\r\n\tNot all mixtures of particles and liquids can be considered slurries. A slurry has its character quite different from the carrying liquid (sometimes referred to as the vehicle). A Newtonian liquid has its shear stress directly proportional to its rate of deformation, but this is seldom the case for a slurry. In general, slurries are referred to as non-Newtonian liquids and ways of dealing with them are important threads in this text.
\r\n
\r\n\tPipe blockages and pipe wear cause high costs to industry, in both maintenance and loss of production. This waste, and environmental damage which comes with it, can be shown to be reduced by careful application of slurry technology. This book will welcome recent research efforts to understand slurries related to the above-mentioned topics.
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Wearable technologies are becoming increasingly popular as personal health system, enabling continuous real-time monitoring of human health on a daily basis and outside clinical environments [1, 2, 3]. The wearable device market is currently having a worldwide profit of around $34 billion and is expected to reach above $50 billion by 2022 owing to wearables’ ease of use, flexibility, and convenience [4]. Real-time monitoring, operational efficiency, and fitness tracking are reported as main factors supporting the market growth of health wearable devices such as smart watches, smart glasses, and other wellness gadgets, with expected $12.1 billion world market by 2021 [5].
\n
In the past decade, the recent progress in developing wearable devices was more focused on monitoring physical parameters, such as motion, respiration rate, etc. [3, 6, 7]. Today, there is a great interest in evolving wearable sensors capable of detecting chemical markers relevant to the status of health. Different approaches have been applied by researchers to design and fabricate wearable biosensors for remote monitoring of metabolites and electrolytes in body fluids including tear, sweat, and saliva [3, 8, 9, 10]. A great example would be the development of small and reliable sensors that would allow continuous glucose monitoring in diabetic patients [11, 12]. Diabetes is a chronic disease that can significantly impact on quality of life and reduce life expectancy. However, diabetics can stay one step ahead of the disease by monitoring their blood glucose level to minimize the complication of the disease by proper administration of insulin. Currently, blood analysis is the gold standard method for measuring the level of glucose in patient’s blood. However, this technique cannot be applied without penetrating the skin, which can be painful and inconvenient, and requires user obedience. Therefore, current research focuses on the development of portable and wearable devices capable of continuous glucose sensing through noninvasive detection techniques.
\n
\n
\n
2. Tear analysis
\n
A majority of the recent studies in this field have targeted the area of personalized medicine, endeavoring to develop miniaturized wearable devices featuring real-time glucose monitoring in diabetic patients [12, 13, 14, 15]. One great example is contact lens which is an ideal wearable device that can be worn for hours without any pain or discomfort [16]. Integration of glucose biosensors into contact lenses has recently been demonstrated by several research groups [9, 17, 18]. However, the level of glucose in tear fluid is very low (0.1–0.6 mM), requiring a high sensitivity of the sensor for picking up the signal from expected chemical reaction [3, 19]. Yao et al. [16] have fabricated a contact lens with integrated sensor for continuous tear glucose monitoring with wireless communication system over a distance of several centimeters. The sensor demonstrated a fast response of 20 s with a minimum detection of less than 0.01 mM glucose, which is 10–60 times lower than glucose level in human tear [16].
\n
In addition to glucose, lactate is an important metabolite in the human body, which gets converted into l-lactate under hypoxic condition [20]. l-Lactate levels in tear fluid is about 1–5 mmol L−1, which might increase significantly due to some heath conditions including ischemia, inadequate tissue oxygenation, stroke, and different types of cancer [21]. Thomas et al. [22] demonstrated an invasive detection of lactate in human tear by integrating an amperometric lactate sensor with Pt working (WE) and reference (RE) electrodes as well as a counter electrode (CE) as current drain, on a polymer-based contact lens, measuring lactate in situ in human tears without any need for physical sampling [22].
\n
Very recently, Park et al. [17] reported a novel approach for fabricating fully transparent and stretchable smart contact lens capable of wirelessly monitoring the level of glucose in the tears of diabetic patients. Figure 1 shows the layout of fabricated devices made of glucose sensors, wireless circuit, and display pixel on soft and transparent contact lens substrate (Figure 1a and b). The circuit diagram of the device is illustrated in Figure 1a, with radio frequency antenna receiving signals from a transmitter and a rectifier converting the signals to DC (Figure 1a and c). A continuous network of ultralong Ag nanofibers was used as stretchable electrodes for the antenna and interconnects (Figure 1d). In the case of any change in the concentration of glucose in tear, the sensor resistance changes resulting in the light-emitting diode (LED) pixel turning on or off. The device was tested in vitro using a live rabbit, providing substantial finding for smart contact lenses as one of the promising wearable devices in healthcare system [17].
