\r\n\t a multi-pronged approach. The pervasive computing paradigm is at a crossroads where never before computing \r\n\t has been so much embedded within the user. Recent developments in sensor technologies, wireless protocols \r\n\tintegration, and AI have empowered the citizen towards a smart citizen with a high degree of autonomy and varying \r\n\tcomputing capabilities from one context to another. \r\n\t \r\n\tMoreover, software engineering has evolved too to allow lightweight programming and full-stack coding of those sensors. The network itself is today viewed as a programming platform, thus wearable devices are no more stand-alone and do not operate in a vacuum. This book aims at attracting authors from academia, the industry, research institutions, public and private agencies to provide the findings of their recent achievements in the field, but also visionaries who foresee the future of wearable technologies in the coming decades.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"20f07b48960c9e77c8b043adb00b555e",bookSignature:"Dr. Nawaz Mohamudally",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9917.jpg",keywords:"AI, IoT, Cloud computing, Embedded devices, cyborgs, wireless protocols, holograms, AR/VR, intelligent goggles, miniaturization, portability, code mobility",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 24th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 4th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 3rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 22nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 20th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"119486",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawaz",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamudally",slug:"nawaz-mohamudally",fullName:"Nawaz Mohamudally",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/119486/images/system/119486.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Nawaz Mohamudally graduated in telecommunications from the University of Science and Technology of Lille I in France. 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1. Introduction
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory condition of the gastrointestinal tract encompassing two main disease manifestations, Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) [1].
CD and UC have many similarities in symptoms and disease phenotypes, making diagnosis challenging [2]. Currently, criteria for distinguishing these two manifestations are based exclusively on histopathological and endoscopic examinations [3]. Thus, UC is defined as a chronic, non-transmural inflammatory disease characterised by diffuse mucosal inflammation involving only the colon. Its primary clinical symptom is bloody diarrhoea [2, 4, 5, 6, 7]. As UC is an inflammatory disease, the state of the immune system is a fundamental aspect of the disorder, with an atypical T helper cell (Th)2 response, mediated by natural killer T cells that secrete interleukin (IL)-13 [1, 8, 9]. CD is a relapsing, transmural inflammatory disease that may affect the entire gastrointestinal tract. Its major clinical symptom is abdominal pain or nonspecific abdominal symptoms and bloody diarrhoea is rare. The T cell profile in CD is different from that of UC and, in fact, a Th1 cytokine profile is dominant in patients with CD [4, 7, 10, 11]. Notably, innate immune responses are similarly activated in both CD and UC [12]. Several studies suggested that IBD pathologies result from an inappropriate inflammatory response to intestinal microbes in a genetically susceptible host, with consequent alteration of the intestinal epithelium.
During IBD development, the paracellular space in the intestinal epithelium becomes more permeable, impacting defensive strategies naturally activated by specialized epithelial cells, including goblet and Paneth cells [13, 14, 15, 16]. This process primes a positive feedback loop, with increased exposure to the intestinal microbiota, leading to amplification of the inflammatory response. Observations in patients or animal models show that host-microbiome interactions and microbiome fluctuations play prominent roles in such inflammatory processes [17, 18]. However, whether these alterations contribute to the disease, or simply reflect secondary changes caused by the inflammation, is still under debate.
Indeed, the basic aetiology of IBD is still unclear and the potential factors contributing to the pathogenesis of the disease, such as dysbiosis, epithelial and/or immune system dysfunctions and oxidative stress, represent the major research topics in the IBD field. Moreover, new area of interest arose from the necessity of understanding the potential environmental causes behind the disease onset.
Among the environmental factors associated with IBDs, the most significant causes are cigarette smoke (CS) and nicotine, and these inversely affect the risk and course of UC and CD. The relationship between smoking and IBD has been known for many years, with the first report of a negative correlation between IBD and smoking, in a cohort of UC patients, published 40 years ago [19]. Since then, there have been numerous epidemiological, clinical and pre-clinical studies describing the dual effects of active smoking in the two forms of IBD [20, 21]. CS is associated with a higher risk for developing CD and a worse outcome in CD patients. In contrast, UC is considered a non-smokers’ disease, with a significantly lower risk of disease development in current smokers. Despite the considerable research on smoking and IBD, the molecular mechanisms for CS-induced impacts on IBD development, as well as the specific CS components responsible, are not well understood [22].
To better understand the different aetiological factors in the onset of IBD, a variety of disease models were developed. Human and in vitro studies have historical limitations because of design complexity, duration and cost or, for in vitro studies, the lack of translational applicability. Therefore, animal models are advantageous by allowing in vivo experiments to be conducted under more easily controlled conditions than those in human studies, while providing the organism complexity lacking in in vitro systems. Increased knowledge of mucosal immunity and host-microbiome interactions and dynamic, as well as the availability of new genetic engineering technologies, enabled the development of numerous murine models that, in turn, substantially increased the understanding of intestinal inflammatory processes [23, 24]. Arguably, none of these models can completely recapitulate the complexity of human IBD, but they can provide valuable information about major aspects of the disease, thereby enabling a common set of principles of human IBD pathogenesis to be established.
This book chapter reviews key studies conducted in animal inhalation/smoke exposure models aimed at evaluating the different modulation of UC and CD by CS. The application of inhalation technology to rodents, reproducing the clinical effects of smoking on colonic inflammation, will increase the chances of identifying new anti-inflammatory molecular mechanisms and possibly therapeutics, finally increasing the chances of IBDs defeat.
2. Technical aspects of inhalation
2.1. Methods of acute and chronic pulmonary delivery of aerosols to rodents
The technical means for pulmonary delivery of aerosols (either small molecules, proteins or mixtures) may employ either direct intratracheal administration or, alternatively, inhalation exposure, the latter often requiring restraint of animals.
For acute pulmonary delivery of an agent, intratracheal administration may be ideal. Its main advantages are that it requires little infrastructure or equipment and can be performed in a basic in vivo lab environment [25]. In addition, dose delivery can be accurately and reproducibly estimated [26]. However, this method also has several shortcomings, such as need for anaesthesia, inability to administer volatile agents or gases and unequal distribution in the lungs, resulting in minimal exposure to the alveoli. Overall, such concerns make intratracheal administration a less suitable method for subchronic or chronic pulmonary delivery.
For subchronic or chronic administration of aerosols to rodents, repeated inhalation exposure systems are preferred. Thus, animals are exposed to aerosols within a confined environment for a fixed daily duration. In the field of toxicology, testing guidelines for repeated dose exposure for toxicological assessments, such as the OECD TG413 guideline, recommend up to 6 h per day exposure for a 90 day exposure period. However, for therapeutic or disease modelling purposes, the exposure period must be determined empirically, based on the effective dose and the time needed for the target biological effect to occur. Importantly, exposure systems must enable consistent delivery of aerosols, at concentrations that are stable during the exposure period, and with appropriate aerosol properties to enable efficient inhalation and uptake [27].
Principally, two types of exposure chambers are routinely used to administer aerosols to rodents, whole body or nose-only exposure chambers, each with its own advantages and disadvantages [27]. Whole body exposure systems are restraint free, as the animals are placed into an exposure chamber, either in a cage or on a mesh or grid surface, depending on the specific system. Both chambers are technically simple, assuming sufficient infrastructure (aerosol generation and functional chambers). Both also enable exposure of large numbers of animals, for example, chambers of >700 L may each accommodate approximately 200 mice. The freedom of movement of animals during exposure results in minimal stress, although the animals require training to adjust to grid-caging systems and food is typically withdrawn to minimise oral uptake of aerosol constituents. One criticism of whole body exposures is that there is a high potential for compound uptake through non-inhalation routes because animals have surface contact with aerosol deposits on the cage surfaces and on their fur. In historical studies, up to 60% of aerosol constituents on the fur (pelt burden) were ingested following whole body exposures [28] and transdermal uptake may also be significant for some compounds. Because the skin is an effective barrier for drug transport, only potent drugs with appropriate physicochemical properties (low molecular weight and adequate solubility in aqueous and non-aqueous solvents) are suitable candidates for transdermal delivery [29, 30, 31]. Such mixed uptake mechanisms potentially occurring in whole body exposure systems complicate both dose estimations and require deconvolution of uptake amounts through oral/transdermal and inhaled routes.
Nose-only exposure chambers require restraint of the animals to permit only the head (nose) to be exposed to the test aerosol. This has the major advantage of decreasing deposition of aerosol constituents on the pelts, resulting in less oral uptake from grooming behaviour [32]. However, there are also disadvantages with this system, including technical asphyxiation (animal movements in the exposure tube may cut off their air supply); therefore, constant monitoring during the exposure period is required. In addition, because of stress associated with restraint in nose-only exposure systems, training is required to adapt animals to the technical procedures. Vehicle or fresh air exposures are also needed to help distinguish such stress-related effects from treatment effects [33]. The daily execution of nose-only exposures requires that animals be individually inserted into the exposure tubes, a technical aspect that may limit the numbers of animals that can be used in the experiments.
2.2. Dose translatability
Measurement of dosages in an in vivo inhalation experiment is dependent upon many parameters, including deposition of the agent to the lungs (which itself is dependent upon aerosol droplet size), respiratory minute volume and body weight of the animal. This relationship is generally described by the following formula [34]:
DD=C×RMV×D×IFBodyweightkgE1
where DD is the delivered dose (mg/kg); C is the concentration of substance (mg/L); RMV is the respiratory minute volume (L/min) and IF is the inhalable fraction.
Among these parameters, the respiratory minute volume is important to determine the availability of compound for deposition and exchange in the lungs. This parameter may be calculated using allometric formulae relating body weights to minute volumes in laboratory animals [35, 36]. The alternative, direct measurement of the minute volume, as can be performed when nose-only exposure tubes are used (head-out plethysmography measurements), is preferable as it would enable the researcher to control any effects of test item on the minute volume, when calculating the estimated dosage.
Important for in vivo disease modelling is the translation of the animal models to human therapeutics or treatment regimen. This will require an estimation of human equivalent dose (HED), based on the animal data. The most commonly used method to convert to HED is with a body surface area conversion factor [37]. Alternatively, a mg/kg conversion factor may be applied, though this typically will result in a lower safety margin and higher HED values, compared with the body surface area conversion. HED is generally described by the following formula [37]:
HED=animaldosemg/kg×animalKmhumanKmE2
where Km is the correction factor reflecting the relationship between body weight and body surface area (e.g. human Km = 37; mouse Km = 3; rat Km = 6 and dog Km = 20).
3. Overview of animal IBD models
The various types of animal models developed to study IBD may be divided into several categories depending on: the method of inducing the pathology (chemically induced, bacteria-induced or genetically engineered); the IBD subtype modelled in the animal (UC or CD); the site of inflammation (colon, ileum, both sites or systemic); and, in genetically engineered models, the gene modification strategy (conventional transgenic (Tg) or knockout (KO), cell-specific conditional Tg or KO, inducible KO, knock-in, innate, mutagen-induced or spontaneous models) [23, 38, 39]. The total number of IBD mouse models is growing, especially because of current genetic engineering approaches that accelerate development of new strains, so far, over 74 genetically engineered mouse models were reported to spontaneously develop intestinal inflammation [38]. The full description of all IBD models is beyond the scope of this chapter. However, Table 1 summarises the most significant IBD murine models, highlighting their methods of pathology induction, IBD subtypes, sites of inflammation and mechanism of action (Figure 1). More detailed reviews of the different mouse models of IBD are available (e.g. see Refs. [23, 40, 41]).
Figure 1.
