, they face a highly competitive international arms market where a large number of companies compete to sell their products and only the development of niche technologies appears to have greater prospects for generating success.
Most South Korean defense companies have greatly diversified their production into the commercial sector, which may compensate for the above problems of overcapacity and poor economies of scale (and subsequent lack of competitiveness). The Chinese defense companies have similarly, although less significantly, achieved certain diversification of their production [38].
Conversely, Indonesian arms producers remain highly dependent on the state’s procurement programs.
South Korea and Singapore have had unlimited access to modern weapons systems technologies and to the global arms market; China, on the other hand, has been under an arms embargo placed by the U.S.A. and the E.U. since 1989, and Indonesia was under a U.S. arms embargo between 1999 and 2005. In consequence, China relied on dual-use technologies and reverse engineering techniques applied to Russian weapons systems in order to then develop its defense sector, while Indonesia has been unable to develop its defense industrial base until recent years.
The mercantilist approach, in which the state exercises a large amount of control over the defense industry, may lead to extensive investments in the defense industry, lack of competitiveness, and an eventual decrease in the nation’s security; whereas the application of liberal principles, in which there is minimum intervention by the state in the defense sector, may result in more competitive military equipment production and therefore greater security, although may also create certain vulnerability as there is greater dependence on foreign suppliers.
3. Conclusion
The study substantiates the relevance of the choice of the research object – the largest enterprises of the military-industrial complex, as the political instability in the world, has led to a significant increase in demand for weapons, besides, the military-industrial complex is one of the most important sectors of the economy because its development fosters the expansion in the related industries – metallurgy, electronics engineering, instrument-making, etc. With significant dependence of the industry on internal and external factors corporate culture is becoming increasingly important for the development of corporations in the industry.
The study revealed that introducing such tools as human rights protection policy, anti-corruption policy, fight against discrimination, protection of information and assets, prevention of insider trading is universal in nature and these tools are implemented by the largest corporations in all the countries under research, namely the USA, the EU, the UK, Russia, Asia-Pacific region.
Depending on the calculated rating it is suggested that the companies of the military-industrial complex introduce the corporate culture tools in the following order:
Development of corporate documents (first of all the corporate governance code)
Social reporting. Priority introduction in the short term up to 1 year.
Support for veterans, retirees, and reservists.
Support for militaries and their families. Introduction on a second-priority basis in the medium term from 1 to 3 years.
Support for volunteers.
Training events for profession-oriented schoolchildren and students. Introduction on a third-priority basis in the long- term period from 1 to 3 years.
Support for minorities.
Inclusiveness. The introduction is not recommended.
The implementation of the suggestions given in the article may have the following positive effects for the corporations of the military-industrial complex:
Creating a positive image in the host country and in the countries which are customers of the products.
Establishing a positive image in the eyes of the state customer, for instance, the support for military personnel/veterans creates a positive image in the eyes of the main consumer - the military department.
The development of the Corporate governance code, other important corporate documents, and transparent social reporting can increase credibility in the eyes of prospective shareholders.
Transparent social reporting, training programs for both personnel and future employees who are retiring militaries, students, schoolchildren will contribute to establishing a positive image among the staff.
Reducing, for the company, the risks from corruption losses.
Reducing for the company the risks from illegal/unethical behavior of the employees, as detailing ethical responsibilities,
procedures, training its employees, the company acts in good faith and reasonably.
The research and conclusions presented in this article can be beneficial not only for the enterprises of the military-industrial complex but also for corporations in other industries making adjustments for an industry specificity.
Acknowledgments
The publication has been prepared with the support of the “RUDN University Program “5-100.”