\n
Figure 1.
(a) (i) Schematic illustration and (ii) operation of the soft, smart contact lens and (iii) the circuit diagram of the smart contact lens system. The soft, smart contact lens is composed of (b) a hybrid substrate; (c) functional devices including rectifier, LED, and glucose sensor; and (d) a transparent, stretchable conductor for antenna and interconnects [17].
\n
\n
\n
3. Sweat analysis
\n
In addition to tear, sweat electrolyte concentrations and blood serum are related [2, 8]. As one of the most readily accessible human biofluids, a great deal of information about the human body and its physical performance could be obtained via monitoring sweat electrolyte concentrations [23, 24]. Several groups have reported the key biomarkers in human sweat (e.g., sodium level, pH change, lactate concentration) relevant to human health and well-being, for monitoring athletic performance during sporting activities [25]. Jia et al. fabricated a skin-worn tattoo-based sensor for real-time monitoring of lactate in human sweat, offering substantial benefits for biomedical as well as sport applications [25]. In another approach, Curto et al. [26] fabricated a wearable and flexible microfluidic platform capable of monitoring changes in the sweat pH in real time. Anastasova et al. [27] developed a flexible microfluidic device for real-time monitoring of metabolite such as lactate as well as electrolytes such as pH and sodium in human sweat. Recently, Gao et al. [28] developed a flexible and wearable device (Figure 2) made of arrays of sensors for real-time monitoring of heavy metals, such as Zn, Cu, and Hg in human sweat. The device fabrication method is presented in Figure 2a, showing the deposition and stripping steps on microelectrodes. The sensing mechanism was based on an electrochemical detection of targeted heavy metals through four microelectrodes, including Au and Bi working electrodes, Ag reference electrode, and an Au counter electrode (Figure 2b and c). The fabricated device demonstrated high stability and selectivity toward heavy metals, providing a great platform to advancing the field of wearable biosensors for healthcare application, via monitoring the level of some heavy metals in human sweat [28]. A balanced level of Zn is necessary in the human body as a low and high Zn concentration can lead to pneumonia and liver damages, respectively [29, 30]. High level of Cu in the human body can lead to several diseases including Wilson’s disease and heart, kidney, and liver failures as well as brain diseases [31, 32]. The fabricated device demonstrated high stability and selectivity toward heavy metals, providing a great platform to advancing the field of wearable biosensors for healthcare application [28].
\n
Figure 2.
(a) A schematic showing the concept of deposition and stripping on microelectrodes. (b) A schematic showing the composition of the microsensor array. (c) Optical image of a flexible sensor array interfacing with a flexible printed circuit connector [28].
\n
\n
\n
4. Saliva analysis
\n
Saliva, as a great diagnostic fluid, can be used in personal health devices for real-time monitoring of chemical markers including salivary lactate analysis [33]. Chai et al. developed a saliva nanosensor with a radio-frequency identification tag, integrated into dental implants for detecting cardiac biomarkers in saliva and predicting close heart attack in patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases [34]. In another approach, an instrumented mouthguard was designed and fabricated by Kim et al. [35] for measuring salivary uric acid levels which could be a biomarker for several diseases including hyperuricemia, gout, physical stress, and renal syndrome. The fabricated device showed high selectivity and sensitivity to low level of uric acid as well as great stability during a 4-h operation period [35]. Mannoor et al. [36] developed a hybrid biosensor made of graphene layers printed onto water-soluble silk, for noninvasive detection of bacteria through body fluids including sweat and saliva. This graphene/silk hybrid device illustrated an extremely high sensitivity to bacteria in body fluid with detection limits down to a single bacterium [36]. In addition, the fabricated device provided the potential users with battery-free operation and wireless communication system via radio frequency [36]. Arakawa et al. [37] designed and fabricated a salivary sensor equipped with a wireless measurement system, embedded onto a mouthguard support, featuring a high sensitivity toward detection of glucose over a range of 5–1000 μmol L−1. The device demonstrated a great stability during a 5-h real-time glucose monitoring period in an artificial saliva with a phantom jaw [37]. In a similar approach, de Castro et al. [38] developed a microfluidic paper-based device integrated into a mouthguard, for continues monitoring of glucose and nitrite in human saliva. The saliva samples were collected from periodontitis and/or diabetes patients as well as healthy individuals. The fabricated device featured a low detection limit of 27 and 7 μmol L−1 for glucose and nitrite, respectively [38].