Schematic view of major inflammatory and anti-inflammatory mechanisms implicated in inflammatory bowel diseases and the potential role of a nicotinic anti-inflammatory pathway. Top: altered microbiota in the colonic lumen and/or epithelial-damaging factors (e.g., DSS in experimentally induced colitis) lead to the disruption of the epithelial barrier function and the consequent infiltration of bacteria and other antigens. Middle: various inflammatory processes can be triggered in the lamina propria by the infiltrating bacteria (DSS-induced epithelial barrier; “Barrier dysfunction and epithelial permeability” and “Nicotinic anti-inflammatory pathway” sectors), haptens (oxazolone- and TNBS-induced inflammation, “Differential nicotine effects in UC-like (oxazolone) and CD-like (TNBS) colitis” sector) or by endogenous dysregulation of the balance between Th1/Th17-driven and Th2-driven immune activities, (genetically engineered mouse models; “Immune regulation” section). A hypothetical role of nicotinic receptor-mediated anti-inflammatory response is depicted in the “Nicotinic anti-inflammatory pathway” sector. Bottom: the colonic vasculature is symbolized as a tube running perpendicular to the cross section of the colon. The blood stream delivers leukocytes recruited by cytokine shedding from the local inflammatory sites and enables the perpetuation of the inflammation, e.g., via circulating T-cells. Systemically provided nicotine could increase the anti-inflammatory nicotinic signaling that is naturally transmitted by acetylcholine shed from the efferents of the vagus nerve that innervate the colonic wall. For details of these mechanisms, see Chapter 4.1 to 4.4. Modified from: De Jonge & Ulloah (2007), Ordas et al. (2012), Xu et al. (2014).
There is a close agreement in many pathological findings among experimental IBD models and human disease. These include the molecular pathways and histological features of tissue injury, dysfunction of the immune system (including impact of the microbiome), genetic heterogeneity and primary defects in mucosal barrier function. All pathologies have been well established in several experimental models of colitis; therefore, these models closely resemble aspects of the human diseases. These common features enable exploration of specific pathological mechanisms, facilitating development of new therapeutic approaches. However, none of these models fully reflects human IBD, with each representing rather a small tile of a mosaic. This hinders a generalised view of the systemic consequences of IBD, often masking possible extra-intestinal implications [42].
The presence of such a multitude of mouse models indicates that IBD is mediated by complicated, multifactorial mechanisms. As expected, this complexity is greater in human beings, where environmental and clinical factors, such as smoking, diet, drugs, ethnicity, geographical area, social status, gender, stress and appendectomy, further modulate onset of IBD pathologies [43, 44, 45, 46].
3.1. Inhalation studies investigating the effect of CS in rodent models of IBD
Clinical and pre-clinical findings suggested divergent effects of smoking or smoke constituents on the pathophysiology of the gut depending mainly on two conditions, the IBD subtype and the route of administration of the active substance (such as nicotine or CS). Active human smoking is difficult to mimic under laboratory conditions, while classical in vitro approaches have translational limitations. Thus, several animal models have been used to assess the impact of CS, nicotine or non-nicotine CS constituents on intestinal pathophysiology [47]. Both genetic- and chemically induced IBD models have been used and effects of various treatment regimens on gut inflammation in these systems are summarised in Table 2. There is a general consensus that CS and nicotine administration do not cause macroscopic or histological damage or inflammation in the healthy gut. However, differences in immune cell recruitment [48], cytokine secretion [49, 50, 51], mucosal barrier [52, 53] and oxidative stress were observed [54, 55], although without evident tissue damage.
Classification of animal models of IBD. IBD subtype and site of inflammation predominantly addressed by the model, where applicable, are shown in bold font. DSS, dextran sulfate sodium; IBD, inflammatory bowel disease; DNBS, 2,4-dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid; TNBS, 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid; UC, ulcerative colitis; CD, Crohn’s disease; DNCB, Dinitrochlorobenzene.
Effects of cigarette smoke or related compounds in experimental models of IBD.
↑, potentiating effect; ↓, attenuating effect; =, no changes; TCDD, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin; TCR, T cell receptor; NA, not applicable; ROM, reactive oxygen metabolites; DAI, disease activity index (for further details please see the reference), MPO, myeloperoxidase; LTB4, leukotriene B4; PGE2, prostaglandin E2; SOD, superoxide dismutase 2; COX, cyclooxygenase; iNOS, nitric oxide synthase.
Consistent with results of human epidemiological studies, CS had opposing effects on development of CD (negatively) and UC (positively) in several, but not all, of their respective IBD models. Only a few of these studies used inhalation exposure (Table 2) and most of their findings mimicked the effects of smoking in humans with IBD.
Thus, the dichotomous effects of CS inhalation, on development of CD versus UC, were perfectly reproduced using two different rat IBD models [54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulphonic acid (TNBS) and 2,4-dinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (DNBS) were instilled into the rat colon to induce, respectively, CD- and UC-like symptoms. Indeed, pre-exposure of rats to CS increased acute (2–24 h post-induction) intestinal inflammation in the TNBS-induced colitis (CD-like) model [54, 55, 56, 57]. The authors used a ventilated smoking chamber filled with a fixed concentration of smoke, delivered by burning commercial cigarettes at a constant rate (2 or 4%, vol/vol, smoke/air) [61]. These results showed that promotion of neutrophil infiltration, as well as free radical production with the accumulation of reactive oxygen metabolites in the intestinal tissues, contributed significantly to the potentiating effects of CS on intestinal inflammation. In contrast, in DNBS-treated rats (UC-like model), CS inhalation improved macroscopic signs of colitis at the mucosal level and decreased the levels of colonic pro-inflammatory cytokines [59, 60]. In these latter papers, Ko et al. used a similar inhalation method to the aforementioned study [61], but with a different time of exposure and a few “homemade” modifications to the smoking chamber. One study, conducted in DNBS-treated rats exposed to CS for 15 days before and 2 days after DNBS instillation, showed increased macroscopic and histological damage in the CS-exposed rat colon [58]. Noteworthy, this study used a different inhalation method than did the others. Rats were exposed to a rhythmic inhalation of smoke, with only the nose exposed to the specialized chamber [62], and this chamber was filled with mainstream smoke from a high tar, unfiltered cigarette.
Furthermore, the effect of CS on the development of small intestinal inflammation (CD-like pathophysiology) was studied in a TNFΔARE mouse model [63]. In this mouse model, a knock-in mutation determines the deletion of the AU-region of the TNF-α mRNA, resulting in a systemic TNF-α overproduction and the consequent development of chronic Crohn’s-like ileitis and inflammatory arthritis [64]. The authors exposed the mice to CS 4 times a day with 30 min smoke-free intervals, 5 days per week for 2 or 4 weeks [65]. Contrarily to what obtain in human and rat CD, in this model CS did not modulate gut inflammation. Both molecular (e.g. inflammatory and autophagy gene expression) and histopathological endpoints were not affected by CS smoke compared to fresh air exposed mice.
In contrast to its effects in CD rodent models, CS exposure for 2 weeks decreased UC-like inflammation in an acute DSS-induced colitis model in mice [22]. Montbarbon et al. showed a significant decrease in macroscopic and histological colon damage, as well as in colonic pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, in DSS-exposed mice after CS inhalation. Interestingly, this study highlighted a pivotal role for a specific intestinal lymphocyte type, iNKT, in the CS-dependent protection of the colon. The authors used a ventilated smoking chamber of the InExpose® System and exposed the mice to the mainstream smoke of research cigarettes 5 days per week (5 cigarettes/day). However, a previous study, in a long-term mouse model of DSS-mediated chronic colitis, showed a CS-dependent increase in inflammation-associated colon adenoma/adenocarcinoma formation. Although specific inflammatory endpoints were not reported, the number of colon adenomas/adenocarcinomas was significantly increased in the CS-exposed mice [66]. This tumour formation was associated with inhibition of cellular apoptosis and supported by increased angiogenesis. As a possible explanation for this discrepancy, this study used Balb/c mice while the protective effects of CS [22] were observed in C57BL/6 mice. Opposite responses in Balb/c mice, compared with C57BL/6 and other mouse strains, were also reported for other chemical inducers of IBD [67]. Moreover, a different inhalation method was applied in the Balb/c mouse study. These mice were exposed to 2 or 4% CS in a ventilated smoking chamber for 1 h per day.
In the context of inhalation studies aimed to understand the major CS component responsible for the observed anti-inflammatory effects in the intestine, three studies on the anti-inflammatory properties of carbon monoxide (CO) in IBD models are notable. Indeed, CO, a prominent component of CS long considered as just being a toxic gas [68], was recently shown to exert potent cell protective effects because of its anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and anti-oxidant capabilities [69, 70]. In three different studies, inhaled CO consistently decreased inflammation in chemically induced and genetic mouse models of UC and CD, respectively [71, 72, 73]. In particular, the same group of researchers [71, 72] exposed two different knockout mouse models, IL-10−/− [74] and TCRα−/− [75, 76], to CO at a concentration of 250 ppm (part per million) or compressed air (control), attempting to recapitulate, at least in part, CS effects on the development of CD and UC, respectively. IL-10−/− mice were generated by gene targeting in 1993 by Kuhn et al. [74], introducing two stop codons in exon 1 and 3 of the IL-10 gene in murine ES cells. These mice are characterised by extensive Th1-mediated enterocolitis originated by an antigen-driven uncontrolled immune response mainly resembling human CD condition. T cell receptor (TCR)α knockout mice were generated with a similar gene targeting approach [76], thus integrating a neomycin cassette in the first exon of the TCRα locus. In these mutant mice, the intestinal mucosal immunoregulatory mechanisms are negatively affected, triggering the development of UC-like symptoms [75]. Surprisingly, CO inhalation suppressed inflammation in both models, regardless of their IBD subtype, through a heme oxygenase (HO)-1 dependent pathway. The anti-inflammatory capabilities of CO were also confirmed in a TNBS-induced mouse model of CD. Mice were exposed to CO at 200 ppm, beginning after TNBS administration and throughout the remaining study period (3 days) [73]. Thus, the increased colonic damage induced by TNBS was significantly inhibited by the CO treatment, with a consistent suppression of inflammatory markers, such as TNF-α levels and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity.
As highlighted in the aforementioned reports, although CS or CS component inhalation studies in mouse models seem to recapitulate most epidemiological observations in humans, differences in the inhalation methodologies are many and frequent, making impossible a clear and solid comparison between the studies.
The route of administration was relevant on the final effect also when single CS components, such as nicotine, were administered to IBD mouse models or patients [47]. Thus, in a TNBS mouse model of CD, the detrimental effects of subcutaneous nicotine administration [77] contrasted with the dose-dependent bivalent effect of nicotine administered in the drinking water, that is, positive at low and negative at high concentrations [78, 79]. Furthermore, subcutaneous or oral nicotine administration to rats treated with DNBS led to, respectively, decreased or increased colon inflammation [58, 59]. Finally, while oral or subcutaneous nicotine administration attenuated inflammation caused by DSS treatment in mice [50, 80], intraperitoneal nicotine injection had no effects [81, 82]. Inconsistencies related to different routes of administration of CS components were also observed in human studies [83, 84, 85, 86]. Overall, these observations suggested that the route of administration of a CS-related compound, such as nicotine, is important to consider in treating colitis. In animal models, it is clear that mimicking the nicotine intake profiles in smokers (inhalation) could result in increased treatment efficacy. This idea was supported in humans by the conflicting results obtained by local nicotine application (enemas) [87]. Therefore, although the colon may be an important site of action for CS components, the responsible molecule for the observed effects might act on many peripheral and central inflammatory pathways, such as vagus-related anti-inflammatory nicotinic signalling, or might require intermediate metabolic transformations.
3.2. Limits and pitfalls of studies using inhalation mouse models
Among the aforementioned studies, only a few used inhalation exposure (Table 2) models were observed, although many of the findings mimicked human smoking effects in IBD, the results were still variable. Such heterogeneity in observed CS effects on experimentally induced colitis is not unexpected, given variability in animal species and strains, IBD inducers, CS exposure schedules, endpoints and observation periods.
