Typical range of physico-mechanical values for tannin-furanic-based foams [12, 14, 30, 33, 54].
\r\n\tWith a history of over 50 years since their introduction into therapy and formulation of medicinal products, hydrogels remain a challenge for researchers in the field.
\r\n\tVersatile, with high-water content, tunable properties, and mild processing conditions, hydrogels advanced from simple chemically or physically crosslinked networks to complex double network composites or even more sophisticated new developments as shape memory and self-healing hydrogels.
\r\n\tIncreasing knowledge in hybrid or composite hydrogel materials, controlled release of sensitive drugs, or several drugs from the same hydrogel matrix could be achieved. Parallel to targeted efforts aimed to maintain drug micro- or nanoparticle’s distinct three-dimensional structure, synergistic hybrid materials with more than one type of polymer was developed.
\r\n\tBut one of the most challenging tasks remains further and continues to improve the clinical translation of these innovative hydrogels. That is what this book intends to provide the reader: a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art, recent advances, new perspectives, and applications of the hydrogels as valuable platforms for targeted delivery. Driven by the need to ensure proper patient compliance, ease of administration, along with the possibility to modulate release and degradation profiles after administration, numerous non-topical hydrogel formulations had been reported. Smart and supramolecular hydrogels, stimuli-reactive materials, that quickly respond in mild conditions, represent today an attractive approach for minimally invasive treatments.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book will also represent an invitation to discover “new” off-the-shelf hydrogels with highly tunable properties, with low complexity of formulation (environmentally friendly processing), but with adequate features to fulfill clinical requirements and provide desired delivery platforms for therapy.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-583-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-582-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-584-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"f1653eced91a8da966139960c059516c",bookSignature:"Prof. Lacramioara Popa, Dr. Mihaela Violeta Ghica and Prof. Cristina Dinu-Pirvu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11130.jpg",keywords:"Regenerative, Tissue, Environment, Biomimetic, Formulation, Characterization, Cells, Controlled, Biomedical, Characterization, Chitosan, Collagen",numberOfDownloads:213,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 23rd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 3rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 22nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in response surface methodology applied to drug systems design and optimization. Professor POPA LĂCRĂMIOARA (h-index 14) received her Ph.D. in Pharmacy (2000). She has over 28 years of experience in physical pharmacy: Quality by Design (QbD) in the development, analysis, and optimization of pharmaceutical systems; characterization of the raw materials surfaces and pharmaceutical systems; polymeric materials with biomedical applications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in Taguchi's approach for the development and optimization of biomaterial-based drug delivery systems. Professor Mihaela Violeta Ghica (h-index 16) has over 19 years ‘experience in physical pharmacy: modern methods of experimental statistical design in the development of drug delivery systems and technological processes optimization; biomaterials for tissue regeneration: obtaining, physical-chemical, biopharmaceutical, structural and morphological characterization.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in nanostructures formulation in pharmaceutical sciences. Professor Cristina-Elena Dinu-Pîrvu (h-index 15) is a member of the Romanian National Council for the Attestation of University Titles, Diplomas, and Certificates–Commission Pharmacy. She has over 28 years of experience in physical pharmacy: development of smart, efficient, and safe biocompatible materials; development of bio- and nanostructures for diagnostic and therapy.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"228211",title:"Prof.",name:"Lacramioara",middleName:null,surname:"Popa",slug:"lacramioara-popa",fullName:"Lacramioara Popa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/228211/images/system/228211.jpeg",biography:"Professor POPA LĂCRĂMIOARA received her PhD in Pharmacy (2000). She is head of Physical and Colloidal Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, 'Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy from Bucharest, Romania and President of the Ethics and Quality Assurance Commission from the same faculty. She is PhD supervisor (Habilitation thesis, 2014). Professor Popa Lăcrămioara graduated several courses in Intellectual Property (WIPO Academy, Geneva). She has over 28 years’ experience in physical pharmacy: Quality by Design (QbD) in the development, analysis, and optimization of pharmaceutical systems; characterization of the raw materials surfaces and pharmaceutical systems; polymeric materials with biomedical applications. 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She holds a Master’s degree in Physical Chemistry and Applied Radiochemistry at the Faculty of Chemistry from University of Bucharest.\nShe has over 17 years of experience in: design, development, physico-chemical and biopharmaceutical evaluation of drug delivery systems with conventional/modified/ controlled/targeted release for topical application; use of statistic experimental design techniques combined with response surface methodology and Taguchi approach for the optimization of the pharmaceutical systems formulation and some technological processes; valorisation of the biopharmacological potential of the medicinal and aromatic plants. Professor Mihaela Violeta Ghica was project director and partner responsible for some national and international projects. H-index=11.",institutionString:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"193810",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Dinu-Pirvu",slug:"cristina-dinu-pirvu",fullName:"Cristina Dinu-Pirvu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/193810/images/system/193810.png",biography:"Professor DINU-PÎRVU CRISTINA-ELENA received her PhD in Pharmacy (2004).\nShe is professor at Department of Physical and Colloidal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, 'Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She holds a Master’s degree in Biotechnologies in Environmental Safety at the Faculty of Biotechnologies, from University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest. She is PhD supervisor (Habilitation thesis, 2015) and Vice-Dean - responsible with scientific activity.\nShe has over 25 years of experience in: design, development, physico-chemical investigation and quality control of pharmaceutical dosage forms/multiparticulates micro-/nano-encapsulated; potential valorization of medicinal/aromatic plants from spontaneous flora.\nProfessor Dinu-Pîrvu Cristina-Elena is project director and partner responsible for some national projects. She obtained a postdoctoral fellowship within Postdoctoral School of National Interest 'Applied biotechnologies” with impact in the Romanian Bio-economy” at Politehnica University of Bucharest, Romania. 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Senior high schools, in contrast to elementary and junior high schools, include specialized learning tracks. High school students select a few areas of interest on which to focus their studies.
\nThe goal of secondary school education is to develop the personality and creativity of students, offer them opportunities to develop diverse abilities, help them achieve their fullest potential as human beings, expose them to a variety of fields of knowledge, and provide them with the basic skills they will need as adults in a free society [1].
\nThe major goal of this study is to examine the way school counselors handle social and moral dilemmas in secondary schools with students with learning disabilities. To date, no research has focused on counselors who work with students with learning disabilities, and therefore, this study makes a unique contribution to the literature. This study compares counselors who use a more open pedagogical approach to those who use a more conservative approach in solving social and moral problems.
\nStudying the differences among school counselors in their approach to solving such dilemmas will improve our understanding of their work and enable us to develop more effective counseling strategies in educational contexts. Furthermore, this research will help us identify the focus of problems school counselors encounter [2].
\nSocial and moral dilemmas have practical implications. When faced with social and moral dilemmas, we have to decide the best way to solve them, and the options available to us may be mutually exclusive. For example, a dilemma may be connected to values, beliefs, ethics, and behavior such as generosity, integrity honesty, the holiness of life, or obeying the law. The solution to dilemmas such as these is influenced by social and ethical values, and no single clear-cut approach exists. Human beings decide the importance of these values for themselves. To implement values they believe to be important, people must be willing to relinquish other important principles which they value less [3].
\nWe can divide these dilemmas into two subcategories: dilemmas that occur when the interests of an individual clash with those related to the interests of the community and dilemmas in which the general interests clash with the general interests in which the individual must join one of two sides. These dilemmas arise in everyday life. We are aware of some of them and devote time to thinking about them, whereas there are other dilemmas which we are less aware of and unaware of the extent to which they affect us [4, 5].
\nOser and Althof [6] claimed that when professional dilemmas occur in educational contexts, teachers respond as professionals, not as individuals, who might create a disequilibrium in their approach to moral dilemmas: concerned or caring behavior and honest behavior with a fair solution. The professional process of decision-making by the teacher is related to finding a balance between those directly involved in the dilemma without favoring one side or another, especially in the framework of schools with diverse cultural populations. Oser & Althof preferred a practical discussion as an approach to handling social and moral dilemmas over an ethical dialog.
\nOser and Althof [6] defined five different models of decision-making in interpersonal conflicts. These models represent the structure of teachers’ decision-making. The focus is on the process and the implementation. These are the models:
One of Maslovaty’s studies [8] touches on ways teachers in school cope with finding solutions to social and moral dilemmas. The research points out that teachers must first understand the problem and break it down into its components and only afterward suggest ways of thinking based on their professional experience.
\nSocial dilemmas are characterized by an open and democratic approach, the characteristics of which are the preparation of appropriate treatment programs adapted to the students’ unique needs. This approach emphasizes the student’s abilities and enables appropriate and creative solutions. Supporters of the democratic approach believe in the ability of the students and enable them to find fair and creative solutions. However, moral dilemmas are characterized by a more conservative and closed approach and more routine solutions, which do not utilize innovative strategies. Those who use this approach favor the school and the system over the needs of the students [8, 9].
\nJohn Dewey (1052–059), an educational philosopher and thinker, was one of the individuals who strongly favored the open approach. He placed the learner at the center of the educational process, supporting learner-centered activities and an integrative curriculum [2]. Fereira [10] looked for open approaches and opposed conservative education, which he labeled “banking education,” characterized by traditional roles in which the teacher teaches and the students learn, the teachers are in control and the students must obey, and the teacher determines the content of the lessons and the students accept it as a given. Fereira [10] attacked the present structure of schools in which the emphasis is on the achievement of the students and not on developing personalities. He claims that conservative schools as they exist today are becoming obsolete. In the future, learning will focus on independent activities of the student and greater individualization of learning [2].
\nTraditional, conservative education places the teacher at the center, and the students have to adapt themselves to the goals and values of society. These values are transferred from one generation to another by the principles of the tradition which symbolize continuity [11, 12].
\nStudents with learning disabilities have a neurodevelopmental disturbance with a biological base and cognitive implications. The biological background is evident in the interaction of genetic environmental factors that affect the ability of the brain to function effectively in cognitive activities such as perception and processing verbal and nonverbal information. These problems are long-term and impair learning in areas such as reading, reading comprehension, writing, spelling, and mathematics [13].