\n
\n
\n
5. Summary
\n
In summary, there is a great potential for micro- and nanosensors’ integration into healthcare monitoring devices, developing new technologies for noninvasive detection of diseases in the human body. Flexible wearable devices offer promising capabilities in real-time monitoring of body fluids including tear, sweat, and saliva. However, more research is required to expand the use of wearable platforms in continuous analysis of body fluids, providing reliable real-time detection of targeting ions and proteins, among other complex analytes.
\n
\n\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69186.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69186.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69186",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69186",totalDownloads:827,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:57,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 21st 2019",dateReviewed:"August 22nd 2019",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 4th 2019",dateFinished:"September 21st 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69186",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69186",book:{id:"7654",slug:"wearable-devices-the-big-wave-of-innovation"},signatures:"Noushin Nasiri",authors:[{id:"234150",title:"Dr.",name:"Noushin",middleName:null,surname:"Nasiri",fullName:"Noushin Nasiri",slug:"noushin-nasiri",email:"noushin.nasiri@mq.edu.au",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/234150/images/system/234150.jpg",institution:{name:"Macquarie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Tear analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Sweat analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Saliva analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Summary",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Trung TQ , Lee NE. Flexible and stretchable physical sensor integrated platforms for wearable human-activity monitoring and personal healthcare. Advanced Materials. 2016;28(22):4338-4372\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Nakata S, Arie T, Akita S, Takei K. Wearable, flexible, and multifunctional healthcare device with an ISFET chemical sensor for simultaneous sweat pH and skin temperature monitoring. ACS Sensors. 2017;2(3):443-448\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Tricoli A, Nasiri N, De S. Wearable and miniaturized sensor technologies for personalized and preventive medicine. Advanced Functional Materials. 2017;27(15):1605271\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Arnold JF, Sade RM. Wearable technologies in collegiate sports: The ethics of collecting biometric data from student-athletes. 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Sensors & Actuators, B: Chemical. 2016;227:35-42\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Pribil MM, Laptev GU, Karyakina EE, Karyakin AA. Noninvasive hypoxia monitor based on gene-free engineering of lactate oxidase for analysis of undiluted sweat. Analytical Chemistry. 2014;86(11):5215-5219\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Jia W, Bandodkar AJ, Valdés-Ramírez G, Windmiller JR, Yang Z, Ramírez J, et al. Electrochemical tattoo biosensors for real-time noninvasive lactate monitoring in human perspiration. Analytical Chemistry. 2013;85(14):6553-6560\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Curto VF, Fay C, Coyle S, Byrne R, O’Toole C, Barry C, et al. Real-time sweat pH monitoring based on a wearable chemical barcode micro-fluidic platform incorporating ionic liquids. Sensors & Actuators, B: Chemical. 2012;171-172:1327-1334\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Anastasova S, Crewther B, Bembnowicz P, Curto V, Ip HM, Rosa B, et al. A wearable multisensing patch for continuous sweat monitoring. Biosensors & Bioelectronics. 2017;93:139-145\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Gao W, Nyein HY, Shahpar Z, Fahad HM, Chen K, Emaminejad S, et al. Wearable microsensor array for multiplexed heavy metal monitoring of body fluids. ACS Sensors. 2016;1(7):866-874\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Lassi ZS, Moin A, Bhutta ZA. Zinc supplementation for the prevention of pneumonia in children aged 2 months to 59 months. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016;12:CD005978\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Mohammad MK, Zhou Z, Cave M, Barve A, McClain CJ. Zinc and liver disease. Nutrition in Clinical Practice. 2012;27(1):8-20\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Crisponi G, Nurchi VM, Fanni D, Gerosa C, Nemolato S, Faa G. Copper-related diseases: From chemistry to molecular pathology. Coordination Chemistry Reviews. 2010;254(7-8):876-889\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Huster D. Wilson disease. Best Practice & Research. Clinical Gastroenterology. 2010;24(5):531-539\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Lee J, Garon E, Wong D. Salivary diagnostics. Orthodontics & Craniofacial Research. 2009;12(3):206-211\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Chai PR, Castillo-Mancilla J, Buffkin E, Darling C, Rosen RK, Horvath KJ, et al. Utilizing an ingestible biosensor to assess real-time medication adherence. Journal of Medical Toxicology. 