When comparing such quality-relevant exposure conditions, group sizes were usually sufficient, but most of the studies used only male mice or rats, instead of both genders as recommended by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) test guidelines. Only one rat study employed the preferable nose-only inhalation mode [58]. Many of the papers did not describe the exposure chambers sufficiently and explanations of exposure concentration parameters (such as number of puffs, flow rate and chamber volume) often did not enable derivation of the standard Total Particulate Matter (TPM) or smoke constituent concentration values, in a weight per volume unit (e.g. mg/L). The most evident heterogeneity among studies, however, was in exposure schedules and durations. The CS inhalation studies in IBD models typically used daily exposure durations no longer than one hour, with none using the recommended 6 h/day duration. Some studies pre-exposed the animals a few days before IBD induction and discontinued CS exposure after the induction treatment, while others continued exposure until the end of the study or began CS inhalation after IBD induction [59]. To explore more systematically the effects of inhaled CS or CS constituents on IBD in various models, there is a clear need to harmonise exposure conditions to be closer to minimal standards for inhalation toxicity studies. This is particularly true for exposure schedules and durations, as well as for documentation of meaningful concentration measurements in the exposure atmospheres (Table 3). Finally, to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of IBD-CS interactions, beyond the current knowledge, it will be necessary to combine robust IBD models (UC and CD), well-controlled, state-of-the-art inhalation exposure design and technology and disease-specific endpoints with systems-wide molecular profiling. We conducted systems toxicology-oriented inhalation studies using mouse models to investigate effects of CS and candidate modified risk tobacco products in chronic obstructive and cardiovascular diseases [33, 88, 89, 90, 91]. These studies demonstrated the feasibility and suitability of this approach for identifying the molecular basis of disease mechanisms and the biological impacts of CS. The study design and inhalation exposure technology were based on the OECD guidelines TG412 and TG413 for 28 and 90 days inhalation toxicity studies, respectively [92, 93]. Satellite groups were included to provide material for the additional molecular investigations and a similar study was conducted on rats exposed to nicotine aerosols [33]. A very detailed description of the study design and methodology was provided [94] and this might serve as a template for new IBD inhalation studies. Of course, adaptations will be necessary, based on specifications of the IBD models. For example, most chemically induced IBD models require acute, rather than subchronic or chronic, observation periods, while the genetically engineered IBD models develop the disease in a similar timeframe as the COPD and CVD models.
IBD model, induction
Study design
Exposure duration
Inhalation technology
CS/inhalant characterisation
References
(OECD TG 412 recommendation)
At least 5 males and 5 females per group, 3 dose levels of test article, filtered air and/or vehicle control
6 h/day; 5 (7) days/week; 28 days
Nose-only preferred, whole body acceptable, detailed description of exposure chamber to be given
Analytical characterisation; respirable particle size (1–3 μm MMAD), nominal and actual test article concentration (mass per volume) to be indicated, constant concentration during exposure period
Comparison of exposure conditions in published inhalation studies using rodent IBD models.
4. Mechanisms of IBD pathogenesis with possible relationship to CS constituents
4.1. Nicotinic anti-inflammatory pathway
The vagus nerve transmits signals by releasing acetylcholine that, in turn, stimulates neuronal and immune cells via their nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) [95, 96]. These are ligand-gated ion channels expressed not only in neuronal cells, but also in most mammalian non-neuronal cell types, though different cell type-specific downstream signalling functions [97]. In the nicotinic anti-inflammatory pathway, nAChR activation by acetylcholine or other ligands inhibits the downstream NF-κB pathway, attenuating production of TNF-α and other cytokines [98, 99]. This pathway was reported to be one of the most likely explanations for CS-associated anti-inflammatory responses in the gut. Mapping the relevant neuronal circuits revealed that efferent vagus nerve fibres innervated the small intestine and proximal colon [100]. Vagotomised mice were more susceptible than normal mice to developing colitis after exposure to DSS and had increased levels of NF-κB and cytokines, such as IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α [101, 102, 103]. Pretreatment with nicotine reversed these effects through activation of α7nAChR, identified as the major receptor involved in nicotinic anti-inflammatory pathways [99, 104]. Potential therapeutic applications of selective α7nAChR agonists, such as the partial α7 agonists 3-(2,4-dimethoxybenzylidene)-anabaseine (GTS-21) and anatabine citrate, and of α7nAChR-positive allosteric modulators, was explored in pre-clinical and clinical studies [105, 106, 107, 108, 109]. Moreover, additional nAChR subtypes, such as α4β2, α3β4, α3β2 and α6, were also proposed as targets for nicotine treatment [110, 111, 112], increasing the complexity, but also the therapeutic potential, of this approach. Although research on the mechanisms involved in nicotinic anti-inflammatory pathways has highlighted the pharmacological potential of nAChR agonists, studies showing contradictory results obtained with specific α7nAChR ligands [82] suggested that these compounds should be used with caution in patients with IBD.
4.2. Immune regulation
The immunosuppressive effects of cigarette smoking, on both cellular and humoral immunity, have long been recognised [113, 114, 115]. Studies exploring how nicotine or CS can suppress the immune system indicated that, in nicotine-treated animals, T cells did not enter the cell cycle and proliferate as expected. Similar effects were observed in smokers and in animals exposed to CS [116, 117, 118]. Several studies described the implications of CS for different immune cell types, as well as the diverse actions of nicotine or CS, depending on the pathological environment, for example, UC or CD, in which the immune cells originated [77, 99, 112, 119, 120, 121, 122]. For instance, when stimulated by lipopolysaccharide, peripheral blood mononuclear cells derived from smokers showed decreased IL-8 release only if subjects were also CD patients [122]. Similarly, the same investigators demonstrated that smokers with CD had significantly lower IL-10 (anti-inflammatory)/IL-12 (pro-inflammatory) ratios than non-smokers or smokers with UC. As suggested in some reports, the differential signalling of dendritic cells from CD (Th1-like) and UC patients exposed to cigarette smoke extract (CSE) in vitro could play a role in the opposing responses of cigarette smoke exposure, that is, a Th1-like response in CD, with increased Foxp3-positive CD4 T cells [121].
4.3. Barrier dysfunction and intestinal permeability
The intestinal mucosa is one of the most important physical barriers against external threats. Changes in intestinal permeability are crucial for the development of IBD [123] and several studies implicated CS in regulating barrier integrity. However, the effects of smoking on intestinal permeability are controversial. Several in vitro and in vivo observations, in studies using humans or rodents, suggested that decreased intestinal permeability in smokers might explain the protective effects of smoking in UC [53, 124, 125, 126, 127]. In contrast, a recent article reported that mice exposed to CS exhibited increased intestinal permeability and bacterial translocation, intestinal villi atrophy, damaged tight junctions and abnormal tight junction proteins [128]. However, no intestinal barrier changes were identified in the colons of control or CS-exposed mice, suggesting that there was CS-related organ specificity and, thus, possibly explaining the opposing effects of smoking on CD and UC.
4.4. Gut microbiota
Much evidence supports the strong impact of environmental factors on gut microbiota, and smoking has recently been investigated as a potential factor shaping the microbiota. This potential connection implied new possibilities regarding the role of smoking in IBD development. Thus, studies targeting selected bacterial groups reported that patients with active CD, who also smoked, had microbial profiles different from those of non-smoking patients with CD. Similar results were found in healthy smoking controls, suggesting that the association related not to intestinal inflammation but, instead, to a direct impacts of smoking on the microbiota [129, 130]. Differences between mice and humans at the level of the gut microbiota limit the usefulness of mouse models, relevant to CS, gut microbiota and IBD. However, a few studies using rats and mice were consistent with observations in humans, indicating CS-dependent shifts in gut microbiota compositions [131, 132, 133]. These observations supported a possible role for CS in shaping the gut microbiome, with potential, though still unknown, consequences for evolution of inflammation-related disorders, such as IBD.
4.5. Other potential mechanisms
Currently, the processes described in Sections 4.1–4.4 have been those most explored as potential links between CS and IBD development. However, there are several other possible mechanisms, indicative of how environmental factors might exponentially increase complexity of IBD pathology.
4.5.1. Colon motility
In UC, fasting colonic motility increased, whereas motor responses to food significantly decreased [134]. Observations in experimental animals and humans showed that nicotine promoted smooth muscle relaxation, reducing symptoms, such as diarrhoea and urgency without significantly influencing inflammation [135, 136, 137].
4.5.2. Eicosanoid-mediated inflammation
Smoking and nicotine may also affect UC by reducing eicosanoid-mediated inflammatory responses. Two studies independently demonstrated this specific effect in humans and rabbits [53, 138].
4.5.3. Rectal blood flow
Patients with UC have significantly higher rectal blood flow than normal controls, but smoking decreased rectal blood flow to within normal ranges [139, 140, 141]. However, changes in blood flow can affect intestinal inflammation in opposing ways. Decreasing blood flow can reduce levels of inflammatory mediators that reach the mucosal surface, while long-term impairment of rectal mucosal microvascular blood flow can result in a higher incidence of anastomotic breakdown in chronic smokers [140].
4.5.4. Non-nicotine-mediated effects
Although nicotine is considered to be the major mediator of CS effects on intestinal inflammation, there is a clear evidence for involvement of other smoke constituents in CS-dependent responses. Both UC and CD mouse models were affected by carbon monoxide (CO) inhalation [71, 72, 73, 142]. These studies suggested that the mechanism through which CO protected against intestinal inflammation involved promoting bactericidal activities of macrophages [142]. Nitric oxide (NO) was also suggested as contributing to beneficial CS effects, based on its relaxant effects on colonic smooth muscle from UC patients [143]. Moreover, physiological NO, derived from nicotine-stimulated intestinal neuronal cells, functioned as a mediator in smooth muscle relaxation in the colons of DSS-treated mice [137].
5. Conclusions
Smoking cigarettes is addictive and causes a number of serious diseases, including those of the respiratory and cardiovascular system [144], it also negatively impact on the gastrointestinal tract, such as CD [145]. Many of the adverse health effects of smoking are reversible and important health benefits are associated with smoking cessation [146]. With regard to the other major IBD form, a protective effect of cigarette smoking on the risk of UC development is well documented. However, whether CS constituents have beneficial effects on the course of the disease is less clear and the potential mechanisms are not understood.
CS inhalation studies in IBD mouse models would, ideally, reproduce the clinical effects of CS on colonic inflammation. This would facilitate identification of the mechanisms involved in the effects of CS on colitis and, eventually, lead to the characterisation of new anti-inflammatory processes involved in colon protection [22]. Nonetheless, so far, the results obtained using animal models of IBD following exposure to inhaled CS or to nicotine via non-inhalation routes, reflected the ambiguity of the clinical observations. These inconsistencies often reflect the high variability related to animal models (e.g. strains, IBD inducers, etc.) and inhalation methodologies. A more systematic and standardised approach is required to obtain consistent and reproducible data addressing the mechanisms by which CS interacts with the inflammatory processes in animal models of UC-like and CD-like colitis. Such systematic investigations could provide valuable insights into the possible anti-inflammatory effects of CS constituents in models related to UC. Corresponding studies in CD models would provide more mechanistic detail about how these compounds can enhance inflammation in CD.
Acknowledgments
We thank Edanz Group for editorial assistance and Stéphanie Boué for the artwork (Figure 1).
Conflict of interest
Authors are employees of Philip Morris International. Philip Morris International is the sole source of funding and sponsor of this project. W.K. Schlage is contracted and paid by Philip Morris International.