\nFour criteria are required to arrive at a diagnosis of specific learning disorder: (1)
The effect of the learning disabilities on the life of the student is not limited to the school environment. It permeates every area of life, but it is within the framework of the institutions of formal learning that the learner experiences the greatest difficulties. The areas that present the greatest problems in school are reading, writing, spelling, and mathematics [14].
\nThe mission of the school counselor working with students with learning disabilities is to enhance the educational experience of both the individual and the school by creating a cultural environment, respectful of the rights of the students [1]. The work of the school counselor can be summarized in the following ways:
In high schools, in addition to the roles already discussed, the guidance counselor is responsible for determining if the skills and ability of the students are consistent with their interests in learning specific subjects and their desire to learn in a specific type of program or to learn a vocation. The counselor has to help students make the best choices in choosing which subjects to learn and what type of program is suitable based on their ability.
\nAdditionally, the school counselor must follow the progress of each and every student and offer advice regarding changes in subjects, levels, or course of study [15].
\nWhen an ethical dilemma arises in the work of a counselor, they must use their professional judgment to make decisions. This process is complex and sometimes does not lend itself to unequivocal solutions. Our study arose out of an interest in understanding the factors involved in the decision-making process of school counselors. We wanted to learn more about the ways school counselors cope with moral and social dilemmas and how they attempt to find a balance between the needs of the school establishment and the sometimes conflicting demands of the students and parents. We emphasized the types of dilemmas counselors regularly encounter, especially in secondary schools where these dilemmas are most likely to arise.
\nSimchi [16] claims that the perspective of guidance counselors is based on their personal outlook and that the approach they take is not connected to the actual event but is dependent more on the their personal beliefs, past experience, and training.
\nShakedi [17] adds that the nature of the dilemma determines the way the counselors work forces the counselor to work according to particular ethical principles and to disregard other principles, which may be no less important.
\nIn order for the school to perform all of its tasks, guidance counselors must be able to fulfill their roles and to handle the problems that arise in the schools with sensitivity. Our goal is to evaluate the way school counselors cope with social and moral dilemmas they encounter during the course of their work and the way they solve these dilemmas in schools with students with learning disabilities [18, 19].
\nThe research compares counselors who use an open approach to those who use a conservative approach in solving social and moral dilemmas.
\n\n
How do school counselors with an open pedagogical approach cope with social and moral dilemmas?
How do school counselors with a conservative pedagogical approach cope with social and moral dilemmas?
The sample study included 15 guidance counselors, most of whom were women (66%). All of the counselors worked in secondary schools with students with learning disabilities in the center of the country. The selection of the schools and counselors was random. They were chosen on the basis of their willingness to participate in the study. Twelve (80%) of the counselors had a BA degree, and the rest (20%) had an MA. All of the counselors had teaching certificates. Their experience ranged from 1 to 30 years (M = 11.50) (SD = 7.49).
\nSix of the counselors (40%) were also teachers, and the rest (60%) were coordinators or had another role in addition to their role as counselors in the school.
\nWe asked the participants to describe one major dilemma that had actually occurred during their work as counselors. Each of the 15 participants described a social or moral dilemma. We asked them what type of dilemmas they frequently coped with during the course of their work. Each of them selected one particular dilemma. We were particularly interested in their approach to solving the dilemma and the factors they took into consideration in solving it.
\nWe categorized the strategies used in solving the dilemma into two groups. The more open, democratic group, for example, presented the dilemma for discussion to the class, listened to the student responses, asked them what they considered to be the best way to approach the problem, and considered their responses in implementing solutions. More conservative strategies simply told the students how they should behave, solving the problem for them.
\nThe research was conducted in secondary schools in the center of the country for students with learning disabilities. The schools all contained a heterogeneous population from a socioeconomic perspective—the parents were middle class and above. The investigator went to each of the schools and met with the principals and the counselors, and they all signed consent forms and answered the questions on the written form.
\nThis is a qualitative study designed to examine how school counselors cope with social and moral dilemmas. The findings were analyzed in accordance with the research questions with an emphasis on the nature of the specific issues that arise in coping with moral or social dilemmas [17].
\nAfter gathering the data by way of the questionnaires, we identified phrases that were repeated and assigned them a primary category/code. Afterward, we broke them down into categories that were closer to the research questions. The ideas were grouped according to content categories. We reread the replies and checked the connections between them. We attempted to find content not related to the research, and these replies were eliminated. After the final collection of data, we were able to see if the information we had answered our research questions.
\nBelow are descriptions of a variety of dilemmas and the way we categorized them based on the pedagogical approach used by the counselors: an open, democratic approach versus a conservative, traditional approach. The characteristics of the open, democratic approach for social and moral dilemmas are consistent with the fifth model—the complete discourse—according to Oser and Althof [6], and the features of the traditional, conservative approach to social and moral dilemmas are consistent with models one through four according to Oser and Althof’s theory [6].
\nThe school counselor said, “I am familiar with this case, the parents are not willing to hear that their son disturbs the class in school, and every time we turn to them they punish him severely, which is very disturbing to his personality and mental development, which makes it difficult for me to ever approach them.”
\nNotwithstanding, the school counselor and the school tried to manage the student alone despite the difficulties. A program was developed for him with careful follow-up, for every time he acted out of place or was involved in vandalism, the seriousness of his actions was made clear to him.
\nAccording to the counselor, “He shouted out and almost attacked me. I gave in and returned to class.”
\nIn this episode, the school counselor, in consultation with the teacher, decided to find out what was behind the student’s behavior. They met with the parents and discovered that the student often lied, and they apologized for their son’s behavior. The school counselor decided to stay in close touch with the student, to continue to encourage him, and to give him a chance to start again.
\nAccording to the school counselor, “It seems that the student does not have a computer and the socio-economic position of the family is very poor. I asked him to meet with me and he explained the financial difficulties and his willingness for me to find a solution.”
\nThrough the treatment, the counselor involved another student who had a computer to work with him on the project. The counselor solved the problem with the involvement and agreement of both students, and as a result, the student with the financial problem was able to participate in the project that was a very important part of the classwork.
\nThe school counselor said, “One of the students got up and shouted, ‘The teacher made an arithmetical error on my grade and I deserve full credit.’”
\nThe student saw that the school counselor made a mistake in the calculation. In response, she tried to convince the student that his behavior is undesirable. The student accepted the comment of the counselor and understood that his behavior was out of place.
\nThe school counselor said, “When I approach one of my students, she shouted out in rage for no reason. I tried to quiet her down in a nice way, but unfortunately, I did not succeed in understanding or figuring out her behavior.”
\nThe school counselor said, “I was aware that the gift that was purchased by a good friend of the girls, and that she had taken some of the money, and that not all of the money she received from the class was spent on the gift that was purchased.”
\nThe school counselor decided not to directly insult the girl but to help her understand the message by presenting parallel cases that had arisen in class. The counselor delivered the educational message to the girl in a way that was not harmful and not in front of the class, but helped her understand the seriousness of what she had done.
\nThe school counselor said, “Donna rejects her because if she becomes her friend, she will not be as popular. Tali complains that Donna keeps her distance from her and is unwilling to be her friend.”
\nThis situation was brought to the attention of the school counselor, and it was decided not to intervene. He believed that as time passes, the popular girl would understand the value of the other girls in the class and the importance of maintaining good relations with them all. The school counselor presented a number of stories to the class on the topic of accepting others to illustrate models of desirable behavior that were especially important for this one particular girl.
\nThe counselor said, “The strike also has a negative side. Students in special education in secondary school would miss a lot of material, and if the strike persists, would make it impossible for them to learn what is required. On the other hand, it is important to join the parents and the community groups so that they will succeed in their struggle”.
\nIn this case, the counselor decided to participate in the strike, to strengthen the groups supporting it, and to disregard orders not to strike.
\nThe counselor said, “The dilemma was whether to punish the student for upsetting his classmate or to ignore the episode.”
\nIn this case, the school counselor decided to punish the offending student and to speak to him about the mistake he made in hurting the other student’s feelings. Although the school counselor did not discuss the episode in class, he explained the mistake to the student and punished him appropriately for his actions.
\nThe counselor said, “During the exam, I saw the girl using additional pages while she was writing […] and only after I was certain that she was cheating did I approach her and ask her to give me the pages.”
\nThe proctor, who was the school counselor, involved the exam coordinator who, on the proctor’s word, rejected the exam.
\nThe school counselor said, “The student’s father needed the money suddenly and that is why he asked his son to give him all of the money he had saved and not to go on the trip.”
\nThe school counselor said that the student should take the money that he had already paid for the trip back, give it to his father, and not participate in the trip. In this case, the seriousness of the harm that this caused the student (who had learning disabilities) was not taken into consideration. The school counselor did not attempt to find an alternative solution or to allow the student to come on the trip and to remain integrated in the class.
\nThe school counselor said, “The response of the teacher was very strong claiming that the plans were made without his knowledge, and was in conflict with the everyday work that should be carried out in a high school […]. The teacher expressed serious concern and asked that the party be canceled.”
\nThe response of the teacher was very strong and showed that he was unwilling to digress from the format of the curriculum. The teacher asked the students to cancel the party, but the counselor supported a more modest event.
\nThe counselor said, “One is following the other, when the second exploits her for personal purposes.”
\nIn this case, the school counselor intervened. He met with one of the girls privately and afterward met with them together. He explained more desirable ways of behaving toward friends and threatened both of them with severe punishment if the situation did not change.
\nThe teacher (who is also the school counselor) said, “In this class there are a number of students who are considered to be trouble makers and who are likely to destroy personal belongings in the home of the hosts.”
\nHere the counselor decided to intervene and to forbid the students from having the event and did not allow the student to host the event. He spoke to them directly and gave them strict instructions forbidding the event from taking place.
\nThe school counselor said, “The history teacher entered the classroom and handed her the questions so she could copy the answers on her own exam sheet.”
\nIn this case, the school counselor decided not to report the episode, taking a traditional approach, protecting his own personal interests above the interests of the community.