2015;11(4):439-444\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Kim J, Imani S, de Araujo WR, Warchall J, Valdés-Ramírez G, Paixão TRLC, et al. Wearable salivary uric acid mouthguard biosensor with integrated wireless electronics. Biosensors & Bioelectronics. 2015;74:1061-1068\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Mannoor MS, Tao H, Clayton JD, Sengupta A, Kaplan DL, Naik RR, et al. Graphene-based wireless bacteria detection on tooth enamel. Nature Communications. 2012;3:763\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Arakawa T, Kuroki Y, Nitta H, Chouhan P, Toma K, Sawada S-I, et al. Mouthguard biosensor with telemetry system for monitoring of saliva glucose: A novel cavitas sensor. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2016;84:106-111\n'},{id:"B38",body:'de Castro LF, de Freitas SV, Duarte LC, de Souza JAC, Paixão TR, Coltro WK. Salivary diagnostics on paper microfluidic devices and their use as wearable sensors for glucose monitoring. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2019:1-10\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Noushin Nasiri",address:"noushin.nasiri@mq.edu.au",affiliation:'
School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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1. Introduction
Olive oil occupied a key role in ancient Roman cooking and its culinary use expanded along with the Roman Empire, laying the foundation for what we now refer to as the Mediterranean diet. The culinary use of olive oil takes four basics forms: as a preservative, as a cooking medium, as an ingredient and as a condiment [1]. This chapter has a central focus on EVOO as a cooking medium.
As a cooking medium EVOO has a many functions, such as transferring heat from the heat source to the food, acting as a lubricant to prevent food from sticking to the cooking surface, adding flavour, crust and creating a more visually appealing look to the food [1]. It is an extremely healthy oil to use for all types of cooking and there is a lot of existing and emerging research related to the health benefits due to high levels of antioxidants (some of which are unique to EVOO) and the ability of the oil to enhance the health attributes of some ingredients once cooked [2, 3, 4].
However, myths related to cooking with EVOO have been prevalent from time to time, creating a lot of confusion for consumers.
2. Debunking the myths
Some of the prevalent myths related to cooking with EVOO are listed in Table 1.
2.1 Performance of edible oils when heated
Chemical reactions such as hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerisation are prone to occur when edible oils are heated. Heating oils at high temperatures or for long periods of time can generate decomposition products such as free fatty acids (FFAs), alcohols, cyclic compounds, and polymers. Several factors can affect or influence these reactions, such as the type and quality of the oil, the kind of food used in cooking, the time and temperature of cooking and the food/oil ratio. These chemical reactions can affect both the nutritional value and the organoleptic properties of the oil. In addition, some of the products formed through oil decomposition may have adverse effects on human health. Physical changes in oil occur during heating and include increased viscosity, darkening in colour, and increased foaming. At the same time, the smoke point of the oil decreases [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
There are two major properties of cooking oils commonly believed to dictate the behaviour of that oil, and subsequent safety when exposed to high cooking temperatures: smoke point and oxidative stability. While oxidative stability is a reasonable predictor of an oils’ ability to withstand heat, initial smoke point has proven to have very little correlation with the oils’ stability under heat while cooking, and the formation of polar compounds [5].
2.2 What is smoke point and why is it an unreliable measure of oil performance when heated?
The smoke point is defined as the temperature at which a visible and continuous bluish smoke appears. At this point sufficient volatile compounds, such as FFAs and short chain oxidation products are emerging and evaporating from the oil.
The smoke point of an oil generally increases as the FFA content decreases, and the degree of refinement increases [19, 20].
The smoke point should not be considered a reliable measure of an oil’s stability and suitability for cooking for the following reasons:
The smoke point changes when an oil is heated, therefore it is not the same during the whole cooking process. The smoke point decreases faster when heating oils with a higher polyunsaturated fat content, such as in seed oils, than when heating oils with less poly-unsaturation and greater monounsaturated fat levels such as in EVOO [21].
The chemical fraction that mostly determines the smoke point of an oil is the FFA fraction which is under 1% of the total oil composition. This means that when the oil reaches the smoke point, only a minor part of it is evaporating and does not indicate the deterioration of the fat itself. In fact, studies have shown that the levels of FFA are not a reliable indication of deterioration of cooking fat [14].