\n',keywords:"inhalation, inflammatory bowel disease, animal models, cigarette smoke, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/56083.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/56083.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56083",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56083",totalDownloads:775,totalViews:196,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 22nd 2016",dateReviewed:"May 4th 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"May 23rd 2018",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) comprise primarily two disease manifestations, ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn’s disease (CD), each with distinctive clinical and pathological features. Environmental and clinical factors strongly affect the development and clinical outcomes of IBDs. Among environmental factors, cigarette smoke (CS) is considered the most important risk factor for CD, while it attenuates the disease course of UC. Various animal models have been used to assess the impact of CS on intestinal pathophysiology. This chapter examines the suitability of animal inhalation/smoke exposure models for assessing the contrary effects of CS on UC and CD. It presents an updated literature review of IBD mouse models and a description of possible mechanisms relevant to relationships between IBD and smoking. In addition, it summarises various technical inhalation approaches, in the context of mouse disease models of IBD.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/56083",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/56083",book:{slug:"experimental-animal-models-of-human-diseases-an-effective-therapeutic-strategy"},signatures:"Giuseppe Lo Sasso, Walter K. Schlage, Blaine Phillips, Manuel C.\nPeitsch and Julia Hoeng",authors:[{id:"202261",title:"Dr.",name:"Julia",middleName:null,surname:"Hoeng",fullName:"Julia Hoeng",slug:"julia-hoeng",email:"julia.hoeng@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"202450",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Lo Sasso",fullName:"Giuseppe Lo Sasso",slug:"giuseppe-lo-sasso",email:"Giuseppe.LoSasso@pmi.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"202451",title:"Dr.",name:"Blaine",middleName:null,surname:"Philips",fullName:"Blaine Philips",slug:"blaine-philips",email:"Blaine.Phillips@pmi.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"202452",title:"Prof.",name:"Walter",middleName:null,surname:"Schlage",fullName:"Walter Schlage",slug:"walter-schlage",email:"Walter.Schlage@contracted.pmi.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"205866",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel C.",middleName:null,surname:"Peitsch",fullName:"Manuel C. Peitsch",slug:"manuel-c.-peitsch",email:"manuel.peitsch@pmi.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Technical aspects of inhalation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Methods of acute and chronic pulmonary delivery of aerosols to rodents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Dose translatability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Overview of animal IBD models",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Inhalation studies investigating the effect of CS in rodent models of IBD",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Limits and pitfalls of studies using inhalation mouse models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Mechanisms of IBD pathogenesis with possible relationship to CS constituents",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1. Nicotinic anti-inflammatory pathway",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2. Immune regulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.3. Barrier dysfunction and intestinal permeability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.4. Gut microbiota",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.5. Other potential mechanisms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.5.1. Colon motility",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.5.2. Eicosanoid-mediated inflammation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.5.3. Rectal blood flow",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.5.4. Non-nicotine-mediated effects",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Abraham C, Cho JH. Inflammatory bowel disease. New England Journal of Medicine. 2009;361(21):2066-2078'},{id:"B2",body:'Tontini GE, et al. Differential diagnosis in inflammatory bowel disease colitis: State of the art and future perspectives. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2015;21(1):21-46'},{id:"B3",body:'Annese V, et al. 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International Journal of Inflammation. 2016;2016:1-10'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Giuseppe Lo Sasso",address:null,affiliation:'
Philip Morris International R&D, Philip Morris Products S.A, Neuchatel, Switzerland
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Philip Morris International R&D, Philip Morris Products S.A, Neuchatel, Switzerland
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Azevedo-Pereira, Pedro Canhão, Marta Calado, Quirina Santos-\nCosta and Pedro Barroca",authors:[{id:"156781",title:"Prof.",name:"José Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Azevedo-Pereira",fullName:"José Miguel Azevedo-Pereira",slug:"jose-miguel-azevedo-pereira"},{id:"172260",title:"MSc.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Canhão",fullName:"Pedro Canhão",slug:"pedro-canhao"},{id:"173225",title:"MSc.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Barroca",fullName:"Pedro Barroca",slug:"pedro-barroca"},{id:"174017",title:"Prof.",name:"Quirina",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Costa",fullName:"Quirina Santos-Costa",slug:"quirina-santos-costa"},{id:"175087",title:"MSc.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Calado",fullName:"Marta Calado",slug:"marta-calado"}]},{id:"49045",title:"Immunological and Haematological Changes in HIV Infection",slug:"immunological-and-haematological-changes-in-hiv-infection",signatures:"Wan Majdiah Wan Mohamad, Wan Suriana Wan Ab Rahman,\nSuhair Abbas Ahmed Al-Salih and Che Maraina Che Hussin",authors:[{id:"172799",title:"Dr.",name:"Wan Suriana",middleName:null,surname:"Wan Ab Rahman",fullName:"Wan Suriana Wan Ab Rahman",slug:"wan-suriana-wan-ab-rahman"},{id:"172963",title:"Dr.",name:"Wan Majdiah",middleName:null,surname:"Wan Mohamad",fullName:"Wan Majdiah Wan Mohamad",slug:"wan-majdiah-wan-mohamad"}]},{id:"48915",title:"The Impact of Modern Antiretroviral Therapy on Lipid Metabolism of HIV-1 Infected Patients",slug:"the-impact-of-modern-antiretroviral-therapy-on-lipid-metabolism-of-hiv-1-infected-patients",signatures:"Joel da Cunha, Luciana Morganti Ferreira Maselli, Sérgio Paulo\nBydlowski and Celso Spada",authors:[{id:"89691",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio",middleName:null,surname:"Bydlowski",fullName:"Sérgio Bydlowski",slug:"sergio-bydlowski"},{id:"172916",title:"Prof.",name:"Celso",middleName:null,surname:"Spada",fullName:"Celso Spada",slug:"celso-spada"},{id:"173202",title:"Dr.",name:"Joel",middleName:null,surname:"Da Cunha",fullName:"Joel Da Cunha",slug:"joel-da-cunha"},{id:"173203",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Morganti Ferreira Maselli",fullName:"Luciana Morganti Ferreira Maselli",slug:"luciana-morganti-ferreira-maselli"}]},{id:"48627",title:"Oxidative Stress, Redox Regulation and Elite Controllers of HIV Infection: Towards a Functional Cure",slug:"oxidative-stress-redox-regulation-and-elite-controllers-of-hiv-infection-towards-a-functional-cure",signatures:"Ibeh Bartholomew Okechukwu",authors:[{id:"42384",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartholomew",middleName:null,surname:"Ibeh",fullName:"Bartholomew Ibeh",slug:"bartholomew-ibeh"}]},{id:"48605",title:"Novel Prospective Treatment Options",slug:"novel-prospective-treatment-options",signatures:"Jeremiah Stanley and Naoki Yamamoto",authors:[{id:"172996",title:"Dr.",name:"Naoki",middleName:null,surname:"Yamamoto",fullName:"Naoki Yamamoto",slug:"naoki-yamamoto"},{id:"174413",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeremiah",middleName:null,surname:"Stanley",fullName:"Jeremiah Stanley",slug:"jeremiah-stanley"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"64275",title:"The Use of Ceramic Waste Powder (CWP) in Making Eco-Friendly Concretes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81842",slug:"the-use-of-ceramic-waste-powder-cwp-in-making-eco-friendly-concretes",body:'
1. Introduction
In a rapidly growing world population and toward meeting consumers’ needs, solid waste landfills will continue receiving huge volumes of waste. Therefore, waste management is becoming increasingly mandatory for the promotion of environmental sustainability. Numerous regulations have been imposed worldwide by governments and environmental organizations in order to reduce the negative environmental impact resulting from large numbers of solid waste landfills. The transformation of a large amount of solid waste into an alternative resource will preserve the reducing nonrenewable resources of materials; maintain the required energy and also will help solve environmental and exhausted landfill problems. Until today, researchers are investigating new solid waste materials and the potentials of recycling either in other industries or new products.
Being the world’s most consumed human-made material, concrete attracted considerable interest as a possible way to recycle solid waste products especially those that can replace cement which is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions. An equal amount of CO2 is generated for the production of Portland cement [1]. The cement industry produces around 5–8% of the annual global greenhouse gas emissions released into the atmosphere [2]. Several by-products such as fly ash, slag, and silica fume are effectively being used in the daily production of concrete as partial cement replacement (i.e., supplementary cementitious materials (SCM)) to reduce CO2 emission [3, 4].
Global production of ceramic tiles is more than 12 Billion m2 [5]. The manufacture of ceramic tiles generates ceramic waste powder (CWP) during the final polishing process at a rate of 19 kg/m2 [6]. Therefore, the global generation of CWP exceeds 22 Billion tons. The CWP represents a significant challenge to get rid of concerning its environmental impact. It can cause, soil, water, and air pollution. On the other hand, it could represent an excellent opportunity to be used as an alternative concrete ingredient if it could be utilized in making concrete.
The effect of using ceramic wastes (i.e., roof tiles, blocks, bricks, electrical insulators, etc.) as aggregates or SCM in conventional-vibrated concrete (CVC) and mortar was reported in several studies. It is noted that limited studies were conducted on using CWP as a cement replacement in self-compacting concrete (SCC) and alkali-activated concrete (AAC) (i.e., geopolymer concrete). Some studies investigated the use of ceramic waste as coarse aggregates in CVC and mortar [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. It was concluded that ceramic waste could be used as partial replacement of natural coarse aggregate. The ceramic waste aggregate should be pre-saturated by water to offset its high absorption. The compressive strength decreased if the ceramic waste replaced natural coarse aggregate beyond 25% by weight. The use of ceramic waste as fine aggregate in CVC and mortar was assessed by various researchers [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. It was noted that using a high content of ceramic waste as fine aggregate had a negative impact on the workability of the fresh concrete, and workability admixtures were needed to avoid any adverse effect on concrete workability. It was concluded that the use of 50% by weight replacement of fine natural aggregate by ceramic waste could produce concrete without affecting the performance of hardened concrete.
The use of CWP as partial replacement of cement attracted the attention of several researchers [6, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35]. The main conclusion from the studies was that CWP showed slow pozzolanic activity which was evidenced at late ages. The early compressive strength was reduced by the inclusion of CWP. The development of compressive strength needed time. On the other hand, durability was improved by the incorporation of CWP in the mixtures. It was noticed that the investigations on using CWP as partial replacement of cement did not address the fresh concrete properties as affected by the inclusion of CWP as well as the microstructure characteristics. Also, no guidelines were provided for using CWP to partially replace cement. The CWP replacement level will depend on personal knowledge and experience. Furthermore, the replacement of cement by large quantities of CWP needs further evaluation.
The use of CWP in self-compacting concrete (SCC) mixtures received limited attention. In 2017, Subaşi et al. [36] investigated the use of CWP as a partial cement replacement in SCC mixtures. It was concluded that CWP could replace 15% by weight of the cement without adversely affecting the properties of the produced SCC. In 2018, Jerônimo et al. [37] replaced cement by ground clay brick waste (GCBW) in SCC mixtures. It was concluded that 20–30% by weight of the cement could be replaced by GCBW, and the compressive strength improved at 90 days of age. It was observed that the detailed evaluation of the SCC fresh properties as affected by the inclusion of CWP was not addressed. Also, the effect of using high-volume CWP in SCC still needs further assessment.
Concerning using CWP in alkali-activated concrete (AAC) (i.e., geopolymer concrete), it was noted that very limited investigations were conducted [38, 39, 40]. The main conclusion that CWP could be used in making AAC but needs detailed investigation and assessment.
An in-depth investigation to study the utilization of CWP in the production of different types of concrete is needed. This chapter summarizes the findings of collective studies conducted by the authors investigating the use of CWP in making eco-friendly concrete [41, 42, 43, 44, 45], with a particular focus on using CWP as a partial cement replacement in CVC and SCC, and the production of AAC. This will establish better understanding on how to incorporate an existing solid waste as a new construction ingredient in making echo-friendly concretes in order to optimize solid waste management, and help protect the environment by reducing the use of cement and efficiently getting rid of a solid waste material.
2. Characteristics of CWP
The produced ceramic waste material was a wet material due to the use of water during the polishing process. The average moisture content was 36% by mass. The average specific surface area (SSA) measured by air-permeability (i.e., Blain air permeability test apparatus) was 555 m2/kg. More than 50% by volume of the CWP particles had a size ranging between 5 and 10 μm. Figure 1 shows the particles’ size distribution of the CWP.
Figure 1.
Particle size distribution of CWP [43]. Reproduced with permission from the publisher.
The CWP consisted of irregular and angular particles which are similar to cement particles in shape as shown in the scanning electron microscope (SEM) image in Figure 2. Figure 3 shows the energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) of the main oxides of the CWP. The EDS analysis indicated that CWP is mainly composed of SiO2 and Al2O3.
Figure 2.
SEM images of CWP.
Figure 3.
EDS analysis of CWP [43]. Reproduced with permission from the publisher.
Table 1 gives the chemical analysis of the CWP as determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF). CWP is mainly composed of silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3). Both oxides are around 85% of the total material mass. Other compounds (i.e., CaO, MgO, and SO3) exist in small quantities. The mass fractions of (SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3) satisfies the requirement of the ASTM C618 [46] for natural pozzolana (i.e., >70%). Also, the SO3 and the loss on ignition (L.O.I.) conformed to the ASTM C618 requirements.
CaO
SiO2
Al2O3
MgO
Fe2O3
SO3
L.O.I.
1.70(0.69)
68.60(0.97)
17.00(0.57)
2.50(0.90)
0.80(0.04)
0.12(0.16)
1.78
Table 1.
Chemical composition of CWP using XRF (modified from [43]).
Note: Values in parentheses are the standard deviation.
Figure 4 displays the X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of the CWP. The XRD indicates that the main peaks were noticed between 2-theta values of 20 and 30o which indicates the presence of (SiO2). The observed hump between 20 and 30o indicates the occurrence of an amorphous phase. Moreover, the unleveled graph trend between the 2-theta values 0 and 40o indicates the existence of an amorphous phase in the CWP sample.
Figure 4.
XRD pattern of CWP [43]. Reproduced with permission from the publisher.