\nThe main goal of the research was to examine the ways school counselors coped with social and moral dilemmas in secondary schools for students with learning disabilities.
\nIn this study, we asked 15 school counselors to describe the dilemmas they encountered in their work and tell us how they handled them.
\nFrom an analysis of the dilemmas that we examined, we observed two different approaches: one expressed a more open, democratic approach to solving dilemmas and the other a more closed conservative approach.
\nHandling dilemmas in the more open, democratic way was characterized by an individualized, therapeutic approach to meet the needs of the students with close follow-up by the school counselor. This approach included many creative solutions to problems they encountered. The counselors emphasized the internalization by the students of their unacceptable behavior, met with the students, and raised the dilemmas for discussion in class by presenting parallel examples [7].
\nThe characteristics of the open approach are consistent with the fifth model—the complete discourse—according to Oser and Althof [6]. According to this model, the teacher facilitates a discussion among those involved and allows them to be involved in the decision-making process and in the implementation of the decision [7, 20, 21].
\nIn contrast, the more traditional, conservative approach to solving dilemmas is through punishment related to the severity of the act by the school counselor or other authorities in the school. This is without giving a chance to the students to internalize the severity of the acts or to improve their behavior. Handling dilemmas in this way is based on traditional principles, which focus on the rules without taking into consideration the needs of the students.
\nThese characteristics of the traditional, conservative approach to solving social and moral dilemmas are consistent with Models 1–4 of Oser and Althof’s theory [6] which include avoidance, transfer of authority, one-sided decision-making, and incomplete dialog.
\nAccording to the typology used in this research, we examined the way school counselors handled social and moral dilemmas in two conflicting ways: the open democratic approach and the conservative, traditional approach. There are other pedagogical approaches discussed in the professional literature. We will focus on three of them: (a) the behaviorist approach, (b) the constructivist approach, and (c) the cognitive approach [22].
\nAccording to the behaviorist approach, the educational process is based on observable behavior that takes place through stimulus and response. The emphasis is on strengthening the desired response that improves the chances that the response will repeat itself when the appropriate stimulus appears [22].
\nCoping with social and moral dilemmas using a behaviorist approach includes practicing and repetition, creating a gradual sequence and immediate feedback. This way of handling dilemmas emphasizes adopting routine, automatic skills where the role of the school counselor focuses on training, transfer of information, and providing feedback [23].
\nIn the process of coping with these dilemmas, no attempt is made to provide a given structure of knowledge to the students or to determine which mental processes are necessary for them. Students are characterized as respondents to environmental conditions and do not play an active role in creating the environment. The main factor is the organization of stimuli and results within the environment.
\nThis description is consistent with the following dilemmas: in an episode in which the student ridiculed another student who mispronounced words or the student who was caught cheating on an exam. In these episodes, the school counselor responded with punishment without conducting any prior discussion. The school counselor did not give the students a chance to understand their mistake, which could result in the repetition of the mistake. Instead, the counselor used punishment following the inappropriate actions of the students [24].
\nAccording to the constructivist approach, the educational process is an active process in which the students’ contributions are not less important than those of the teacher. The learning takes place in an active way, by building knowledge and responsibility of the learner for the knowledge. The ability of students in learning develops along with their cognitive development, and each stage is based on the previous stage through interaction with the environment in an active process [19].
\nAccording to the constructivist approach, knowledge is a function of the way students create reality through their experiences. Students sift through knowledge of the world to create a unique reality of their own. Experimenting directly with the environment is of utmost importance in building knowledge. Students construct knowledge; they do not acquire it. There is no single predetermined “correct” reality. The student does not transfer knowledge of the world from the outside to his mind, but constructs his own personal interpretation of the world based on personal experiences and interaction with the environment. Accordingly, the internal representation of knowledge is not static. There is no objective reality that the student must know [19].
\nIn order to understand learning, genuine experiences must be examined. Factors related to the student and to the environment are important, and the interaction between them creates knowledge. Behavior is determined by the situation, and every act is perceived as an interpretation of the present situation based on a complete history of prior interactions. It is important for learning to take place in real situations and that they are relevant to the life of the student.
\nWays of coping with social and moral dilemmas based on the constructivist approach include active, gradual, focused building from a social perspective with the idea that knowledge is not isolated from the individual. The focus is on creating cognitive tools that reflect the cultural contexts, the insights, and the experiences of the students. There is no need to acquire concepts or set details or abstract ideas. The counselor must use active practices, concepts (knowledge), and culture (context). Authentic tasks, based on real contexts, must be used [19].
\nThe school counselor should identify incorrect, biased, or primary concepts that were acquired at an earlier stage and discuss these concepts when they arise. They should facilitate the examination of their environment and help them understand complex ideas that will enable them to think like experts. This type of knowledge is not abstract. It is directly related to the experiences of the students. The students should be encouraged to construct knowledge and to validate it through social discussions [15, 25].
\nThis type of discussion is desirable for solving some of the dilemmas mentioned, such as the student who acted out as a class clown and constantly disturbed the class during lessons or the student who behaved aggressively in school. In both of these cases, the school counselor conducted discussions with the students and involved the teachers and the parents, in order for the students to internalize their mistakes, and the learning is constructed with a way that will be remembered. She solved problems in both cases by placing the emphasis on the problem and raising the seriousness of the issue to the students. Using the cognitive educational approach is based on complex mental cognitive processes, such as thinking, problem solving, language, creating concepts, and processing information. The emphasis is on acquiring knowledge as a mental process, which includes internal coding. The student is an active partner in the educational process.
\nWays of handling social and moral dilemmas based on the cognitive approach include explaining, illustrating, practicing, and providing feedback. The emphasis is on mental activities of the learner who brings responses and mental planning, establishing goals and organizing effective strategies of processing information. It is important to pay attention to the ways the learner codes, processes, practices, stores, and retrieves information. The focus is on the thoughts of the students, their beliefs, their perspectives, and their values as influential participants in the educational process. The goal is to change behavior by practicing appropriate strategies. The students’ understanding is based on information such as laws, concepts, and distinctions. Because of the emphasis on mental constructs, the cognitive approach is suitable for explaining complex types of learning (thinking, problem solving, knowledge processing) [26].
\nAccording to the cognitive approach, the school counselor focuses on the pre-disposition of the student (how the student activates, preserves, and directs the learning process), will plan learning to include internalization based on the focus of mental structures of the learner, and will attempt to transform information to relevant knowledge for the student. The school counselor will help students organize new knowledge and relate it to existing knowledge already in their memory. The counselor will base mental structures or reviews and organize the information in such a way that the students will be able to relate the new information to existing information in a way that will make it personally relevant. According to the cognitive approach, the student will bring many learning experiences to an educational situation that can influence the results. The educational process determines the most effective way to organize new knowledge so that it interacts with previously acquired knowledge of the students, their abilities, and their experiences, and it will be absorbed in the cognitive structure of the learner (Lemmens et al., 2016).
\nThese theories are consistent with some of the dilemmas presented in this research, such as the student who was unable to participate in a project because of serious financial problems or the student who used some of the money collected in class for a gift for a student who broke his leg. In both of these cases, the counselor used creative thinking based on creative mental processes, without upsetting the students in front of their peers [27].
\nThe typology used in this research to distinguish between two conflicting pedagogical approaches (open, democratic approach versus a traditional conservative approach) presents the broadest ways of conceptualization in dealing with developments and changes in the field of education and includes three pedagogical approaches described above (behaviorist, constructivist, and cognitive). It is important to present these three approaches on a continuum—behaviorist, cognitive, and constructivist—when the focus changes along the continuum from passive transfer of facts and routine to active processing of ideas and problem solving. The principles of the constructivist approach and the cognitive approach are consistent with the open, democratic approach, and the principles of the behaviorist approach are consistent with the traditional, conservative approach [8, 28, 29].
\nThe question is asked as to which of the pedagogical approaches to handling social and moral dilemmas are more effective. The educational process is dynamic and is influenced by many factors. It is a process of continuous change. One pedagogical approach is likely to be more effective for a new learner who encounters a complex body of knowledge for the first time, but not effective or more challenging for a learner who knows the content already. Furthermore, teaching facts is different from acquiring concepts or solving problems.
\nThis study used qualitative methods of research. The conclusions, therefore, are dependent on and based on subjective interpretation, which is the essence of this qualitative approach. Inclusion, validity, and reliability that serve as indicators of research quality are significant in qualitative research only in relation to the researcher’s stated perspective [17].
\nIn the present study, participants chose to reveal experiences and particular positions, and it is possible that there are other perspectives. Additionally, the researchers chose to focus on a particular type of analysis, and there may very well be other perspectives.
\nFuture studies should use a quantitative approach to look at similar problems and should expand the population studied to confirm the link between methods of handling social and moral dilemmas with personal and professional characteristics of school counselors.
\nBased on the knowledge that we have, we can develop intervention programs that lead to the development of more effective ways of handling these dilemmas. We will be able to improve the training of school counselors and to expose them to a range of social and moral dilemmas that they are likely to experience in their professional life in schools. In the framework of their training, participants will be able to reconsider their earlier opinions through exposure to newer approaches and to develop new ideas for solving complex problems.
\nBiosourced furan derivatives such as furfural, furfuryl alcohol, and hydroxymethyl furfural have been a focus of research in the last 10 to 15 years in several different application fields. This chapter deals with three topics: (1) fire-resistant furan-based foams, (2) the co-reaction to prepare wood panel bioadhesives of furanic materials with renewable and environmentally friendly materials, and (3) the preparation of hard plastics by reacting different natural and environmentally friendly renewable materials with furanics. A considerable level of research activity has been recorded in all these areas.
In this section we discuss the preparation of almost totally biobased tannin-furanic foams via expansion/blowing of the foam by chemical exothermal reactions caused by the heat generated under acid conditions of the self-condensation of furfuryl alcohol. Then, we discuss tannin-furanic foams in which isocyanate is added in the minority to the tannin-furanic mix. We also address the applicability of these foams to isocyanate-based polyurethane foam factories. Synthetic isocyanate-based polyurethane foams, even those using biopolyols, are not generally fire resistant unless some fire-retardant is used. Although the foams presented here are intrinsically fire resistant, like phenolic foams, but without their pollution characteristics.