When determining the smoke point, a small volume of oil is heated using a little brass cup in a confined and dark environment (Figure 1). Studies have shown that the smoke point rises when using a bigger container or a larger volume of oil in the presence of air. As a result, when cooking in a kitchen, smoke point temperatures could be greater than the ones that have been reported in the literature [22, 23, 24]. Thus, exact smoke point temperatures cannot be given [21, 24].
The standard procedure used to establish the smoke point relies heavily on the ability of the worker to determine visually the point at which the oil begins to smoke. This means that there can be analyst subjectivity when using this test procedure [19, 24].
The refining process used to produce other vegetable oils such as canola, peanut and rice bran oils involves high temperatures to neutralise FFAs. This gives the oils a higher smoke point but also produces secondary oxidation products which have been shown to have a detrimental effect on human health.
Figure 1.
Smoke point determination equipment.
2.2.1 What measurements we should use instead to determine oil suitability for cooking
When heating oils, the process of fat oxidation is accelerated. Fat oxidation is where fat molecules interact with oxygen, leading to the potential formation of harmful compounds. Many authors agree that oxidative stability is the best predictor of the behaviour of oil during cooking [5, 16, 25].
Industrially and technically, the ability of an oil to withstand heat is measured by its resistance to the formation of polar compounds.
Non-volatile polar compounds, triacylglycerol (TAG) dimers and polymers are the main deterioration products of cooking oils. Several studies have associated these substances with certain types of cancer and neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease [26, 27]. However, this negative effect on health is related to the dose of these components. National and International legislation has identified that no more than 24–27% of polar materials in the final oil is a safe limit for human consumption [27]. These limits are made to ensure the oils used in cooking operations are safe for human consumption. When storing food after being cooked is required, then the recommended end point of polar compounds in the oil is <10% [14, 27].
Laboratory research is extremely important to understand the frying process and what the toxicological limits are to establish guidelines for consumers. However, it is important to highlight that sometimes the research completed with cooking oils has been pushed to the point of abusing the oils. These are extreme heating conditions and the results obtained do not always represent real-life situations, especially during home cooking. Therefore, proper judgement when drawing conclusions needs to be made. When cooking at home, normally one does not reach excessive temperatures for prolonged periods of time that deteriorate either the food or the oil in a way that makes them inedible or unsafe [27].
2.3 Why should we cook with EVOO?
2.3.1 EVOO composition
Edible oils are composed of triacylglycerols (> 96%) and endogenous minor components. It is generally agreed that the inherent composition of edible oils exerts considerable influence on their heating stability [15, 18]. In the interest of understanding better why we can, and we should cook with EVOO, it is important to review first its chemical composition. EVOO has a high level of oxidative stability when compared to other types of cooking oil and is less likely to undergo oxidation. This is primarily attributed to the following factors:
EVOO contains high levels of oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) with just one double bond and low levels of linoleic and linolenic acids, which are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) with multiple double bonds. This high MUFA/PUFA ratio confers good oxidative stability making it highly resistant to the production of harmful substances (such as polar compounds). The high levels of double bonds in PUFAs in seed oils make them sensitive to damage by heat [28, 29, 30].
The presence of natural antioxidants in EVOO, such as biophenols and Vitamin E, enhance the oil’s stability and resistance to oxidative degradation. Besides adding health benefits to the oil, these minor constituents boost EVOO’s stability reducing oxidative processes when the oil is heated [31, 32].
The phytosterols are a significant fraction of the unsaponifiable matter in EVOO. These substances add to the oil’s health profile. Some sterols have been shown to provide higher protection against lipid thermal deterioration by decreasing the production of TAG polymers [33]. These sterols are sometimes lost during oil refining and because EVOO does not require this manufacturing step, it retains high concentrations of phytosterols. It has been documented that phytosterols can be transferred to food while cooking, which could have a nutritionally positive impact on consumers [34].
2.3.2 EVOO performance when heated in comparison with other edible oils
In a comprehensive trial in Australia [5] conducted by an ISO 17025 accredited laboratory in 2018, ten of the most used cooking oils were selected from the supermarket to test their performance when heated. The oils tested were EVOO, virgin olive oil (VOO), olive, canola, rice bran, grapeseed, coconut, peanut, sunflower, and avocado oils.
Two different volumes of oils were heated in open pans (250 mL) for 20 minutes from 25–240°C and in deep fryers (3000 mL) at 180°C for 6 hours. Samples were collected at different intervals and then tested.
Authors specifically assessed the correlation between smoke point and other key chemical parameters related to an oils stability and likelihood to break down and form harmful compounds.