Characterizing industrial waste materials and their potentials is one of the challenging issues in the field of cement and concrete. The compressive strength was given prominence as an initial means for evaluating the pozzolanic activity. The compressive strength development of cement mortar including CWP is assessed according to ASTM C311 [47] to measure the strength activity index (SAI).
Four mortar mixtures are prepared in which cement is partially replaced by CWP. The replacement levels are 10, 20, 30 and 40% by weight. Strength activity index (SAI) is calculated as the strength percentage as compared to the control mortar mixture. Table 2 gives the 28 days compressive strength, standard deviation SAI. Results showed that all CWP specimens satisfied the ASTM C618 requirement of SAI (i.e., >75%). In an investigation by Steiner et al. [25], a similar trend in the activity index for mortar mixtures with ceramic tiles polishing residues was reported. The SAI decreased after the inclusion of 40% CWP by cement mass; this could be attributed to the dilution effect. Also, it might be due to the high silica available in the mixture as a result of the high CWP. This large quantity could not find sufficient calcium hydroxide (CH) in order to react with. Therefore, most of the silica components were left without getting involved in the chemical reaction [48]. Also, Frattini test [49] is performed to identify the pozzolanic activity of CWP following BS EN 196-5:2011 [50]. Test samples with 0, 20 and 40% CWP as cement replacement by weight are tested. The Frattini test showed that concrete with 20 and 40% CWP replacement of Portland cement exhibited pozzolanic activity at 8 and 28 days age of concrete as shown in Figure 5.
CWP replacement level (mass %)
10%
20%
30%
40%
Average 28 days strength (MPa)
39.9
46.0
48.8
37.5
Standard deviation (MPa)
4.0
3.0
4.4
1.2
Strength activity index (SAI) in (%)
91.0
105.0
110.5
85.5
Table 2.
Strength activity index (SAI) results for CWP [43].
Reproduced with permission from the publisher.
Figure 5.
Frattini test at 8 and 28 days of CP with CWP replacement [45]. Reproduced with permission from the publisher.
In conclusion, CWP is silica and alumina rich material with some amorphous phases. The CWP has some pozzolanic activity, especially at a late age, as confirmed by strength activity index and Frattini tests. Therefore, CWP possesses the potentials to be used as a partial cement replacement in CVC and SCC mixtures, and as a main binder source to make AAC mixtures.
3. Conventional-vibrated concrete (CVC)
CWP is used to partially replace cement (0, 10, 20, 30 and 40% by weight) in different CVC mixtures. Two concrete grades with different cement contents are studied (25 and 50 MPa). The mixtures are chosen to cover several applications and different cement contents. All mixtures are designed to have a slump value from 60 to 100 mm. Table 3 gives the mixtures’ proportions of the mixtures. Initial slump values (i.e., ASTM C 143 [51]) is used to judge the mixtures’ workability. The time to reach zero slump is used to assess the workability retention of the concrete mixtures. The development of compressive strength with age (i.e., 7, 28 and 90 days) and drying shrinkage (i.e., 120 days) are measured. Rapid chloride ion penetration test (RCPT) (i.e., ASTM C 1202 [52]) and bulk electrical resistivity test (i.e., ASTM C 1760 [53]) are conducted at 28 and 90 days of age to evaluate the durability of the concrete mixtures. Triplicate samples are used for the compressive strength, drying shrinkage, RCPT, bulk electrical resistivity and permeable pores tests and the average results are used. The development of the microstructure is assessed by measuring permeable pores (i.e., ASTM C642 [54]) and the pore system (i.e., total porosity and median pore diameter) is measured by mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). Both are measured at 90 days of age. Main microstructure characteristics are identified using scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Concrete mixtures are prepared using ordinary Portland cement (OPC) as the primary binder. The specific surface area of cement is 380 m2/kg. Natural crushed stone of maximum size 19.0 mm is used as coarse aggregate. The specific gravity is 2.65 while the absorption was 1%. Natural sand with fineness modulus between 2.5 and 2.7 is used as fine aggregate. The specific gravity is 2.63.
3.1 Workability and workability retention of fresh concrete
Initial slump values are given in Table 3. As CWP inclusion level increases, the initial slump value decreases as a result of its high specific surface area (SSA) compared to that of the cement (i.e., the SSA of CWP is 1.5 times that of the cement). Workability retention defines the time available for easy handling the mixture. Figure 6 shows the time to zero slump of the concrete mixtures including CWP. It is noted that the workability retention time increases due to the inclusion of CWP. This could a result of CWP has no hydraulic reaction, and its pozzolanic reaction is slow. The use of 10% CWP in the 25 MPa mixtures has the highest workability retention. While for the 50 MPa mixtures, the use of 20% CWP shows the best retention time.
Figure 6.
Time to zero slump.
3.2 Compressive strength
The compressive strength development at different ages is shown in Figure 7. The coefficient of variation (COV) ranged from 0.4 to 4.8%. The compressive strength values at 7 and 28 days of age are lower than the target strength for both mixtures (i.e., 25 and 50 MPa). The reduction in strength is proportional to the CWP content. This could be attributed to the fact that CWP has no hydraulic reaction. Also, its contribution to early strength depended mainly on its microfilling ability (i.e., CWP particles’ size ranged from 5 to 10 μm). This behavior agrees with that of most pozzolanic materials with slow strength development at early ages [55]. Also, slowed strength development at early ages is reported for CWP [28, 29, 30, 32].
Figure 7.
Compressive strength development with age.
At a late age (i.e., 90 days) all the 25 MPa mixtures including CWP achieve compressive strength values higher than the target strength. The mixture with 10% CWP shows the highest compressive strength. The strength gain at 90 days of age might be due to the pozzolanic characteristics of the CWP material. For the 50 MPa mixtures, all CWP mixtures the target strength is achieved. The increase in strength values could be justified by the delayed pozzolanic reaction of the CWP. The CWP particles could have worked as nucleation sites for cement grains and hydration products which led to a denser microstructure.
3.3 Drying shrinkage
Table 4 shows the 120 days drying shrinkage strain values. The COV ranged from 20 to 26%. It is observed that the drying shrinkage strain decreases with increasing the CWP replacement level. The pores’ structure and connectivity of pores are changed due to the fine CWP particles and its pozzolanic action. This change results in restricting water movement through the concrete. The drying shrinkage values for mixtures including 10 and 20% CWP do not differ significantly from that of the control mixtures. For the 25 MPa mixtures, CWP with replacement levels of more than 20% reduces the drying shrinkage strain between 29 and 60% compared to the control mixture. While for the 50 MPa mixtures a decrease in the drying shrinkage strain values between 28 and 53% for CWP replacement levels above 20% are observed.
Mixture I.D.
Cement
CWP
Fine aggregate
Coarse aggregate
Water content
Initial slump (mm)
M25-0
310
0
749
1102
190
110
M25-10
279
31
737
1105
190
130
M25-20
248
62
734
1101
190
103
M25-30
217
93
731
1097
190
95
M25-40
186
124
629
1093
190
55
M50-0
485
0
662
993
208
55
M50-10
437
48
658
988
208
65
M50-20
388
97
654
981
208
60
M50-30
340
145
650
975
208
42
M50-40
291
194
673
968
208
10
Table 3.
Mixtures’ proportions (kg/m3) and initial slump values (mm) (modified from [43]).
Mixture
Shrinkage strain (microstrain)
Mixture
Shrinkage strain (microstrain)
M25-0
2608
M50-0
2569
M25-10
2488
M50-10
2222
M25-20
2817
M50-20
2413
M25-30
1033
M50-30
1199
M25-40
1859
M50-40
1848
Table 4.
Drying shrinkage strain values at 120 days (microstrain) (modified from [43]).
3.4 Chloride ion penetration test (RCPT)
The concrete durability concerning its resistance to chloride ion penetration and chloride induced corrosion can be judged by the RCPT. The inclusion of CWP as partial cement replacement has a significant effect on the chloride ion penetration of the 25 and 50 MPa concrete mixtures. Figure 8 demonstrates a significant reduction in the 28 and 90 days’ test results of all CWP concrete mixtures. The COV ranged from 3 to 15%.
Figure 8.
Chloride ion penetration.
At 28 days of age, the use of 20, 30 and 40% CWP reduces the total passed charge by 2–8 times lower than that of the control mixture. Mixtures with 30 and 40% are rated as “Very Low” for chloride ion penetration as per the classification of the ASTM C1202 [52]. At 90 days of age, the chloride ion penetration classification of all the 25 MPa mixtures including CWP is “Very low.” The reduction in the total passed charge for the mixtures incorporating CWP compared to its corresponding 28 days values ranged from 56 to 84%.
While for the 50 MPa mixtures, the 28 days chloride ion penetration decreases with the inclusion of CWP. The reduction is proportional to the CWP content. The reduction with respect to the control mixture is 38% for the use of 10% CWP and 90% for the use of 40% CWP. The ASTM classification of mixtures including high levels of CWP (i.e., ≥20) is shifted from “High” to “Low” and even “Very Low.” At the 90 days of age, chloride ion penetration for all 50 MPa CWP mixtures is classified as “Very Low.” This significant reduction could be due to the microstructure densification and refinement of the pore structure provided by the fine particles of CWP in addition to its pozzolanic effect. Also, the reduction with age indicates the development of a dense microstructure, especially with discontinuous pore system. Similar findings were reported in other studies [6, 30, 34, 56].
3.5 Bulk electrical resistivity test
The corrosion protection of the concrete to the embedded reinforcement can be assessed by its electrical resistivity [57]. Figure 9 displays the bulk electrical resistivity at 28 and 90 days of age. The COV ranged from 4 to 10%. It should be noted that electrical resistivity is mainly affected by the porosity and the pore size distribution [58]. Therefore, the development of the microstructure could be judged by measuring the electrical resistivity. Ionic mobility is reduced by the discontinuity of pores, and hence concrete resistivity and corrosion protection will increase. The resistivity results of all concrete mixtures including CWP are higher than those of the control mixtures. Microfilling effect and pozzolanic activity of the CWP which could lead to a denser microstructure could be the main reasons for the increase in the resistivity of the mixtures including CWP. It was reported that the use of ceramic polishing residues was reported to reduce water permeability of cement mortar samples [6, 34].
Figure 9.
Bulk electrical resistivity.
At 28 days of age, 25 MPa mixtures including 20, 30 and 40% CWP have a resistivity higher than 10 kΩ.cm. This is classified as “High” to “Very High” corrosion protection levels according to ACI 222R-01 [57]. The increase in resistivity is proportional to the CWP replacement level. At 90 days of age, using CWP demonstrates a significant increase in the electrical resistivity values with respect to the control mixture. The 50 MPa concrete mixtures with CWP had similar performance to the 25 MPa mixtures at both ages. Including 10% CWP results in a “High” corrosion protection level. When CWP is included with 20% or more the corrosion protection level is “Very High” at both ages.
Both RCPT and resistivity results confirm the performance of the concrete mixtures including CWP with regards to chloride ion attack, chloride-induced corrosion, and corrosion protection.
3.6 Permeable pores
The permeable pores of the concrete mixtures can assess the development of the pore system and judge the microstructure development. Figure 10 shows the permeable pores measured at 90 days of age. The COV ranged from 2 to 8%. In general, the permeable pores are decreased by the inclusion of CWP compared to the control mixture.
Figure 10.
Ninety days permeable pores.
In the case of the 25 MPa mixtures, the permeable pores are reduced by 17% up to 36% due to the inclusion of CWP as a partial cement replacement. Similar performance is observed for the 50 MPa mixtures. The reduction in pores volume ranged from 2 to 24% compared to the control mixture. The inclusion of the fine CWP particles with high SSA could physically have a microfilling effect and improves the particles’ packing in the mixtures. Also, to the CWP pozzolanic activity, the mixtures microstructure is densified. Therefore, the pore structure is refined resulting in lower pore volume. The reduction in permeable pores reduces the mobility of water from inside the concrete which is reflected in reducing the reduction in the drying shrinkage strain. Also, reduction in chloride ion penetration and immobility of ions are direct effects of the pores’ size refinement. This is reflected in the reduction of the chloride ions penetration and the improvement of the electrical resistivity with age.