Pure furanic foams are prepared by polycondensation of furfuryl alcohol under acid conditions [1, 2, 3]. Furanic foams are commonly used in foundries, because of their high resistance to heat and their relatively low cost, to bind the sand of molds or cores for casting engine heads or other kinds of steel tools [4, 5]. A study on the formation of pure furanic foams and the conservation and modification of their structure after carbonization is described in [6]. Ambient temperature catalysis of furfuryl alcohol with para-toluen sulphonic acid (pTSA) is the method used to prepare pure furanic foams. This research shows that the furfuryl group is the main repeating unit/motive from which derive the whole variety of structures observed in the polymer network formed (Figures 1 and 2), with structures shown in Figure 2 been present.
Structure of the linear furanic oligomers formed by the self-condensation of furfuryl alcohol.
Methylene and methylene ether bridges linking furanic nuclei in furanic oligomer structures found in linear oligomers from the self-condensation of furfuryl alcohol (FA). Top: reaction of the –CH2OH of FA with the furanic ring of a second FA molecule. Bottom: reaction of the –CH2OH of FA with the –CH2OH of another molecule of FA. Both reactions are obtained by elimination of water.
The same work [6] studied the type of structures that remain in a furanic foam after carbonization at 900°C. The research shows that many polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons are present after carbonization (Figure 3). The average molecular weight of the fragments increases during carbonization because of the rearrangement of the furanic structures. Gasification during carbonization makes the signal of the pTSA catalyst derivates disappear by degrading to toluene and SO2 not surviving carbonization. However, certain furanic oligomers survive carbonization; these are mostly cyclic compounds with 4–6 or more furan rings. Thus, even if most of the constituents are transformed to more stable aromatic structures, some of the starting chemical species survive intact or partly transformed to carbonization even if most structures are converted to more stable aromatic structures (Figure 3). This shows the stability of some furanic oligomers that are not degraded or rearranged by carbonization. Molecular mechanics calculation of their relative energies appeared to confirm that these structures are cyclic furanic oligomers.
Example of rearranged structures formed during carbonization of furanic foams [
Tannin-furanic foams were mentioned for the first time in the literature in the early 1970s when Grey, Roux, Pizzi, and Ryder developed a foam formulation in South Africa [7]. This formulation had some severe problems and its performance was unacceptable. Moreover, industry did not appear to have any interest in the foam, as there was more focus on the dominant synthetic oil-derived foams at the time. In addition, the public opinion of the relative cost structure/performance relationship of these foams and of the biomaterials used also appeared to be unfavorable. The first tannin-furanic biofoam formulation that appeared to work well was published in the literature in 1994 by Meikleham and Pizzi [8]. Nonetheless, even then there was no interest in these materials; interest in them materialized only in the late 2000s [9].
Ambient temperature, self-blowing tannin-furanic foams were the first researched for a relatively long period, these being chemically foamed and set by the exothermic acid self-condensation of furfuryl alcohol (Figure 4). In earlier times, diethyl ether was used as a blowing agent [8]. The foams prepared with this early research were either catalyzed by an acid or a base but showed characteristics and performance comparable to synthetic phenolic foams. The liquid polymer phase was a tannin-formaldehyde resin. Foaming occurred by the forced evaporation of a physical blowing agent, while cross-linking rendered the foams dimensionally stable and with the goal target density. Acid-catalyzed foams expanded by evaporating the blowing agent due to the heat-surge agent produced by the self-condensation of furfuryl alcohol. Tannin-furan copolymers were so obtained. No toxic gasses on these foams’ carbonization were detected [9, 10]. This formulation worked, but when this research was again started up in the late 2000s several problems remained that needed to be solved. These were (1) the elimination of formaldehyde, used up to then to improve cross-linking and (2) the elimination of diethyl ether by substituting it with a less volatile and less dangerous blowing agent. In-depth characterization of these foams ensued. Different condensed tannins, namely, mimosa tannin bark extract, pine bark tannin, and quebracho tannin wood extract, were coupled to furfuryl alcohol as foam building blocks. Hydroxymethylated lignin up to a level of 20% by weight, and even smaller proportions of polyurethane, isocyanate [11], and industrial surfactant [9], were added successfully to modify these foams. Physical tests such as water absorption, compression resistance, direct flame behavior, and measure of foam cells’ dimensions were carried out [9]. These foams were chemically characterized by 13C-NMR analysis.
An example of a tannin-furanic rigid foam (left) and of its structure as observed at the scanning electron microscope (right).
Equally, these tannin-furanic foams’ resistance to fire and chemicals (e.g., resistance up to 1200°C and higher), absorption of and resistance to various liquids (e.g., ethanol, 33% sulphuric acid, and organic and mineral acids), permeability, thermal conductivity (e.g., between 0.024 and 0.044 W/m K), and mechanical (compressive and tensile) strength were tested. Boric acid and/or phosphoric acid were added to modify the foams’ structure while improving substantially their fire resistance (Figure 3). Rigid foams resisting well to strong acid, bases, and solvents were prepared with these early formulations [12]. High affinity for water, but limited affinity for organic solvents, was also put into evidence. Slightly anisotropic mechanical properties were measured. These foams were brittle in tension and compression, but their thermal conductivity and mechanical performance fully compared with those of synthetic phenolic foams. X-ray microtomography was also used to examine these early foams [13, 14, 15, 16]. This provided additional and useful information regarding their physical characteristics such as porosity, pore size distribution, proportion of open and closed cells, connectivity, and tortuosity.
These foams garnered considerable interest for their phenomenal fire resistance and hence their heat insulation potential [16]. Even when exposed to a flame 1200°C or higher, they do not burn for whatever length of time. The red color induced on the area where the flame is applied is automatically and immediately self-extinguishing on subtracting the flame. These tannin-furanic foams only begin to decompose at 3000°C. We will discuss the multiple uses for which they were tested later in the chapter. These include, for example, thermal insulating materials, fire-resistant filling for hollow doors and wood sandwich structures [17], green acoustic absorption materials [18], support for cut flowers [19] and hydroponic cultures [19], and flexible and rigid polyurethane-tannin-furanic mixed foams [20, 21].
The substitution of diethyl ether as a blowing agent with a much safer solvent was the first modification introduced in these tannin-furanic foams. The blowing agent chosen was n-pentane in synthetic phenolic foams. A necessary formulation rebalancing ensued, as pentane boils at a temperature higher than diethyl ether.
The first necessity was to eliminate formaldehyde from the formulation, formaldehyde having been declared unsuitable for sanitary reasons [22, 23]. With the elimination of formaldehyde, the new foams that were obtained presented lower density, thermal conductivity, hydrophilicity, and brittleness, and thus greater flexibility than the first generation of tannin-furanic foams. Formaldehyde was replaced with more furfuryl alcohol and a greater proportion of blowing agent, significantly improving the characteristics previously described [24, 25]. Table 1 shows the characteristics of these foams regarding their range of compressive strength and thermal conductivity as a function of their apparent density. Table 1 shows that as the apparent foam density increases the compressive strength sharply improves; however, the thermal conductivity increases, which is less acceptable as regards insulation.
Apparent density (g/cm3) | Compressive strength (MPa) | Thermal conductivity (W m−1 K−1) |
---|---|---|
0.016 | 0.03 | 0.024–0.030 |
0.040–0.080 | 0.12–0.45 | 0.040–0.050 |
0.10–1.30 | 0.65–1.10 | 0.050–0.060 |
Next, both formaldehyde and solvent (pentane) were eliminated, rendering the foams 98% “green.” Comparison of kinetic curves describing the simultaneously measured foams’ expansion, hardening, temperature, and pressure variation as a function of time illustrated the differences in process and foaming parameters as a function of time by the differences in formulation between the experimental and control foams and optimization of the foaming and hardening parameters involved [26, 27].
A first encouraging attempt to prepare elastic tannin-furanic foams occurred at this time [28]. In this first successful approach, flexible tannin-furanic foams, rather than the rigid ones prepared up to then, were obtained by the addition of glycerol as an external (unreacted) plasticizer. The choice of glycerol was dictated by its high boiling temperature, lack of evaporation, and lack of toxicity. Flexibility and spring-back of these experimental foams when subjected to a cyclic compression force followed by spring-back and compression again was quantified by both thermomechanical analysis at different temperatures as well as by compression/spring-back hysteresis cycle tests in a universal testing machine. Tannin-furanic foams with formaldehyde and no glycerol reached a stress plateau indicative of structure crushing. Tannin-furanic foams without both formaldehyde and glycerol become very fragile, brittle, and rigid just two months after their preparation. They also show structure crushing with ageing. Tannin-furanic foams with no formaldehyde but with glycerol remain instead equally and truly flexible in time [27, 28].
Furthermore, open cell foams obtained by the simultaneous co-reaction of condensed flavonoid tannins with an alkoxylated fatty amine and polymeric diphenylmethane isocyanate yielded highly flexible/elastic polyurethane foams [28]. Copolymerized amine/isocyanate/tannin oligomers were identified by 13C NMR and MALDI-TOF spectroscopy. In general, between 30% and 50% of natural tannins is added to the components used to polymerize the polyurethane. The characteristic of these new, partially biosourced polyurethanes is that the presence of the tannin slows down burning; some of them can be made flame self-extinguishing and if burning they neither flow nor sprinkle flaming material around, contrary to what occurs with normal polyurethanes. This limits transmitting the fire to other materials in the same environment. Cyclic compression tests were carried out showing that after 50 cycles foam recovery was more than 80%.
Hyperbranched poly (acylamide-ester) polyol synthesized reacting in one step succinic anhydride with diethanol amine was also used to modify tannin-furanic foams [29]. Glutaraldehyde was reacted with the hyperbranched poly (acylamide-ester) polyol to acetalize it, and the dendrimer so prepared was used to modify the tannin-based foams. It was found that the compression strength of the tannin-furanic foam improved by 36.6% with the addition of 3.5 wt% of acetalized poly (acylamide-ester) polyol without affecting the other foam properties.