From this study, it was concluded that under different heating conditions, the generation of polar compounds with temperature and time was more pronounced for refined seed oils with higher initial values of smoke point, PUFAs, K232 and K270 (oxidative by-products). Reasonable predictors of how an oil will perform when heated have been oxidative stability, secondary products of oxidation, total level of PUFAs. EVOO was the most stable oil of those tested when heated, followed closely by coconut oil and other virgin oils such as avocado and high oleic acid seed oils. EVOO yielded lower levels of polar compounds and TFAs when compared with other oils.
This research also showed that an oil’s smoke point is not a relevant parameter to explain the oil’s behaviour when heated. Smoke point does not correlate with the stability of the oil during heating, as it showed a positive correlation with the increase in polar compounds (Table 2). That is to say that the higher the smoke point, the more polar compounds that are produced. PUFAs, K232 and K270 showed a positive correlation with polar compounds. Oxidative stability was negatively correlated with final content of polar compounds, demonstrating that a non-stable oil in terms of thermal degradation, will produce more polar compounds when heated (Table 2).
Myth
Assumptions based on the myth
Truth/reality based on scientific evidence
Smoke point is a relevant factor in determining how suitable an oil is to cook with.
EVOO is not suitable for cooking at high temperatures given its lower smoke point.
The utilisation of smoke point as an indicator of the ability of an oil to withstand heat, and to determine suitability for cooking is technically incorrect, and is not supported by scientific evidence. Recent evidence [5] shows that EVOO is the most stable oil when heated when compared to other edible oils with higher smoke points. Mediterranean cultures have used EVOO as their only source of cooking oil for centuries and their diet has the highest amount of scientifically proven health benefits [2, 6, 7].
Cooking with EVOO can ruin cookware, such as non-stick pans (e.g., Teflon coated pans).
EVOO could be damaging to cookware coating.
Although there is no published scientific evidence to support this, these beliefs are specifically supported by some cookware manufacturers’ specifications that oils with higher smoke points are more suitable for cooking with Teflon coated cookware [8, 9]. On the contrary, EVOO, like any other oil, acts as a lubricant, preventing the food from sticking to the pan [1]. Cooking with EVOO does not ruin non-stick Teflon coated pans at a different rate than other cooking oils.
Heating olive oil will increase the amount of saturated or trans fats.
You cannot heat olive oil.
All oils will oxidise and hydrogenate to a minor degree when heated several times using high temperatures, such as those used in industrial frying processes [10]. It has been documented that olive oil is less prone to oxidation and hydrogenation when heated than other oils when heated because it is rich in monounsaturated fat [11, 12]. Cooking with EVOO does not produce significant traces of trans fatty acids. In fact, EVOO is less prone to hydrogenation than other vegetable oils.
When you cook vegetables with EVOO, the vegetables lose antioxidants.
EVOO is not suitable to use when cooking vegetables.
This is incorrect. Recent evidence shows that when cooking with EVOO (including deep frying and sautéing), there is a resultant increase in total phenols (antioxidants) in the cooked food (particularly when cooking raw vegetables) [13]. Cooking with EVOO may in fact improve the nutritional properties of the food.
Table 1.
Myths related to cooking with EVOO.
Initial Parameter
Correlation with final polar compounds levels (%)
Smoke Point
83
Oxidative Stability
−65
FFA
−34
PUFAs
74
UV Coefficient K232
80
UV Coefficient K270
54
Table 2.
Correlation between final polar compounds and initial oil’s chemical parameters.
Note: A negative, or inverse correlation, between two variables, indicates that one variable increases while the other decreases, and vice-versa. i.e. the less oxidative stability, the more polar compounds produced.
These results are also supported by recent research carried out in New Zealand in 2019 [25]. The authors concluded that quality EVOO, in accordance with relevant olive oil standards, is the best cooking oil for use in the home from a stability and health viewpoint. These authors also recommended criteria to indicate an EVOO is stable for cooking:
Total polar compounds after 8 hours heating at 180°C < 25%
p-Anisidine value after 8 hours at 180°C < 70
2.3.3 What are trans fat and why does cooking with EVOO not produce significant TFAs?
TFAs are formed during partial hydrogenation of oils. The interconversion from cis to trans requires a lot of energy (~65 kcal/mole), however the use of a high temperature or a catalyst can enhance the reaction [35]. Consumption of diets high in hydrogenated fat and/or TFAs has been shown to have an adverse effect on lipoprotein profiles with respect to cardiovascular disease risk [36, 37].