3.7 Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP)
MIP is a widely used test to characterize the pore structure of cement-based materials. The test is capable of providing information about the total porosity, and the median pore diameter based on intruded volume. The concrete pore system indicates its microstructural development that can be related to its performance.
Table 5 gives the results of the MIP test regarding total porosity percentage and the median pore diameter based on intruded volume at 90 days of age. The inclusion of CWP reduces the total porosity at 90 days of age. The use of 40% CWP as partial replacement of the cement reduces the porosity by 9 and 19% for the 25 and 50 MPa mixtures respectively compared to the same mixtures without CWP. The median pore diameter is reduced due to the inclusion of CWP. It is noted that the reduction was proportional to the CWP content. The reduction in the total porosity and the median pore diameter confirms the densification of the microstructure due to the inclusion of CWP as a partial cement replacement.
The reduction in the total porosity and especially the reduction in the pore size confirm the superior durability performance of the mixture observed at the late age. The microstructure development could be related to the durability performance. The median pore diameter was correlated to the 90 days RCPT and electrical resistivity values as shown in Figure 11. The median pore diameter correlates well with the durability test results. The correlation coefficient (R2) is 0.9517 and 0.7977 for the median pore diameter relationship with the RCPT and the electrical resistivity respectively.
Figure 11.
Relation between median pore diameter and 90 days RCPT and electrical resistivity.
3.8 Microstructure characteristics
To better understand the performance of CVC mixtures including CWP, the main microstructural characteristics are inspected by scanning electron microscope (SEM). Microstructure examination is conducted at 90 days of age. The examination is conducted on the control mixture for both concrete grades (i.e., M25-0 and M50-0), and the mixtures including the highest CWP content (i.e., M25-40 and M50-40).
Figure 12 shows the SEM images of the general characteristics for M25-0 and M25-40. For the M25-0 mixture, crystalline hydration products are observed in addition to several pores. For M25-40, fewer pores with smaller size are noticed which indicates the densification of the microstructure that confirms the superior durability performance. Few crystalline hydration products are observed. Figure 13 displays the aggregate matrix interfacial transition zone (ITZ) for M25-0 and M25-40 mixtures. Crystalline hydration products are noticed in both mixtures in the ITZ region with smaller crystal size in M25-40 mixture. The matrix around the aggregate in the M25-40 mixture includes lesser pores compared to M25-0, this is similar to the observations of the general matrix microstructure.
Figure 12.
SEM image of general microstructure for M25-0 and M25-40 mixtures.
Figure 13.
SEM image of ITZ region for M25-0 and M25-40 mixtures.
The general microstructure for M50-0 and M50-40 is shown in Figure 14. Generally, the 50 MPa mixtures have a denser microstructure compared to the 25 MPa mixtures. For the M50-0 mixture, few pores are noticed, and the crystalline hydration products are smaller in size. The inclusion of CWP densified the microstructure by refining the pore structure as depicted in the SEM image. The ITZ region microstructure is presented in Figure 15. The incorporation of CWP improves the densification of the ITZ region microstructure. The crystalline hydration products and pores’ size are reduced due to the inclusion of CWP.
Figure 14.
SEM image of general microstructure for M50-0 and M50-40 mixtures.
Figure 15.
SEM image of ITZ region for M50-0 and M50-40 mixtures.
4. Self-compacting concrete (SCC)
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) has received wide attention and used in the construction industry worldwide since its development [59]. SCC is featured with high fluidity, and at the same time, high resistance to segregation and is placed purely under its weight without the need for vibration [60, 61, 62]. SCC properties are the result of modifying the composition of CVC by incorporating high powder content that has been mainly cement. However, the use of high cement content is not desirable as it will increase the cost and has other negative environmental effects. Replacing cement in SCC mixtures with waste powder is a trend gaining a great deal of attention with the growing awareness toward environmental protection and sustainable construction [63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70]. CWP is used to partially replace cement to produce eco-friendly SCC. The cement content in the control mixture is 500 kg/m3 based on the preliminary mix design. The powder content of the control mixture meets the recommended value by EFNARC specifications [71]. The cement is partially replaced by the CWP in 20, 40 and 60% by weight. The concrete mixture is expected to yield compressive strength in the range of 80 MPa. The details of the mixtures’ proportions are given in Table 6.
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is used as the main binder. The specific surface area of cement is 380 m2/kg. Natural crushed stone of maximum size 9.5 mm is used as coarse aggregate. The specific gravity is 2.65 while the absorption was 0.7%. Natural sand with fineness modulus between 2.5 and 2.7 is used as fine aggregate. The specific gravity is 2.63.
Several tests are conducted to investigate the effect of replacing cement with CWP on the fresh properties of the produced concrete. Unconfined flowability of the produced SCC mixture is assessed by the slump flow test in accordance to ASTM C1611 [72]. Passing ability is evaluated through two tests namely the J-ring (i.e., ASTM C1621 [73]), and L-box. The segregation resistance is measured through conducting the GTM segregation column test conforming to ASTM C1610 [74]. Finally, the viscosity is measured by following the V-funnel test procedure described in the EFNARC specification [71]. On the other hand, compressive strength is performed at two test ages (i.e., 7 and 28 days) in order to evaluate the strength development. The durability characteristic is evaluated by conducting the bulk electrical resistivity as per ASTM C1760 [53] at 28 and 90 days of age. Triplicate samples are used to conduct the compressive strength and the bulk electrical resistivity tests and the average results are used. Figure 16 shows the different tests conducted. The microstructure development is judged by measuring the permeable pore volume at 28 and 90 days of age. Also, the pore system (i.e., total porosity and median pore diameter) is assessed using mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). The MIP is conducted at 90 days of age.
Figure 16.
Different tests conducted on SCC.
4.1 Slump flow results
Slump flow test evaluated the unconfined flowability of the produced SCC mixtures. Figure 17 displays the test results together with the EFNARC specifications [71].
Figure 17.
Slump flow results.
It is noticed that the slump flow decreases as the amount of CWP in the mixture increases. Even with the reduction in the slump flow values, none of the CWP mixtures dropped to the slump flow class one (SF1) which is critical in the presence of highly congested reinforced concrete structures.
Chopra and Siddique [48] reported a similar trend when using rice husk ash (RHA) as cement replacement. The relatively higher specific surface area (SSA) of the CWP compared with cement would increase the water demand and accordingly resulted in lower slump flow values. Similarly, Sfikas et al. [75] reported a reduction in the slump flow of SCC when they used metakaolin, which is characterized by a high SSA, to replace cement.
The time taken for concrete to reach the 500 mm diameter circle on the steel base plate of the slump flow test is measured (T50). The T50 value can judge the viscosity of the SCC mixtures. High T50 values indicate mixtures with higher viscosity. The T50 results are given in Table 7.
The passing ability of SCC is evaluated by the J-ring test. This test evaluates how the SCC mixtures can perform in the presence of reinforcing bars in form works. The difference between the unrestricted slump flow diameter and the J-ring flow diameter is shown in Figure 18. The inclusion of CWP improves the passing ability of the SCC mixtures. As the CWP content increases the mixtures’ passing ability is improved and shows a great capacity for flowing through congested spaces. Therefore, mixtures containing high CWP perform better than the control mixture with regards to the passing ability.
Figure 18.
J-ring results.
4.3 L-box results
The passing ability of SCC through congested reinforcement can also be assessed by using the L-box test. The L-box results are given in Table 7. Comparable blocking ratios are observed for all tested mixtures. The variation is less than 1.5%. SCC mixtures including CWP mixtures show no signs of blocking. Generally, EFNARC [71] suggests blocking risk is likely if the blocking ratio is below 0.8. The viscosity of the mixtures is too high if the blocking ratio is less than 0.8. This can cause blocking around highly congested sections. Based on the results, all mixtures with CWP can be used in applications where flow through congested reinforcement is needed.
4.4 V-funnel results
In this test, the viscosity and filling ability of the fresh concrete is judged by the V-funnel test where the concrete is forced to flow through small cross sections and confined spaces. The flow rate (i.e., V-funnel time) of the SCC through the small cross-section is directly related to the mixture’s viscosity.
The V-funnel test results are given in Table 7. The V-funnel results show an increasing trend, indicating a higher viscosity of the mixtures. All the measured V-funnel time values correspond to the second viscosity class according to EFNARC specification [71]. The increase in the viscosity indicates an improvement in the segregation resistance. The viscosity-modifying admixture (VMA) is typically used to adjust mixtures’ viscosity and enhance segregation resistance. Since the mixtures’ viscosity values are significantly enhanced by the incorporation of CWP the VMA could be eliminated from the mixture or its dosage could be reduced. This would result in more economical and low-cost mixtures.
4.5 GTM segregation column results
The ability of concrete to remain homogeneous in the composition in its fresh state is defined as its segregation resistance. The GTM segregation column test is used to evaluate the mixtures’ segregation resistance.
Segregation percentage is shown in Figure 19. The segregation percentage decreases as the CWP content increases in the mixtures. The CWP significantly improves the segregation resistance of the SCC mixtures. The incorporation of CWP in SCC enhances the cohesiveness characteristics of the mixtures. The segregation percentages are below 15%, which shows that the SCC mixtures were superior regarding segregation resistance. Segregation resistance is related to viscosity. The improvement in segregation resistance is confirmed by the V-funnel test results. As the amount of CWP increases in the mixtures from 0 to 60%, the segregation resistance is enhanced by 72.5%. The substantial enhancement in the segregation resistance can be explained by the fact that the water adsorption of the CWP particles may induce suction forces possibly leading to cluster formation. This will lead to an increase in the inter-particle bonds as in the clustering theory enhancing the segregation resistance similar to RHA mixtures studied by Le and Ludwig [76].
Figure 19.
Segregation resistance results.
4.6 Compressive strength results
Strength is measured at different test ages (7, 28, and 90 days) to evaluate the strength development as affected by the inclusion of CWP as partial cement replacement. The strength development due to the inclusion of any cement replacing material is mainly affected by the cement hydration and pozzolanic reaction the used material, and the effect on the concrete microstructure especially the densification of the microstructure with a particular focus on the aggregate-paste interfacial zone [77].
Figure 20 shows the compressive strength development with age. The COV ranged from 0.4 to 3.0%. At the 7 days of age, it is noticed that the inclusion of CWP decreases the strength and the reduction is proportional to the CWP content. This could be a direct result of replacing cement by CWP which has no hydraulic reaction. At the 28 days of age, the mixture including 20% by weight CWP showed higher strength compared to the control mixture. Nevertheless, the mixture of 60% by weight CWP shows the least developed strength. Since CWP is characterized by the slow pozzolanic reaction, it is expected not to see much effect until late ages. At the 90 days of age, the improvement in strength is noticeable. At the 90 days of age, mixtures with 20 and 40% by weight CWP achieve the highest compressive strength compared to the control mixture. This implies that 20–40% by weight CWP is the optimum cement replacement to obtain high compressive strength.
Figure 20.
Compressive strength development with age.
The increase in the strength can also be explained through the nucleation sites (i.e., nucleation of CH around the CWP particles). The CWP improves the packing of the concrete mixture due to its high SSA and its pozzolanic reaction, and the cement hydration acceleration similar to the effect of rice husk ash (RHA) observed in another investigation [76]. On the other hand, the use of 60% by weight CWP shows marginal improvement in strength; this can be due to the high amount of silica from the CWP, and the insufficient amount of calcium hydroxide (CH) from the cement hydration. Hence, some silica is left without chemical reaction. Similar behavior was observed by using RHA (i.e., characterized by high SSA and high silica content) as cement replacement [48].
4.7 Bulk electrical resistivity results
The electrical resistivity of concrete is affected by several factors such as porosity, pore size distribution, connectivity, concrete’s moisture content, and ionic mobility in pore solution. Electrical resistivity assesses the concrete protection of reinforcing steel against corrosion. According to ACI 222R-01 [57], the corrosion protection level is improved as the resistivity value increases.
The resistivity values are presented in Figure 21 at 28 and 90 days of age. The COV ranged from 6.4 to 13.2%. The resistivity increases with age. The inclusion of CWP significantly increases the mixtures’ resistivity. The significant increase in the resistivity due to the inclusion of CWP suggests that CWP tended to reduce the interconnected pore network contributing to the reduction of the concrete’s conductivity. With age, CWP pozzolanic activity contributes to the refinement of concrete pores and microstructure, thus further reduces the ionic mobility and hence the concrete’s conductivity. The improved resistivity indicated that the durability of the CWP concrete mixtures to protect reinforcing steel against the corrosive environment is much better than that of the control mixture without CWP.