\n',keywords:"corporate culture, fight against corruption, conflict of interest, corporate ethics, social policy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74129.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74129.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74129",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74129",totalDownloads:395,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"July 30th 2020",dateReviewed:"October 13th 2020",datePrePublished:"November 19th 2020",datePublished:"March 16th 2022",dateFinished:"November 19th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The relevance of researching the ways to improve the level of corporate culture in the military-industrial complex is based on the increasing role of the military-industrial complex due to the growing tension in the world. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) data published in March 2018, total global sales of a weapon in 2013–2017 rose by ten percent compared to the previous five years (2008–2012). Among the biggest exporters of armament are also United Kingdom, France, Germany, and China. The economic significance of the military-industrial complex is based on the fact that it fosters the development of related industries such as metallurgy, electronic engineering, instrument-making and so on. At the same time the military-industrial complex faces the following industry-specific challenges: - Rigid state regulation of production; - State control over export and import operations; - High sensitivity to political factors of the external environment; - Ambiguous and polarized public attitude towards weapon and its manufacturers, from massive support of patriotically-minded part of the population to absolute aversion of its pacifist part. It is interesting to identify those particular methods of improving company performance which are successfully put into practice and are really beneficial for the military-industrial complex enterprises applying them which may later serve as a basis for developing a set of measures to increase corporate culture level in the military-industrial complex enterprises in different countries. The analysis is based on comparing the corporate culture of global industry leaders in the USA, Russia and the UK, which are the world’s biggest weapon exporters. The studies and conclusions presented in this analysis can be practically beneficial not only for the military-industrial complex enterprises the specificity of which is a stress test for corporate culture but also for other industrial sectors.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74129",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74129",signatures:"Sergei Zainullin and Olga Zainullina",book:{id:"9032",type:"book",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Corporate Social Responsibility",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-939-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-938-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-940-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"324505",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sergei",middleName:null,surname:"Zainullin",fullName:"Sergei Zainullin",slug:"sergei-zainullin",email:"law_union@mail.ru",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"327809",title:"Mrs.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Zainullina",fullName:"Olga Zainullina",slug:"olga-zainullina",email:"korotkova.oa@mail.ru",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Synergy University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Research of corporations of the military-industrial complex",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 The theoretical basis for the research of corporate culture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Research of the largest corporations of the military-industrial complex in the world",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Research of the largest Russian corporations of the military-industrial complex",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Analysis of the mechanisms of corporate culture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:' Deal T. Corporate culture: The rites and ritual of corporate life. The University of Southern California; 1984'},{id:"B2",body:'Schein EH. Organizational culture and leadership. 5th edition. The Jossey-Bass Business & Management Series; 1985'},{id:"B3",body:'Kotter JP, Heskett JL. Corporate culture and performance paperback. 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After a simple deacetylation procedure, chitin is converted into chitosan that consists in a polysaccharide structure of deacetylated-β-glucosamine. Chitosan has been largely employed in wastewater treatment the removal of colloids through coagulation-flocculation processes. Different chitosan based materials have been produced and tested in the removal of inorganic pollutants such as toxic metals and metalloids, nutrients, dyes, micropollutants and hydrocarbons. Sorbents such as magnetic-activated carbon chitosan have been successfully tested in the removal of antibiotics (ciprofloxacin, erythromycin and amoxicillin) from water. Raw chitosan and ZnO nanoparticles entrapped in chitosan have demonstrated an excellent potential for the removal of the insecticide permethrin from aqueous effluents. Chitin and chitosan in flake and powder form have also demonstrated a promising effectiveness in the removal of oil spilled in seawater. Superhydrophobic and superoleophilic sponges modified by thioles have been also prepared from chitosan and used for the removal of oil spills. Chitosan hydrogels have been tested as well as entrapment matrices for the immobilization of hydrocarbon-degrading biomass for oil spills. Strains such as R. corynebacteriorides (QBTo), Bacillus subtilis LAMI008 and B. pumilus have been successfully immobilized and employed in hydrocarbon degradation processes. In this book chapter, the use of chitosan and chitosan-based materials in the removal of organic pollutants from water is reviewed.",book:{id:"6518",slug:"chitin-chitosan-myriad-functionalities-in-science-and-technology",title:"Chitin-Chitosan",fullTitle:"Chitin-Chitosan - Myriad Functionalities in Science and Technology"},signatures:"Carlos Escudero-Oñate and Elena Martínez-Francés",authors:[{id:"188725",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Escudero-Oñate",slug:"carlos-escudero-onate",fullName:"Carlos Escudero-Oñate"},{id:"246684",title:"MSc.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Francés",slug:"elena-martinez-frances",fullName:"Elena Martínez-Francés"}]},{id:"60805",title:"Chitosan: A Good Candidate for Sustained Release Ocular Drug Delivery Systems",slug:"chitosan-a-good-candidate-for-sustained-release-ocular-drug-delivery-systems",totalDownloads:1662,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the eye, one of the most important organs of humans. Current data on pathophysiology of the human eye are presented in direct correlation with a range of therapeutic products, with a well-known and widely used material, namely chitosan. Applications of chitosan biopolymer are described in the development of innovative, modern, therapeutic devices and solutions. Thus, chitosan is a good excipient either for classic drop-type ocular systems, as well as for complex drug systems such as nanostructures (nanoparticles, nanomicelles and nanosuspensions), liposomes, microemulsions, microspheres, in situ hydrogels and inserts or implants. A number of disadvantages for ocular administration of the drugs are thus overcome.",book:{id:"6518",slug:"chitin-chitosan-myriad-functionalities-in-science-and-technology",title:"Chitin-Chitosan",fullTitle:"Chitin-Chitosan - Myriad Functionalities in Science and Technology"},signatures:"Lăcrămioara Popa, Mihaela Violeta Ghica, Cristina Elena Dinu-Pîrvu\nand Teodora Irimia",authors:[{id:"56579",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela Violeta",middleName:null,surname:"Ghica",slug:"mihaela-violeta-ghica",fullName:"Mihaela Violeta Ghica"},{id:"193810",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Dinu-Pirvu",slug:"cristina-dinu-pirvu",fullName:"Cristina Dinu-Pirvu"},{id:"228211",title:"Prof.",name:"Lacramioara",middleName:null,surname:"Popa",slug:"lacramioara-popa",fullName:"Lacramioara Popa"},{id:"228225",title:"Mr.",name:"Teodora",middleName:null,surname:"Irimia",slug:"teodora-irimia",fullName:"Teodora Irimia"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"916",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). 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