Pine bark tannins are much more reactive than mimosa and quebracho tannins experimented with up to 2012. Pine bark tannin-furanic foams were prepared for the first time in 2013 [30, 31, 32, 33]. The tannin-furanic foam formulations underwent fundamental changes due to the greater pine tannin reactivity. This had to be implemented to coordinate foam hardening, reaction exotherm, and solvent blowing to obtain a rigid foam. This work was achieved using the FOAMAT, an equipment able to simultaneously monitor during foaming the variation of temperature, pressure, velocity, and dielectric polarization. This allowed for determining the function of the surfactant (castor oil ethoxylate) and the plasticizer (polyethylene glycol) during foam formation and thus to monitor their polymerization, expansion, hardening, and shrinkage. Foam density and its physical properties were found to be either surfactant- or plasticizer-controlled in this research work. Foams presenting a homogeneous microstructure were obtained with castor oil ethoxylate and polyethylene glycol. However, polyethylene glycol made the foams more elastic but with lower shrinkage. Pine tannin-furanic foams both with and without formaldehyde were also prepared and tested to determine their stress–strain curves, thermal conductivity, Young’s modulus, compression strength, densification, densification rate, and energy absorbed under compression. These pine tannin-furanic foams with formaldehyde had properties similar to mimosa tannin-furanic foams. At very low densities, mimosa foams are more mechanically resistant than pine foams. Mimosa foams with formaldehyde have a greater Young’s modulus less than 0.10 g cm−3 and a greater compressive strength less than 0.14 g cm−3 than pine tannin foams. Pine tannin-furanic foams without formaldehyde were more elastic and had lesser mechanical strength. However, on a comparative test, pine tannin foams are a better insulation material with an average thermal conductivity of 0.030 W/m/K for pine foam without formaldehyde, 0.034 W/m/K for pine foam with formaldehyde, and 0.037 W/m/K for mimosa tannin foam with formaldehyde at a density of 0.031 g cm−3.
The reformulation undertaken for these pine tannin-furanic foams allowed to develop such foams for the whole class of very reactive procyanidin tannins and not only different species of pine tannins [30, 31, 32, 33] such as spruce tannins [34, 35, 36, 37], and others. Pine tannin-furanic foams free of any aldehyde, and of formaldehyde, have also been developed, but their main drawback is their lower resistance to compression. Consequently, formaldehyde-free pine tannin-furanic rigid foams were successfully obtained by using non-volatile aldehydes [22, 23], namely glyoxal or glutaraldehyde, as alternative non-toxic hardeners [30, 31, 32]. All the open-cell pine tannin-furanic foams and mimosa−/quebracho-type tannin-furanic foams have also yielded medium and high frequencies (1000–4000 Hz) and good sound absorption/acoustic insulation with acoustic absorption coefficients of 0.85–0.97 [17]. They were better than polyurethane foams, melamine foams, fiberglass, and mineral wool acoustic insulations within this frequency range [17]. Their acoustic absorption coefficient decreased to 0.40–0.60 at lower frequencies of 250–500 Hz.
Tannin-furanic foams have shown typical characteristics comparable to synthetic commercial foams as light porous materials. Open-cell foams result in better sound absorption with thicker samples performing better in the medium frequency range.
Surface friability of tannin-furanic foams was a drawback for such potential applications, but this problem was also solved. A second main drawback is absorption of water within the foam itself. Both these drawbacks have been eliminated or at least minimized by adding to the formulation a small percentage of an oil-grafted tannin. The fatty chains introduced in the foam markedly decreased foam friability and increased water repellency in the foam’s body [38]. Also, adding small amounts of soy protein hydrolysate decreased surface friability of these foams [18].
Lightweight sandwich panels with a tannin-furanic foam core and wood veneers or hardboard thin panels as surfaces bonded on to the foam core were also prepared (Figure 5) [39, 40].
Foam cores sandwiched from top left to bottom right between surfaces formed of wood veneers, thick solid wood boards, thin plywood surfaces, thick and thin hardboard surfaces, and not sandwiched (just foam core).
As procyanidin tannins are the world’s predominant potential source of condensed tannins the development outlined for pine tannins-furanic foams are of considerable importance as they allow any future diffuse utilization of tannin foams anywhere.
The determinant parameters when designing new tannin-furanic foams have been clearly identified and codified [41]. Further progress in this field can be achieved by anyone who would care to follow these parameter guidelines.
Tannin-based carbon aerogel foams innovatively based on the ionic and radical autocondensation of tannins under alkaline conditions promoted by their reaction with silica and silicates [42, 43, 44, 45, 46] have also been prepared [47]. Upscaling to pilot plant level of the preparation of these types of foams has also been reported [48].
Recently, some more progress on the chemical analysis of this foam has also been made using Raman spectroscopy and attenuated total reflection–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR–FTIR) approaches [49, 50]. Research groups have also been active in the preparation processes of these tannin-furanic foams [51, 52, 53] as well on the range of different applications possible, the most notable being in the medical field [21]. For example, tannin-furanic foams can be used in medicine to form a tannin-hydoxyapatite scaffold of stem cells for bone reconstruction without using any synthetic materials [21].
While phenolic foams can be clearly substituted to good effect with tannin-furanic foams, the market is particularly interested in the use of biobased polyurethane foams. This interesting situation came to the fore with an industrial plant trial for a plant where isocyanate had to be compulsorily used, otherwise the plant could not run. This was furthermore quite a sizeable polyurethane foam panels line (approx. 18 thousand tons/year). Mixed phenolic–polyurethane-type rigid foams were developed using tannin-furfuryl alcohol natural materials co-reacted with polymeric isocyanate in the proportions imposed by the limitations inherent to the continuous industrial plants for polyurethane foams and used in the plant trial [54]. Chemical analysis of the final foams identified several different copolymerization oligomers having been generated. Urethane linkages were generated by reaction of the isocyanate with two flavonoid tannin reactive sites, mainly at the flavonoid aliphatic hydroxygroup at C3, and less so on the phenolic hydroxygroups of the tannin flavonoid units. Urethane linkages also formed by isocyanate reaction with (1) glyoxal both alone or pre-reacted with the tannin, (2) the phenolsulfonic acid catalyst, and (3) with furfural. This latter reagent does react preferentially through formation of a methylene bridge with the A-ring of the flavonoid units of the tannin rather than reacting with the isocyanate to form urethanes [54]. All the materials appeared to have co-reacted to form a mix of urethane linkages and methylene bridges between all the main components used. Thus, the tannin, furfuryl alcohol, isocyanate, glyoxal, and even the phenolsulfonic acid catalyst formed a variety of mixed species linked by the two bridge types. Several mixed species constituted of 2, 3, and even 4 co-reacted different components were observed.
The more interesting result here, however, was that this approach was unusually different from the approach of oxypropylating tannins to render them more apt polyols for reaction with isocyanates [55, 56], hence using an additional reaction step. The unusual results [54] were especially interesting because they were obtained on an industrial plant line trial. Effectively, what occurred was that the glyoxal easily reacted with the tannin during the trial producing –OH groups much more easily approached by the isocyanate, thus forming a glyoxalated tannin polyurethane in a single step, which is a remarkably useful outcome [54]. Thus, species of the type shown in Figure 6 were present.
Example of mixed tannin polyurethanes obtained by the reaction of the isocyanate group on the glyoxal groups pre-reacted with flavonoid tannin units. The reaction can be carried out simultaneously as well, as used under industrial conditions.
The reaction of glyoxal with the tannin and then with isocyanates to form urethanes closely repeat the same reaction already used for wood adhesives but using the –CH2OH groups formed by the reaction of formaldehyde with tannins and with synthetic phenolic and amino resins [57, 58, 59]. As regards the fire resistance of these foams the preponderance of the tannin phenolic groups and furanic nuclei gives a certain level of fire resistance due to the inclusion of tannins in standard polyurethane formulations [20], but fire resistance is expected to be lower than the standard tannin-furanic foams described earlier in the chapter.
The potential of using tannin-furfuryl alcohol resin for biobased composites using vegetal fiber reinforcement has also been investigated [60, 61, 62]. Results showed that a mix of 54% furfuryl alcohol, 45% modified quebracho tannin extract, and 0.9% pTSA as a catalyst yields a resin with which one can prepare lightweight composites by working as bonding and solidifying matrix of a nonwoven flax fiber. The composite panels so prepared, once tested for tensile and flexural modulus and strength, water resistance, and thermo-degradation, presented good mechanical properties and a very short curing time in a hot press.
Tannin-furfuryl alcohol resins reacting under alkaline conditions to minimize self-condensation of furfuryl alcohol and force its reaction with tannins have proved to be another alternative for formaldehyde-free, environmentally friendly adhesives from renewable materials [63]. An indication of the reactivity of tannin with furfuryl alcohol to harden an adhesive composed of these two materials is given in Figures 7 and 8 where it is shown that the mixture of the two materials gels at pH levels of less than 2–2.5 and greater than 8–9 according to the reactivity of the tannin itself, with pine tannin being more reactive than mimosa tannin. At the acid pH, the reaction is both reaction of tannin with furfuryl alcohol as well as self-condensation of furfuryl alcohol, whereas under rather alkaline conditions furfuryl alcohol cannot really self-condense and thus is forced to react with the tannin. It must be pointed out that the reactivity of the tannin even with aldehydes progressively increases from pH 4 (minimum reactivity) towards a more acidic pH, with the tannin being progressively more reactive as the pH become progressively lower. The same is true under alkaline conditions where the reactivity of the tannin increases and gel time decreases as one progresses to higher pH. The resins were prepared by mixing 100 parts of tannin with 100 parts of water and reacting this with 50 and 75 parts of furfuryl alcohol. The results were monitored by gel time measurements and thermomechanical analysis (TMA). The laboratory particleboard bonded with this resin under standard laboratory conditions and the dry internal bond (IB) strength was tested according to European Norm EN 312, 1995. The results confirmed that tannin extracts and furfuryl alcohol react with each other and do cross-link in the total absence of formaldehyde (Table 2).