Figure 21.
Electrical resistivity of SCC.
4.8 Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP)
The MIP test provides information about the pore system (i.e., pore volume and median pore diameter). The MIP results can help understand the development of the concrete microstructure and can also explain the other obtained results. Table 8 shows the MIP test results at 90 days of age. Test results show that high CWP content has a significant reduction of the pore volume and the pores’ size. The reduction in the pore volume and the pores’ size indicates densification of the microstructure. Also, the MIP results confirm the improvement observed in the resistivity results and compressive strength.
MIP results at 90 days of age (modified from [42]).
Based on the intruded volume.
5. Zero-cement alkali activated concrete (AAC)
Zero-cement alkali-activated concrete (AAC) emerged as an alternative to cement-based concrete [78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84]. Sometimes, AAC is referred to as inorganic-polymer or geopolymer concrete. In AAC, cement is completely replaced. AAC utilizes and silica and alumina rich materials to be alkali-activated to form a three-dimensional CaO-free alumino-silicate binder. AAC offers a significant opportunity for the reuse of several industrial by-products and wastes such as fly ash, metakaolin, and blast-furnace slag. Geopolymerization technology is based on the reaction of alkaline solutions such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH) and sodium silicate solution. The CWP is characterized by its high silica and alumina content which makes it a good candidate to be used in making ACC. The limited studies on suing CWP in AAC [38, 39, 40] concluded that the optimum curing temperature ranges from 60 to 80°C, the curing period ranges between 24 and 48 hours, and the molarity of the alkali solution is 12 M.
The use of CWP in the making AAC still needs further investigations to develop a better understanding of its performance. CWP is used to make AAC using different alkali solutions, mainly NaOH and KOH. Several parameters are investigated which include alkaline solutions with 12 M concentration (i.e., NaOH alone, KOH alone and combination), CWP to aggregate ratio (i.e., 1:1.5–1:2.0–1:2.5), admixture dosage (i.e., 1.5 and 4.0%), curing time (i.e., 60°C for 24 and 48 hours), the inclusion of slag in addition to CWP (i.e., slag content 10, 20 and 40%). Several tests are used to evaluate the performance of the mixtures which include flowability (i.e., ASTM C1437 [85]), cube compressive strength, permeable pores (i.e., ASTM C642 [54]), initial rate of water absorption (i.e., ASTM C1585 [86]), and electrical resistivity (i.e., ASTM C1760 [53]). The COV ranged from 0.3 to 2.8%.
The sodium hydroxide flakes and potassium hydroxide are dissolved in distilled water to make a solution with the desired concentration (i.e., 12 M) at least 1 day before its use. Table 9 shows the alkali solutions used and the combination of NaOH and KOH solutions. The dry ingredients are first mixed for about 1 minute. The sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide solutions are added to the dry materials based on the order of mixing in Table 9 and mixed for 3 minutes.
5.1 Effect of aggregate content
The effect of aggregate content was evaluated by the flowability and 7 days compressive strength. Mixtures are cured at 60°C for 24 hours. Figure 22 shows the flowability and 7 days compressive strength as affected by the CWP to aggregate ratio. It is noticed that the flowability decreases as the aggregate content increases. This is similar to the behavior cement concrete as the CWP content acts as a lubricant between aggregate particles. Oppositely the 7 days compressive strength improved by the increase of the aggregate content. The mixing regime of the solution affects the flowability and strength. The mixing regime (A) shows the best flowability performance while the other mixing regimes show similar flowability values. The mixing regimes (D) and (E) produce the highest compressive.
Figure 22.
Flowability and 7 days compressive strength as affected by CWP to aggregate ratio.
5.2 Effect of admixture content
Superplasticizer (i.e., polycarboxylic ether based) is added with a dosage of 1.5 and 4.0% of the CWP weight. The AAC mixture with CWP to the aggregate ratio (1:2.5) and 24 hours curing at 60°C is used to examine the effect of admixture dosage. Flowability and the 7 days compressive strength results are presented in Table 10. The use of 1.5% by weight superplasticizer, shows variable improvement in the flowability and marginal improvement in the strength. By increasing the admixture dosage to 4.0%, the flowability and strength are improved. For both admixture dosages, the mixing regimes (D) and (E) show the best flowability improvement and highest compressive strength.
I.D.
Alkali solutions %
Mixing regime of the solutions with the CWP
KOH
NaOH
A
0
100
—
B
100
0
—
C
20
80
NaOH solution is added first and mixed with solids for 1 minute, then KOH is added and mixing continues for an additional 2 minutes
D
40
60
NaOH and KOH solutions are mixed then added to solids and mixed for 3 minutes
E
60
40
KOH solution is added first and mixed with solids for 1 minute, then NaOH is added and mixing continues for an additional 2 minutes
Table 9.
Mixtures’ I.D., alkali solutions used and mixing regime of solutions.
Effect of admixture on flowability and 7 days compressive strength.
Superplasticizer admixture dosage by weight of the CWP.
5.3 Effect of curing time
The AAC mixture with CWP to aggregate ratio (1:2.5) and 4% admixture is used to examine the effect of curing time (i.e., 24 and 48 hours) at 60°C. Figure 23 shows the effect of curing time on the 7 days compressive strength. The compressive strength increases as the curing time increases. A similar trend is reported for metakaolin-based AAC [87]. Although increasing the curing time improves the compressive strength, the application of shorter curing time is considered from the point of reducing the energy consumption.
Figure 23.
Seven days compressive strength for the AAC mixture with CWP to aggregate ratio 1:2.5 as affected by curing time at 60°C.
5.4 Effect of slag content and curing regime
Several studies investigated the use of slag in making AAC [88, 89, 90, 91, 92]. Slag proved to be a suitable material in making AAC. Slag is characterized by having some hydraulic reaction due to the existence of calcium oxide (CaO) beside the existence of silica and alumina for the alkali activation. Therefore, slag is used to replace part of the CWP. This will help improve the flowability of the AAC mixture and improve the strength development without the need to increase curing time. The AAC mixture with CWP to aggregate ration 1:2.5 and 4% admixture is used to assess the effect of including slag as a binder material in addition to the CWP. The slag replaced the CWP with 10, 20 and 40% by weight. The AAC mixtures including slag are subjected to three curing regimes; air curing, 24 hours at 60°C followed by air curing, and 24 hours at 60°C followed by water curing for 6 days. Figure 24 shows the flowability of AAC mixtures including slag and CWP. The inclusion of slag improves the mixtures’ flowability. The improvement is proportional to the slag content with the highest improvement at 40% slag.
Figure 24.
Flowability of AAC including CWP and slag.
The effect of including slag with CWP on the 7 days strength is displayed in Figure 25. The air cured mixtures showed the lowest strength development. It is observed that the (oven + air) and (oven + water) results are comparable for both the 20 and 40% slag replacements. The strength values are found to increase with the increase in slag % replacing the CWP, with the highest at 40% slag.
Figure 25.
Seven days compressive strength of AAC including CWP and slag.
The inclusion of slag is beneficial in producing AAC using CWP with a level of replacement of 40%. Based on the flowability and the 7 days compressive strength, the following are the optimum mixture’s parameter to make AAC using CWP:
the CWP to the aggregate ratio is 2.5,
the alkali solutions mixing regime (D) (i.e., NaOH 60% and KOH 40% mixed) produces suitable flowability and strength;
the use of 4% of superplasticizer to improve flowability;
the application of 24 hours at 60°C followed by air curing; and
the use of 40% by weight slag to replace CWP.
The performance of an AAC mixture following the above parameters is assessed. Table 11 summarizes the obtained results. Results show that CWP in combination with 40% slag can produce AAC with strength suitable for different structural applications. The electrical resistivity and initial rate of absorption indicate that the produced AAC is characterized by high durability. The change in the test results values with age indicates that most of the reactions are finished at 7 days of age. Hence there is no need for waiting to evaluate the performance at 28 days of age similar to Portland cement concrete.
Test age (days)
7
28
Compressive strength (MPa)
39.3
40.7
Permeable pores %
8.89
8.32
Electrical bulk resistivity (kΩ.cm)
17.9
18.2
Initial rate of absorption (mm/min1/2) sorptivity
0.15
0.12
Table 11.
Seven and twenty-eight days results for optimum AAC mixture.
6. Conclusions
The CWP contains high silica and alumina content (i.e., >80%). Also, it is characterized by having some amorphous content which shows pozzolanic activity especially at late ages. Therefore, CWP has strong potentials to be used as an ingredient in making eco-friendly concretes.
Using CWP as an ingredient in making CVC is viable. High-performance concrete can be produced by including CWP as partial cement replacement. CWP improves the workability retention of the CVC mixtures. The inclusion of CWP will reduce the early-age strength and slowed the strength development. Significant improvement of CVC durability can be achieved by including high content of CWP. The CVC performance varies according to the CWP content. CWP can be used in the range of 10–20% to improve workability retention and late strength development. A CWP content ranging from 30 to 40% is needed to improve durability. If the performance of mixture requires the combination of workability retention, strength and durability, a CWP content ranging from 20 to 30% can be used to optimize all required characteristics.
CWP can be used as a partial cement replacement to produce SCC that meets international requirements. All fresh concrete properties, except for slump flow, are significantly improved by the incorporation of CWP. The improvement is proportional to the CWP content. Similar to CVC, the inclusion of CWP affected the strength development and enhanced the durability. SCC with improved fresh performance and optimized strength can be produced using 40% CWP as partial cement replacement.
The use of CWP in making AAC showed promising potentials. The production of AAC using CWP should consider the aggregate content of the mixture, the use of superplasticizer admixtures and the use of an alkali solution composed of NaOH and KOH. The combination of slag with CWP improves the workability and strength development without the need for long curing time to conserve energy. The combination of CWP with fly ash can also be an alternative to enhance the performance of the produced AAC.
Finally, CWP has encouraging potentials to be used as an ingredient to make eco-friendly conventional-vibrated concrete (CVC), self-compacting concrete (SCC) and zero-cement alkali-activated concrete (AAC). The concrete industry can and will play a vital role in the sustainable development through the utilization of industrial waste materials.
Acknowledgments
This work was financially supported by the UAEU-UPAR2 Research Grant # 31 N2018. Also, the donation of the ceramic waste powder for the study by PORCELLAN (ICAD II MUSSAFAH—ABU DHABI, UAE) is much valued. The help of master students Dima M. Kanaan and Sama T. Aly is highly appreciated. Support to the second author by Southern Plains Transportation Centre (SPTC) to University of New Mexico is much appreciated.