The formation of TFAs while cooking food using oil is closely related to the temperature and how many times oil is reused [38, 39]. Several European countries have determined that the frying oil temperature must not exceed 180°C. These measures not only contribute to decreased degradation of unsaturated fatty acids but also result in a lower formation of monounsaturated trans fatty acid (MTFAs) and polyunsaturated trans fatty acids (PTFAs) during frying.
Much research has been done to determine how typical cooking procedures used in food preparation affect TFAs formation in edible oils. Research suggests even applying normal and/or extreme temperatures when cooking does not significantly affect the amounts of TFAs in edible oils [40, 41]. Formation of minor amounts of trans-oleic acid, inferior to 0.2 g/100 g fatty acids was observed by [11, 12] for all the olive oil grades, which is lower than the trans amounts in other refined vegetable oils.
Recent research presented at the World Congress of Oils and Fats in 2020 [42] demonstrated that initially EVOO does not contain TFA and that the food TFA content decreased by approx. 70% or remained stable when using EVOO. The same behaviour was observed with oils: the lowest TFAs production was in EVOO in comparison with other vegetable oils.
2.3.4 Cooking with EVOO
Cooking with edible oils, such as deep frying, usually involves two phenomena. Firstly, when the oil, that acts as a heating medium to the food, reaches 100°C water starts to evaporate from the food. This in turn gives way to the oil being absorbed into the food which modifies the fatty acid composition of the food as it cooks. It has been proven that the fat content of the food after deep frying is more like the fat profile of the oil used to cook than the raw food itself [14]. In addition, although the antioxidant content is reduced somewhat during cooking many healthy substances still remain in EVOO and are absorbed by the food. The absorption of these antioxidants into the food gives the food a better nutritional profile. For this reason, the use of EVOO is a healthier option than using other oils with less bioactive components [13, 42, 43].
2.3.4.1 Frying
Frying is one of the oldest methods of food preparation. It improves the sensory quality of food by formation of aromatic compounds, attractive colour, crust and texture, which are all highly appreciated by consumers [44, 45]. The most common frying methods are deep-frying, being the food totally immersed in hot oil, and pan-frying, when the food is cooked in a pan with a little amount of oil [46, 47].
There is a higher degradation under pan-frying conditions for olive oil and other vegetable oils, that can be explained by the higher contact surface between the food and the oil, higher exposure to atmospheric oxygen, and lower temperature control under processing [46].
Frying with EVOO using a lower food:oil ratio presents lower total polar compound amounts than more unsaturated vegetable oils, and with apparently no interference by the presence of food [32, 48, 49]. Within olive oils, the higher the degree of polyunsaturation the higher the tendency for the formation of total polar compounds [50].
The volatile fraction formed during the heating process, apart from being important from the sensorial point of view, is rich in degradation compounds. The formation of low molecular weight volatile aldehydes has a clear dependence on the temperatures used, rather than frying time [51]. The high oleic acid content in olive oil, together with the presence of chlorophylls, pheophytins and carotenoids, seems to contribute to a reduced acrolein formation and lower amounts of toxic monoaromatic hydrocarbons, alkylbenzenes and alkenylbenzenes, in comparison with other vegetable oils with higher polyunsaturated acyl groups [51, 52, 53].
Furthermore, as mentioned previously, in comparison with other vegetable oils, the fried food is enriched with olive oil antioxidants, which improves the nutritional profile of the food [54].
2.3.4.2 Roasting
Roasting with olive oil is common in both domestic and industrial food preparation in Mediterranean countries [55]. This procedure is highly prone to oxidation due to the higher surface area exposed to convention hot air and processing times. When comparing with other vegetable oils with a higher degree of unsaturation, olive oil is also more resistant to oxidation under these heating conditions [11, 56]. In opposition, the total polar compounds clearly increase with vegetable oils with higher unsaturation degrees such as sunflower and corn oil [57].
2.3.4.3 Microwave
In general, heating olive oil using a microwave demonstrates an apparent higher oxidation when compared with conventional heating, despite being probably lower than those achieved with other vegetable oils [58]. Researchers have compared microwave and conventional heating (in an electric oven) in several vegetable oils including sunflower, high oleic sunflower and olive oil. Among the studied oils, the EVOO exhibited better performance against oxidation with both heating methods. This is mainly due to its composition, including minor compounds with antioxidant properties (phenolic compounds and tocopherols) and a lower percentage of linoleic acid [59]. Still, all studies were performed without the presence of food, meaning further studies using real processing conditions are required for correct inferences [15].