Gel time of mimosa tannin reacted with furfuryl alcohol at pH ranging from 1 to 11. The gel time at pH 3, 4, 5, and 8 cannot be attained [
Gel time of pine tannin reacted with furfuryl alcohol at pH ranging from 1 to 9. The gel time at pH 3, 4, and 5 cannot be attained [
Gel time (s) | TMA max MOE (MPa) | Board density (kg/m3) | IB strength (MPa) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mimosa tan + 100%FA, pH 11 | 260 | 1929 ± 81 | — | — |
Mimosa tan + 50%FA, pH 11 | 500 | 2177 ± 82 | — | — |
Mimosa tan + 100%FA, pH 10 | 400 | 2332 ± 112 | — | — |
Mimosa tan + 50%FA, pH 10 | 600 | 2401 ± 97 | 716 | 0.34 ± 0.02 |
Pine tannin + 50% FA, pH 8 | 150 | 2430 ± 100 | 697 | 0.35 ± 0.02 |
Pine tannin + 75%FA, pH 8 | 110 | 3034 ± 130 | 715 | 0.40 ± 0.02 |
Results for wood particleboard panels bonded with furanic-tannin-based wood adhesives.
MOE = modulus of elasticity; IB = internal bond.
For the mimosa tannin-furfuryl alcohol particleboards, the dry IB strength satisfies only marginally the requirements of the relevant European norm. However, for the pine tannin-furfuryl alcohol particleboards the dry IB strength satisfies the relevant EN 312 requirements.
Ten-ply and twenty-ply high continuous-type pressure paper laminates were prepared by impregnating filter paper with a mimosa-tannin solution mixed with furfuryl alcohol and a formurea concentrate [64]. Crosscut, abrasion resistance, and water vapor resistance measurements were done. The effect of bonding 10-ply paper laminates on plywood shear strength was also determined. The 10-ply paper laminates with mimosa tannin-furfuryl alcohol resin appeared to increase the plywood dry shear strength while reducing its absorption of water. When pressed at 140°C temperature at 120 kg cm2 pressure for 600 s, the 10-ply paper laminates gave the best appearance compared to other laminates.
The syntheses of difurfuryl diisocyanates [e.g., ethylidenebis (2,5-furandiylmethylene) diisocyanate (EDFI)] with formula shown in Figure 9 have been reported in the literature [65].
Structural formula of difurfuryl diisocyanate.
Difurfuryl diisocyanates (Figure 9) are structurally similar to diphenylmethane diisocyanate (MDI), hence they can be equally good adhesives for bonding wood composites. The EDFI adhesive is synthesized from biomass-derived chemicals, contrary to the petroleum-derived MDI. The mechanical performances of MDI- and EDFI-bonded aspen flakeboards were compared. Flakeboards bonded with MDI showed results only marginally better than those bonded with EDFI. The difference has been ascribed to EDFI having greater viscosity than MDI. This has been thought to have caused a less optimal distribution of EDFI during spraying on the wood flakes, causing the slight difference in strength properties. The dry IB strength values of EDFI-bonded flakeboards showed dry IB strengths of 0.97 MPa, hence a value significantly greater than the 0.41 MPa required by the American National Standards Institute for type-2 medium-density particleboard when compared to MDI yielding 1.13 MPa.
Furfuryl alcohol, a biosourced material, is widely used in the foundry industry and in adhesives as additives or modifiers. However, furanic resins have not been reported as being used alone as wood panel adhesives. Furfuryl alcohol-aldehyde resins were nonetheless recently prepared for wood panel adhesives by reacting furfuryl alcohol with three different aldehydes: formaldehyde, glyoxal, and glutaraldehyde [66]. p-Toluene sulfonic acid coupled with an acid self-neutralizing system to minimize any damage to the wood substrate was used as a resin hardener to prepare plywood panels and to determine their bonding performances. In this adhesive system, formaldehyde and glyoxal reacted with furfuryl alcohol and the resin so prepared had excellent performance. The reaction of glutaraldehyde with furfuryl alcohol instead seemed difficult, the furfuryl alcohol autocondensation predominating instead. The curing agent acidity greatly influences the resin bonding performance. The furfuryl alcohol-glyoxal resin showed a good bonding strength and water resistance greater than the standard requirements (≥0.7 MPa), even when using an acid self-neutralizing system as a hardener. This resin performed particularly well, considering that no formaldehyde was used.
Furfural and more recently hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF) are well-known upgraders of formaldehyde-based synthetic resins. An excellent review on this exists and the reader is addressed to it [67]. Even early literature and patents are known on this subject. The use of hydroxymethyl furfural is less known in synthetic resins where formaldehyde has been totally eliminated. Recent examples of the increased interest in HMF are the resins based on the coupling of glyoxal with HMF. Glyoxal is an aldehyde that is both nonvolatile and nontoxic. It can be used to substitute formaldehyde to prepare melamine-glyoxal (MG) resins for the wood industry. Due to the lower reactivity of glyoxal compared to formaldehyde, the MG resins performance is not as good as could be expected. Thus, 5-hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF) was used as a modifier to improve the properties of MG resins to prepare a hydroxymethyl furfural modified melamine-glyoxal (HMFMG) adhesive for bonding plywood [68]. The structure of the oligomers formed was determined along with the thermomechanical properties of the resins. The HMFMG resin presented a lower curing activation energy than the MG resin, yielding a much better bonded and water-resistant plywood.
Some fully biobased carbohydrate extracts from African trees have shown to release both hydroxymethyl furfural and furan 2,5-dialdehyde as hardeners [69, 70] during hot-pressing. Figure 10 shows an example of the reactions involved.
Schematic representation of the formation of the reactive species hydroxymethyl furfural and furan 2,5-dialdehyde from carbohydrate exudates of several African trees and their reaction to cross-link tannins.
This approach also fits with the adhesives based on the reaction of the reactive procyanidins of pine bark tannin with hydroxymethyl furfural [69] also yielding encouraging wood bonding results.
A 100% biosourced thermoset material based on condensed tannin-furfuryl alcohol thermoset resins has been used as the resin matrix of solid abrasive wheels by using pTSA as a catalyst [62, 71, 72, 73]. The system is based on two reactions: the reaction of furfuryl alcohol with the tannin and the acid-induced self-condensation of the furfuryl alcohol (Figure 11). The co-polymerization reactions were studied by 13C NMR and MALDI-ToF mass spectrometry; they are shown in Figure 11.
Schematic representation of the reaction of furfuryl alcohol with tannin to form hard thermoset plastics.
The 100% renewable bioresourced tannin–furanic thermosetting resin was found to have a glass transition temperature as high as 211°C, and a 95% weight loss temperature of 244°C and 240°C in nitrogen and in air atmosphere, respectively. The char yield is as high as 52%. Moreover, this new thermoset material showed excellent mechanical properties: a Brinell hardness of 23 HBS, which is higher than commercial acrylic, polyvinyl chloride and a little lower than that of solid (not foamed) polystyrene. The compressive break strength was found to be as high as 194.4 MPa, thus higher than that of filled phenolic resins and much higher than that of solid polystyrene and acetal resins (Table 3). Figure 12 shows its appearance and the repetition of the resin stress vs. strain curves.
Resin name | Breaking strength (MPa) | Young’s modulus (GPa) |
---|---|---|
Tannin–furanic plastic | 194.4 + 2.3 | 2.16 + 0.09 |
Solid Polystyrene | 106 | 3.88 |
Acetal resin | 100 | 3.28 |
Filled phenolic resin | 158 | 6.82 |
Breaking strength and Young’s modulus of tannin–furanic resin under compression.a
Note: the values of the other resins are cited from ASTM_D695-10.
Top: examples of rigid plastic specimens prepared by the reaction of tannin and furfuryl alcohol. Bottom: plot of the stress/strain curves of the tannin-furfuryl rigid plastic, the two curves showing its behavior repeatability.
This hard thermoset resin was produced by a simple process that is easily industrialized. Abrasive wheels held together with this resin bonding different mineral and organic abrasive powders were developed and characterized. The main abrasive powder used was aluminum trioxide Al2O3 of different grit levels (Figure 13). Hard nutshell powders were also tried but did not give sufficiently good results. These abrasive wheels showed excellent abrasiveness properties when compared to commercial abrasive wheels [71].
Left: example of angle grinder disc formed by a tannin-furfuryl rigid plastic matrix and aluminium oxide abrasive. Right, example of a steel tube cut with the same type of disc but with different abrasive grits [
Angle-grinder’s cutting and grinding discs based on this green resin were also used for bonding abrasive particles of aluminium trioxide of different sizes and of different grits level (Figure 13). These discs were characterized and showed excellent abrasiveness and cutting properties. Their mechanical resistance was found to be comparable to that of commercial grinding discs bonded with synthetic phenolic resins. They tolerated well the severe stresses induced on them at 11,000 revolutions per minute (rpm) by operation in an angle grinder when grinding or cutting steel [72].
The same hard resin was used as a resin matrix for automotive brake pads. These experimental automotive brake pads based on this green resin showed excellent braking properties and wear resistance when used in a real car under full-scale test conditions. Their mechanical resistance was found to be comparable to that of commercial automotive brake pads bonded with synthetic phenolic resins. They tolerated well the severe stresses induced by strong braking, such as emergency braking at 50 km/h (31 mph) until complete standstill and showed braking distances comparable or even shorter than commercial brake pads [73].
The same technology led to the preparation of both highly flexible films and strongly adhering non-scratch surface finishes by reacting partially aminated polyflavonoid tannins with furfuryl alcohol in the presence of plasticizers such as glycerol or polyethyleneimine. Chemical analysis showed partial amination of the tannin under the conditions used and even the formation of some –N〓 bridges between flavonoid units, although these were shown to be rare. Oligomers formed by the reaction of furfuryl alcohol with the flavonoid units and the simultaneous self-condensation of furfuryl alcohol were detected. Linear methylene–furanic chains were also found to be linked to flavonoid reactive sites. Side condensation reactions of furfuryl alcohol led to the formation of methylene ether bridges between furanic nuclei, followed by rearrangement to methylene bridges with liberation of formaldehyde. The latter reacted with both the flavonoid units and furan ring reactive sites to yield –CH2OH, –CH2+ groups and methylene bridges [74].