\n',keywords:"ceramic waste powder, cement replacement, eco-friendly concrete, durability, microstructure",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64275.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64275.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64275",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64275",totalDownloads:929,totalViews:522,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"July 3rd 2018",dateReviewed:"October 3rd 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"March 20th 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The global production of ceramic waste powder (CWP), which is produced during the final polishing process of ceramic tiles, exceeds 22 billion tons. The disposal of CWP in landfills will cause significant environmental problems (i.e., soil, air, and groundwater pollution). CWP is characterized by its chemical composition that is mainly composed of silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3). Both minerals represent more than 80% of the CWP composition. CWP has potentials to be used as an ingredient to partially or entirely replacing Portland cement to make eco-friendly concretes. This chapter summarizes the effect of using CWP in making eco-friendly concretes, with a particular focus on using CWP as a partial cement replacement in conventional-vibrated concrete (CVC) and self-compacting concrete (SCC), and the production of zero-cement alkali-activated concrete (AAC).",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64275",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64275",signatures:"Amr S. El-Dieb, Mahmoud R. Taha and Samir I. Abu-Eishah",book:{id:"7449",title:"Ceramic Materials",subtitle:"Synthesis, Characterization, Applications and Recycling",fullTitle:"Ceramic Materials - Synthesis, Characterization, Applications and Recycling",slug:"ceramic-materials-synthesis-characterization-applications-and-recycling",publishedDate:"March 20th 2019",bookSignature:"Dolores Eliche Quesada, Luis Perez Villarejo and Pedro Sánchez Soto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7449.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"225122",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Dolores",middleName:null,surname:"Eliche Quesada",slug:"dolores-eliche-quesada",fullName:"Dolores Eliche Quesada"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"51333",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:"Ibrahim",surname:"Abu-Eishah",fullName:"Samir Abu-Eishah",slug:"samir-abu-eishah",email:"s.abueishah@uaeu.ac.ae",position:null,institution:{name:"United Arab Emirates University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},{id:"265896",title:"Prof.",name:"Amr",middleName:null,surname:"El-Dieb",fullName:"Amr El-Dieb",slug:"amr-el-dieb",email:"amr.eldieb@uaeu.ac.ae",position:null,institution:null},{id:"265898",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud",middleName:null,surname:"Taha",fullName:"Mahmoud Taha",slug:"mahmoud-taha",email:"mrtaha@unm.edu",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Characteristics of CWP",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Conventional-vibrated concrete (CVC)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Workability and workability retention of fresh concrete",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Compressive strength",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Drying shrinkage",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Chloride ion penetration test (RCPT)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Bulk electrical resistivity test",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.6 Permeable pores",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.7 Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.8 Microstructure characteristics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Self-compacting concrete (SCC)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.1 Slump flow results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.2 J-ring results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.3 L-box results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.4 V-funnel results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.5 GTM segregation column results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.6 Compressive strength results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.7 Bulk electrical resistivity results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"4.8 Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21",title:"5. Zero-cement alkali activated concrete (AAC)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.1 Effect of aggregate content",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"5.2 Effect of admixture content",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"5.3 Effect of curing time",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"5.4 Effect of slag content and curing regime",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26",title:"6. 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Cement and Concrete Composites. 2010;32(2):121-127. DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.10.008'},{id:"B50",body:'BS EN 196-5:2011. Methods of Testing Cement—Part 5: Pozzolanicity Test for Pozzolanic Cement. London, UK: British Standards Institution; 2011'},{id:"B51",body:'ASTM C143/C143M-15a. Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete. West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: ASTM International; 2017'},{id:"B52",body:'ASTM C1202-17. Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration. West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: ASTM International; 2017'},{id:"B53",body:'ASTM C1760-12. Standard Test Method for Bulk Electrical Conductivity of Hardened Concrete. West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: ASTM International; 2017'},{id:"B54",body:'ASTM C642-13. Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete. West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: ASTM International; 2017'},{id:"B55",body:'Mehta PK. Concrete Structure, Properties and Materials. New Jersey, USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc.; 1986. p. 450'},{id:"B56",body:'Bektas F. Use of ground clay brick as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete-hydration characteristics, mechanical properties, and ASR durability [dissertation]. Civil Construction and Environmental Engineering: Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA; 2007'},{id:"B57",body:'ACI 222R-01. Protection of Metals in Concrete against Corrosion. Farmington Hills, USA: American Concrete Institute; 2009'},{id:"B58",body:'Shahroodi A. Development of test methods for assessment of concrete durability for use in performance-based specifications [dissertation]. Department of Civil Engineering: University of Toronto; Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4, Canada; 2010'},{id:"B59",body:'Zhao H, Sun W, Wu X, Gao B. The properties of the self-compacting concrete with fly ash and ground blast furnace slag mineral admixtures. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2015;95:66-74. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.02.050'},{id:"B60",body:'ACI 237R-07. Self-Consolidating Concrete. Fragminton Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute; 2009'},{id:"B61",body:'Sideris KK, Manita P. Mechanical characteristics and durability of self-consolidating concretes produced with no additional fine materials. Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials. 2014;3(3-4):234-244. DOI: 10.1080/21650373.2014.924040'},{id:"B62",body:'García-Taengua E, Sonebi M, Crossett P, Taylor S, Deegan P, Ferrara L, et al. Performance of sustainable SCC mixes with mineral additions for use in precast concrete industry. Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials. 2016;5(3):157-175. DOI: 10.1080/21650373.2015.1024297'},{id:"B63",body:'Zhu W, Gibbs JC. Use of different limestone and chalk powders in self-compacting concrete. Cement and Concrete Research. 2005;35(8):1457-1462. DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.07.001'},{id:"B64",body:'Gesoğlu M, Güneyisi E, Erdoğan Ö. Properties of self-compacting concrete made with binary, ternary, and quaternary cementitious blends of fly ash, blast furnace slag, and silica fume. Construction and Building Materials. 2009;23(5):1847-1854. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.09.015'},{id:"B65",body:'Topcu IB, Bilir B, Uygunoğlu T. Effect of waste marble dust content as filler on properties of self-compacting concrete. Construction and Building Materials. 2009;23(5):1947-1953. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.09.007'},{id:"B66",body:'Liu M. Self-compacting concrete with different levels of pulverized fuel ash. Construction and Building Materials. 2010;24(7):1245-1252. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2009.12.012'},{id:"B67",body:'Liu M. Incorporating ground glass in self-compacting concrete. Construction and Building Materials. 2011;25(2):919-925. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.06.092'},{id:"B68",body:'Uysal M, Sumer M. Performance of self-compacting concrete containing different mineral admixtures. Construction and Building Materials. 2011;25(11):4112-4120. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.04.032'},{id:"B69",body:'Mandanoust R, Mousavi S. Fresh and hardened properties of self-compacting concrete containing metakaolin. Construction and Building Materials. 2012;35:752-760. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.04.109'},{id:"B70",body:'Beycioğlu A, Aruntaş HY. Workability and mechanical properties of self-compacting concretes containing LLFA, GBFS and MC. Construction and Building Materials. 2014;73:626-635. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.09.071'},{id:"B71",body:'EFNARC. The European Guidelines for Self-Compacting Concrete: Specification, Production and Use [Internet]. 2005. Available from: http://www.efnarc.org/pdf/SCCGuidelinesMay2005 [Accessed: Oct 1, 2017]'},{id:"B72",body:'ASTM C1611/C1611M-14. Standard Test Method for Slump Flow of Self-Consolidating Concrete. West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: ASTM International; 2017'},{id:"B73",body:'ASTM C1621/C1621M-17. Standard Test Method for Passing Ability of Self-Consolidating Concrete by J-Ring. West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: ASTM International; 2017'},{id:"B74",body:'ASTM C1610/C1610M-17. Standard Test Method for Static Segregation of Self-Consolidating Concrete Using Column Technique. West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: ASTM International; 2017'},{id:"B75",body:'Sfikas IP, Badogiannis EG, Trezos KG. Rheology and mechanical characteristics of self-compacting concrete mixtures containing metakaolin. Construction and Building Materials. 2014;64:121-129. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.048'},{id:"B76",body:'Le HT, Ludwig H-M. Effect of rice husk ash and other mineral admixtures on properties of self-compacting high performance concrete. Materials & Design. 2016;89:156-166. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2015.09.120'},{id:"B77",body:'Mehta PK, Monteiro PJM. Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials. 3rd ed. McGraw Hill; 2006. p. 659'},{id:"B78",body:'Shehab HK, Eisa AS, Wahba AM. Mechanical properties of fly ash based geopolymer concrete with full and partial cement replacement. Construction and Building Materials. 2016;126:560-565. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.09.059'},{id:"B79",body:'Mehta A, Siddique R. Properties of low-calcium fly ash based geopolymer concrete incorporating OPC as partial replacement of fly ash. Construction and Building Materials. 2017;150:792-807. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.06.067'},{id:"B80",body:'Pacheco-Torgal F, Castro-Gomes J, Jalali S. Alkali-activated binders: A review. Part 1. Historical background, terminology, reaction mechanisms and hydration products. Construction and Building Materials. 2008;22:1305-1314. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.10.015'},{id:"B81",body:'Pacheco-Torgal F, Castro-Gomes J, Jalali S. Alkali-activated binders: A review. Part 2. About materials and binders manufacture. Construction and Building Materials. 2008;22:1315-1322. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.03.019'},{id:"B82",body:'Shi C, Jiménez AF, Palomo A. New cements for the 21st century: The pursuit of an alternative to Portland cement. Cement and Concrete Research. 2011;41:750-761. DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.03.016'},{id:"B83",body:'Duxson P, Provis JL, Lukey GC, Van Deventer JSJ. The role of inorganic technology in the development of ‘Green Concrete’. Cement and Concrete Research. 2007;37(12):590-1597. DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.08.018'},{id:"B84",body:'Komnitsas KA. Potential of geopolymer technology towards green buildings and sustainable cities. Procedia Engineering. 2011;21:1023-1032. DOI: 10.1016/j.proeng.2011.11.2108'},{id:"B85",body:'ASTM C1437-15. Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar. West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: ASTM International; 2017'},{id:"B86",body:'ASTM C1585-13. Standard Test Method for Measurement of Rate of Absorption of Water by Hydraulic-Cement Concretes. West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: ASTM International; 2017'},{id:"B87",body:'Ronaník P. Effect of curing temperature on the development of hard structure of metakaolin-based geopolymer. Construction and Building Materials. 2010;24(7):1176-1183. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2009.12.023'},{id:"B88",body:'Nath P, Sarker PK. Effect of GGBFS on setting, workability and early strength properties of fly ash geopolymer concrete cured in ambient condition. Construction and Building Materials. 2014;66:163-171. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.05.080'},{id:"B89",body:'Puertas F, Fernandez-Jimenez A. Mineralogical and microstructural characterization of alkali-activated fly ash/slag pastes. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2003;25(3):287-292. DOI: 10.1016/S0958-9465(02)00059-8'},{id:"B90",body:'Puertas F, Martı́nez-Ramı́rez S, Alonso S, Vázquez T. Alkali-activated fly ash/slag cement strength behavior and hydration products. Cement and Concrete Research. 2000;30(10):1625-1632. DOI: 10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00298-2'},{id:"B91",body:'Akçaözoğlu S, Atiş CD. Effect of granulated blast furnace slag and fly ash addition on the strength properties of lightweight mortars containing waste PET aggregates. Construction and Building Materials. 2011;25(10):4052-4058. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.04.042'},{id:"B92",body:'Wang SD, Scrivener KL. 29Si and 27Al NMR study of alkali-activated slag. Cement and Concrete Research. 2003;33(5):769-774. DOI: 10.1016/S0008-8846(02)01044-X'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Amr S. El-Dieb",address:"amr.eldieb@uaeu.ac.ae",affiliation:'
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, United Arab Emirates University, UAE
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Mahmoud R. Taha",address:null,affiliation:'
Civil Engineering Department, University of New Mexico, USA
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Samir I. Abu-Eishah",address:null,affiliation:'
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering Department, United Arab Emirates University, UAE
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Over the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
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Our books contain scientific content written by two Nobel Prize winners, two Breakthrough Prize winners and 73 authors who are in the top 1% Most Cited.
\\n\\n
With regular submission for coverage in the single most important database, the Book Citation Index in the Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI), and no rejected submissions to date, over 43% of all Open Access books indexed in the BKCI are IntechOpen published books.
\\n\\n
In addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
\\n\\n
ACCESS
\\n\\n
The need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
\\n\\n
YOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\\n\\n
The utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\\n\\n
Can collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
\\n\\n
Our Open Access book collection includes:
\\n\\n
3,332 OPEN ACCESS BOOKS
\\n\\n
107,564 INTERNATIONAL AUTHORS AND ACADEMIC EDITORS
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113+ MILLION DOWNLOADS
\\n\\n
PUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\\n\\n
See a complete overview of all publishing process steps and descriptions here.
\\n\\n
CURRENT PROJECTS
\\n\\n
To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
Out of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\n
QUALITY CONTENT
\n\n
Over the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
\n\n
Our books contain scientific content written by two Nobel Prize winners, two Breakthrough Prize winners and 73 authors who are in the top 1% Most Cited.
\n\n
With regular submission for coverage in the single most important database, the Book Citation Index in the Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI), and no rejected submissions to date, over 43% of all Open Access books indexed in the BKCI are IntechOpen published books.
\n\n
In addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
\n\n
ACCESS
\n\n
The need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
\n\n
YOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\n\n
The utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\n\n
Can collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
\n\n
Our Open Access book collection includes:
\n\n
3,332 OPEN ACCESS BOOKS
\n\n
107,564 INTERNATIONAL AUTHORS AND ACADEMIC EDITORS
\n\n
113+ MILLION DOWNLOADS
\n\n
PUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\n
See a complete overview of all publishing process steps and descriptions here.
\n\n
CURRENT PROJECTS
\n\n
To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
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