Furanic resins either alone or in combination with other renewable biosourced materials have come of age in fields where they were never considered before, either because of their dark color or high cost. Their biosourced, renewable materials-derived label has changed this perception in a world looking for materials that are not oil-derived. Thus, from their traditional industrial applications, namely, in foundry sand shell molds for metal casting, they are starting to be used other areas such as fire-resistant, thermally insulating, and sound absorbent foams, as wood panel adhesives, hard rigid plastics, resistant matrix resins for abrasive aggregates, and even for the formation of flexible films and non-scratch surface finishes. These biomaterials are attracting the interest of researchers to develop new uses for them. Thus, their future expansion to a variety of products appears now to be assured.
The LERMAB is supported by a grant of France’s Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR) in the ambit of the laboratory of excellence (LABEX) ARBRE.
The authors declare no conflict of interests.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"839",title:"Oceanography",slug:"oceanography",parent:{id:"125",title:"Earth Science",slug:"earth-science"},numberOfBooks:7,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:111,numberOfWosCitations:52,numberOfCrossrefCitations:64,numberOfDimensionsCitations:106,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"839",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9280",title:"Underwater Work",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"647b4270d937deae4a82f5702d1959ec",slug:"underwater-work",bookSignature:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9280.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248645",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio",middleName:null,surname:"Lousada",slug:"sergio-lousada",fullName:"Sérgio Lousada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8007",title:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones",subtitle:"Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec140486c42d62e69ef428e6cf71b6d7",slug:"estuaries-and-coastal-zones-dynamics-and-response-to-environmental-changes",bookSignature:"Jiayi Pan and Adam Devlin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8007.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179303",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiayi",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"jiayi-pan",fullName:"Jiayi Pan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7606",title:"Coastal and Marine Environments",subtitle:"Physical Processes and Numerical Modelling",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd1227726856d58b88116129b0de8384",slug:"coastal-and-marine-environments-physical-processes-and-numerical-modelling",bookSignature:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7606.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67904",title:"Prof.",name:"José Simão",middleName:null,surname:"Antunes Do Carmo",slug:"jose-simao-antunes-do-carmo",fullName:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6012",title:"Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold's Concept and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79ce8dc1cde58947a61fe4aea725d437",slug:"morphodynamic-model-for-predicting-beach-changes-based-on-bagnold-s-concept-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Takaaki Uda, Masumi Serizawa and Shiho Miyahara",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6012.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"13491",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaaki",middleName:null,surname:"Uda",slug:"takaaki-uda",fullName:"Takaaki Uda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"8669",title:"Coastal Environment, Disaster, and Infrastructure",subtitle:"A Case Study of China's Coastline",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"52abc534177a147ffd3154db2f4f4ba1",slug:"coastal-environment-disaster-and-infrastructure-a-case-study-of-china-s-coastline",bookSignature:"X. San Liang and Yuanzhi Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210315",title:"Prof.",name:"X. San",middleName:null,surname:"Liang",slug:"x.-san-liang",fullName:"X. San Liang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"6195",title:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4eb2fa7c0bf9d4a493375ee47276aa38",slug:"sea-level-rise-and-coastal-infrastructure",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang, Yijun Hou and Xiaomei Yang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6195.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2221",title:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard",subtitle:"From Physical Interpretation to Human Impact",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7ce45cda9743300d394136417028a84",slug:"tsunami-analysis-of-a-hazard-from-physical-interpretation-to-human-impact",bookSignature:"Gloria I. Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2221.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"146976",title:"Dr.",name:"Gloria",middleName:"I.",surname:"López",slug:"gloria-lopez",fullName:"Gloria López"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:7,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"64510",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82320",title:"Introductory Chapter: Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold’s Concept and Its Applications",slug:"introductory-chapter-morphodynamic-model-for-predicting-beach-changes-based-on-bagnold-s-concept-and",totalDownloads:879,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"6012",slug:"morphodynamic-model-for-predicting-beach-changes-based-on-bagnold-s-concept-and-its-applications",title:"Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold's Concept and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold's Concept and Its Applications"},signatures:"Takaaki Uda, Masumi Serizawa and Shiho Miyahara",authors:[{id:"13491",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaaki",middleName:null,surname:"Uda",slug:"takaaki-uda",fullName:"Takaaki Uda"}]},{id:"67923",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87843",title:"Structure and Dynamics of Plumes Generated by Small Rivers",slug:"structure-and-dynamics-of-plumes-generated-by-small-rivers",totalDownloads:830,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The total share of small rivers in the influxes of fluvial water and suspended matter to the world ocean is estimated at between 25 and 40%. On a regional scale, this contribution can be even more significant for many coastal regions. In this chapter, we show that dynamics of small river plumes is significantly different from that of plumes generated by large rivers. Spatial structure of small plumes is generally characterized by sharper horizontal and vertical gradients. As a result, small plumes exhibit more energetic temporal variability in response to external forcing. In this chapter, we address several dynamical features typical for small plumes. We describe and discuss the response of small plumes to wind forcing and river discharge variability, the interaction between neighboring small plumes, and the generation of high-frequency internal waves in coastal ocean by small rivers. We also substantiate the Lagrangian approach to numerical modeling of small river plumes.",book:{id:"8007",slug:"estuaries-and-coastal-zones-dynamics-and-response-to-environmental-changes",title:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones",fullTitle:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones - Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes"},signatures:"Alexander Osadchiev and Peter Zavialov",authors:[{id:"296909",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Zavialov",slug:"peter-zavialov",fullName:"Peter Zavialov"},{id:"296910",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Osadchiev",slug:"alexander-osadchiev",fullName:"Alexander Osadchiev"}]},{id:"41072",doi:"10.5772/51864",title:"The November, 1st, 1755 Tsunami in Morocco: Can Numerical Modeling Clarify the Uncertainties of Historical Reports?",slug:"the-november-1st-1755-tsunami-in-morocco-can-numerical-modeling-clarify-the-uncertainties-of-histori",totalDownloads:2396,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"2221",slug:"tsunami-analysis-of-a-hazard-from-physical-interpretation-to-human-impact",title:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard",fullTitle:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard - From Physical Interpretation to Human Impact"},signatures:"R. Omira, M.A. Baptista, S. Mellas, F. Leone, N. Meschinet de Richemond, B. Zourarah and J-P. Cherel",authors:[{id:"16693",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Baptista",slug:"maria-ana-baptista",fullName:"Maria Ana Baptista"},{id:"16695",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachid",middleName:null,surname:"Omira",slug:"rachid-omira",fullName:"Rachid Omira"},{id:"92702",title:"Prof.",name:"Frederic",middleName:null,surname:"Leone",slug:"frederic-leone",fullName:"Frederic Leone"},{id:"148352",title:"MSc.",name:"Samira",middleName:null,surname:"Mellas",slug:"samira-mellas",fullName:"Samira Mellas"},{id:"148353",title:"Prof.",name:"Bendahou",middleName:null,surname:"Zourarah",slug:"bendahou-zourarah",fullName:"Bendahou Zourarah"},{id:"148356",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Cherel",slug:"jean-philippe-cherel",fullName:"Jean-Philippe Cherel"},{id:"157593",title:"Prof.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Meschinet De Richemond",slug:"nancy-meschinet-de-richemond",fullName:"Nancy Meschinet De Richemond"}]},{id:"58729",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73217",title:"Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Sea Surface Temperature in the East China Sea Using TERRA/MODIS Products Data",slug:"spatio-temporal-analysis-of-sea-surface-temperature-in-the-east-china-sea-using-terra-modis-products",totalDownloads:1037,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Sea surface temperature (SST) is an important parameter in determining the atmospheric and oceanic circulations, and satellite thermal infrared remote sensing can obtain the SST with very high spatio-temporal resolutions. The study first validated the accuracy of TERRA MODIS SST daytime and nighttime products with the timing SST measurements from the ships in the East China Sea (ECS) in February, May, August and November, 2001, and then the daily variation of daytime and nighttime SST difference was analyzed. Using 16-year MODIS SST monthly products data from February 2000 to January 2016, when all SST monthly products in February, May, August and November were averaged respectively, the seasonal spatial distribution pattern of SST in the ECS was discovered. After monthly sea surface temperature anomaly was finally processed by the empirical orthogonal function (EOF), the interannual variability of SST in the ECS was discussed. The results show that the MODIS SST daily products have a good accuracy with a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) below 5%. The SST difference between day and night is the largest in winter, followed by spring, then for autumn and the smallest in summer, while the diurnal SST difference is very low for the same season in the different seas. The SST in the ECS displays the obvious seasonal spatial distribution pattern, in which the SST of winter is gradually increasing from north to south, while local temperature difference is the largest for 26.5°C in a year. In comparison, the SST in summer tends uniform and the difference is not more than 5°C in the whole sea. From the EOF analysis of SST anomaly, the interannual variability of SST in the ECS is affected by the East Asian monsoon, the latitudinal difference of solar radiation, the offshore circulation and the submarine terrain.",book:{id:"6195",slug:"sea-level-rise-and-coastal-infrastructure",title:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure",fullTitle:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure"},signatures:"Shaoqi Gong and Kapo Wong",authors:[{id:"219135",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaoqi",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"shaoqi-gong",fullName:"Shaoqi Gong"},{id:"219138",title:"Mr.",name:"Wong",middleName:null,surname:"Kapo",slug:"wong-kapo",fullName:"Wong Kapo"}]},{id:"63609",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80903",title:"Saltwater Intrusion in the Changjiang Estuary",slug:"saltwater-intrusion-in-the-changjiang-estuary",totalDownloads:1436,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Saltwater intrusion in the Changjiang Estuary and the impacts of river discharge, tide, wind, sea level rise, river basin, and major estuary projects on saltwater intrusion are studied in this chapter. There is a net landward flow in the NB (North Branch) when river discharge is low during spring tide, resulting in a type of saltwater intrusion known as the SSO (saltwater-spilling-over from the NB into the SB (South Branch)), which is the most striking characteristic of saltwater intrusion in the estuary. A three-dimension numerical model with HSIMT-TVD advection scheme was developed to study the hydrodynamic processes and saltwater intrusion in the Changjiang Estuary. Saltwater intrusion in the estuary is controlled mainly by river discharge and tide, but is also influenced by wind, sea level rise, river basin, and estuary projects. Saltwater intrusion is enhanced when river discharge decreases. There is more time for the reservoir to take freshwater from the river when river discharge is larger. The fortnightly spring tide generates greater saltwater intrusion than the neap tide. The saltwater intrusion in the SP (South Passage) is stronger than that in the NP (North Passage), and the intrusion in the NP is stronger than that in the NC (North Channel). The northerly wind produces southward currents along the Subei coast as well as the landward Ekman transport, which enhances the saltwater intrusion in the NC and NB and weakens the saltwater intrusion in the NP and SP. Saltwater intrusion becomes stronger as the sea level rises and is much stronger when river discharge is much small. The DWP (Deep Waterway Project) alleviates the saltwater intrusion in the NC and the lower reaches of the NP and enhances the saltwater intrusion in the SP and in the upper reaches of the NP. The Three Gorges Dam (TGD) increases river discharge in winter, which weakens saltwater intrusion, and is favorable for reducing the burden of freshwater supplement in the highly populated estuarine region. The Water Diversion South to the North Project (WDP) decreases river discharge, enhances saltwater intrusion, and is unfavorable for freshwater supply in the estuary.",book:{id:"8669",slug:"coastal-environment-disaster-and-infrastructure-a-case-study-of-china-s-coastline",title:"Coastal Environment, Disaster, and Infrastructure",fullTitle:"Coastal Environment, Disaster, and Infrastructure - A Case Study of China's Coastline"},signatures:"Jianrong Zhu, Hui Wu, Lu Li and Cheng Qiu",authors:[{id:"266207",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianrong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"jianrong-zhu",fullName:"Jianrong Zhu"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70994",title:"Circulations in the Pearl River Estuary: Observation and Modeling",slug:"circulations-in-the-pearl-river-estuary-observation-and-modeling",totalDownloads:777,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter reports a cruise survey on the Pearl River Estuary (PRE) and adjacent costal water in the period between May 3, 2014 and May 11, 2014. The circulation and salinity structure were sampled for different tidal phases. With the cruise data, a “sandwich” structure of the lateral salinity distribution and a two-layer structure of longitudinal circulation were identified, together with high variations influenced by wind and tide. Furthermore, longitudinally orientated convergence or divergence of the lateral velocity close to the channel location for certain tidal conditions was observed. The finite volume community ocean model (FVCOM) is configured and run with high spatial resolution of 100 m in the PRE. An atmospheric model, the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model, is also run to provide high spatial and temporal resolution of atmospheric forcing for the FVCOM. The FVCOM modeling skill assessment is conducted using the cruise salinity and velocity data, as well as water levels, showing that the model can well simulate the velocity and salinity structures. The numerical model reveals that there is a strong neap-spring cycle for the PRE de-tided circulation with 0.37 m s−1 during the neap tide about 42% stronger than that (0.26 m s−1) during the spring tide in the surface layer.",book:{id:"8007",slug:"estuaries-and-coastal-zones-dynamics-and-response-to-environmental-changes",title:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones",fullTitle:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones - Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes"},signatures:"Jiayi Pan, Wenfeng Lai and Adam Thomas Devlin",authors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"},{id:"302219",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jiayi",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"jiayi-pan",fullName:"Jiayi Pan"},{id:"309888",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"wenfeng-lai",fullName:"Wenfeng Lai"}]},{id:"41072",title:"The November, 1st, 1755 Tsunami in Morocco: Can Numerical Modeling Clarify the Uncertainties of Historical Reports?",slug:"the-november-1st-1755-tsunami-in-morocco-can-numerical-modeling-clarify-the-uncertainties-of-histori",totalDownloads:2396,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"2221",slug:"tsunami-analysis-of-a-hazard-from-physical-interpretation-to-human-impact",title:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard",fullTitle:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard - From Physical Interpretation to Human Impact"},signatures:"R. Omira, M.A. Baptista, S. Mellas, F. Leone, N. Meschinet de Richemond, B. Zourarah and J-P. Cherel",authors:[{id:"16693",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Baptista",slug:"maria-ana-baptista",fullName:"Maria Ana Baptista"},{id:"16695",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachid",middleName:null,surname:"Omira",slug:"rachid-omira",fullName:"Rachid Omira"},{id:"92702",title:"Prof.",name:"Frederic",middleName:null,surname:"Leone",slug:"frederic-leone",fullName:"Frederic Leone"},{id:"148352",title:"MSc.",name:"Samira",middleName:null,surname:"Mellas",slug:"samira-mellas",fullName:"Samira Mellas"},{id:"148353",title:"Prof.",name:"Bendahou",middleName:null,surname:"Zourarah",slug:"bendahou-zourarah",fullName:"Bendahou Zourarah"},{id:"148356",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Cherel",slug:"jean-philippe-cherel",fullName:"Jean-Philippe Cherel"},{id:"157593",title:"Prof.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Meschinet De Richemond",slug:"nancy-meschinet-de-richemond",fullName:"Nancy Meschinet De Richemond"}]},{id:"63921",title:"Eight Types of BG Models and Discretization",slug:"eight-types-of-bg-models-and-discretization",totalDownloads:921,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Eight types of the BG models are introduced in this chapter. The Type 1 is a model using wave parameters at the breaking point. In the Type 2, the effect of longshore sand transport due to the effect of the longshore gradient of breaker height is included with an additional term given by Ozasa and Brampton. In the Type 3, the intensity of sand transport P is assumed to be proportional to the third power of the amplitude of the bottom oscillatory velocity um due to waves, and in the Type 4, P is given by the wave energy dissipation rate due to wave breaking at a local point. In the Type 5, wave power is calculated using the coordinate system different from that for the calculation of beach changes to predict the topographic changes of an island or a cuspate foreland in a shallow water body under the action of waves randomly incident from every direction. In the Type 6, the height of wind waves is predicted using Wilson’s formula using the wind fetch distance and wind velocity, and then sand transport fluxes are calculated. The Type 7 is a model for predicting the formation of the ebb-tidal delta under the combined effect of waves and ebb-tidal currents with an analogy of the velocity distribution of ebb-tidal currents to the wave diffraction coefficient, which can be calculated by the angular spreading method for irregular waves. In the Type 8, the effect of the nearshore currents induced by forced wave breaking is incorporated into the model by calculating the nearshore currents, taking both the wave field and the current velocity at a local point into account.",book:{id:"6012",slug:"morphodynamic-model-for-predicting-beach-changes-based-on-bagnold-s-concept-and-its-applications",title:"Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold's Concept and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold's Concept and Its Applications"},signatures:"Takaaki Uda, Masumi Serizawa and Shiho Miyahara",authors:[{id:"13491",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaaki",middleName:null,surname:"Uda",slug:"takaaki-uda",fullName:"Takaaki Uda"}]},{id:"57606",title:"Analysis of Dynamic Effects on the Brazilian Vertical Datum",slug:"analysis-of-dynamic-effects-on-the-brazilian-vertical-datum",totalDownloads:950,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter presents a methodology of analyzing the dynamic effect from mean sea level variations, based on Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data, velocity models, tide gauge observations, and satellite altimetry data. GNSS observations were processed in order to obtain the variation of up coordinate required to identify the possible crust movements. Velocity model served as a comparative basis to verify the obtained results from the GNSS data processing and served as a basis for analyzing the time periods without GNSS information. Tide gauge data were used to evaluate the sea level temporal evolution in the Imbituba Brazilian Vertical Datum (I-BVD). Satellite altimetry data were used for checking the results from the GNSS and the tide gauge time series. The analyses were based on time series of observations by GNSS from 2007 until 2016, tide gauge from 1948 until 1968 and 2001 until 2016, and satellite altimetry data from 1991 until 2015 from different missions. As basis for the analysis, it used GNSS SIRGAS-CON stations, the SIRGAS velocity model (VEMOS), and NUVEL velocity model. Considering the discrimination of the crust vertical movement (GNSS processing) from the results obtained with the tide gauge observations, it was observed that there is an evidence of mean sea level (MSL) rising approximately +2.24 ± 0.4 mm/year.",book:{id:"6195",slug:"sea-level-rise-and-coastal-infrastructure",title:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure",fullTitle:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure"},signatures:"Luciana M. Da Silva, Sílvio R.C. 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Remote sensing technology has real-time and large-area advantages in promoting the monitoring and forecast ability of coastal disaster. Relative to natural disasters, ones caused by human factors are more likely to be monitored and prevented. In this paper, we use several remote sensing methods to monitor or forecast three kinds of coastal disaster cause by human factors including red tide, sea-level rise and oil spilling, and make proposals for infrastructure based on the research results. The chosen method of monitoring red tide by inversing chlorophyll-a concentration is improved OC3M Model, which is more suitable for the coastal zone and higher spatial resolution than the MODIS chlorophyll-a production. We monitor the sea-level rise in coastal zone through coastline changes without artificial modifications. The improved Lagrangian model can simulate the trajectory of oil slick efficiently. Making the infrastructure planning according the coastal disasters and features of coastline contributes to prevent coastal disaster and coastal ecosystem protection. Multi-source remote sensing data can effectively monitor and prevent coastal disaster, and provide planning advices for coastal infrastructure construction.",book:{id:"6195",slug:"sea-level-rise-and-coastal-infrastructure",title:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure",fullTitle:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure"},signatures:"Yan Yu, Shengbo Chen, Tianqi Lu and Siyu Tian",authors:[{id:"162887",title:"Prof.",name:"Shengbo",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"shengbo-chen",fullName:"Shengbo Chen"},{id:"220026",title:"Dr.",name:"Yan",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",slug:"yan-yu",fullName:"Yan Yu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"839",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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