2.3.5 EVOO and cookware interaction
In 2019, Modern Olives Laboratory, an Australian oil specialist laboratory, conducted research to assess the suitability of various cooking oils, including EVOO, for use on Teflon coated (TC) pans.
To investigate the hypothesis of whether cooking with EVOO ruins pans, the researchers measured the release of elements and metals from the pans when separately heated with different oils. They used three different brands of TC pans. These pans were heated with an acidic solution of water vinegar (WV) both prior to and after 6 cycles of heating with different oils (EVOO, olive oil, canola oil, rice bran oil and grapeseed oil). The WV solutions were tested to study the release of various metals.
Combining all TC pans, the authors found no significant differences in the chemical elements content between the final WV solutions from TC pans treated with the different oils. This indicates there is no significant difference between the volume of metals released from the cookware when various cooking oils were used. Hence, the various cooking oils had no effect on the pans’ integrity and quality when cooking. However, differences of statistical significance for Ca, Cu, Fe, P, Zn and SiO2 were observed between the different TC pan types. Higher values of these metals were detected in the most expensive pan compared with the cheapest TC pan. For example, Ca average values (including initial and final treatment) in the most expensive pan were ~ 2.92 mg/L vs. ~1.75 mg/L in the cheapest pan and ~ 2.42 mg/L in the average price pan. When considering each brand of TC pan, phosphorus levels were significantly higher between treatments when using rice bran oil in the average priced TC pan (4.7 mg/L vs. 2.5 mg/L) versus a low- or high-priced TC pan. Silicon dioxide was not detected before treatment and significantly increased using olive (1.1 mg/L) and grapeseed (1.03 mg/L) oils only in the lowest priced TC pan.
After all treatments, no visual deterioration of any of the TC pans was observed. This investigation indicates that higher differences in metal leaching were between pans quality, rather than between the treatments with the different oils. In no case the use of EVOO lead to the release of significantly higher levels of metallic substances from the pan than when using any other oil.
Even though these results are limited considering the lifetime of the TC pan, they indicate no initial impact of the oils’ smoke point on the performance of the TC pan and that EVOO performs similarly to other oils under normal cooking conditions when it comes to TC pan degradation.
3. Conclusion
Sufficient research has been done to demonstrate that an oil’s smoke point is not a reliable measurement as an indicator of the ability of an oil to withstand heat, and to determine suitability for cooking. Reasonable predictors of how an oil will perform when heated are oxidative stability, secondary products of oxidation, and total level of PUFAs. EVOO has been demonstrated to be the most stable oil when heated given its unique chemical composition, which is rich in monounsaturated fatty acid and antioxidant content.
Experts have agreed that one of the most versatile and healthy oils to cook with is EVOO and many studies have linked it to better heart and overall health.
Food cooked with EVOO also had lower levels of undesirable products of degradation such as TFAs and polar compounds when compared with other vegetable oils such as canola, grapeseed, peanut, sunflower and rice bran oils, while deep-frying under normal cooking conditions.
Furthermore, based on scientific evidence EVOO does not deteriorate the coating when using Teflon cookware. On the contrary it acts as a lubricant to prevent food from sticking to the pans.
Selecting a true high quality EVOO, that is certified to meet EVOO grade and quality requirements is important to ensure high oxidative stability and safety while cooking.
Acknowledgments
We thank the Olive Wellness Institute (OWI) and Modern Olives Laboratory for their help during this work. To know more about OWI please visit https://olivewellnessinstitute.org/.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"extra virgin olive oil, cooking oils, smoke point, nutrient content, key minor components, bioactives",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76086.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76086.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76086",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76086",totalDownloads:349,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 29th 2021",dateReviewed:"March 11th 2021",datePrePublished:"April 30th 2021",datePublished:"January 19th 2022",dateFinished:"April 1st 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Mediterranean cultures have used Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO) as the only source of cooking oil for centuries, with their diet showing the highest amount of scientifically proven health benefits. However, there is a common misconception that EVOO is not suitable for cooking given its relatively lower smoke point, despite no scientific evidence that support this. This chapter aims to provide an overview of how EVOO is healthier, safer, and more stable to cook with than other common edible oils. Furthermore, this chapter aims to present EVOO’s suitability for use on Teflon coated pans, which is another common myth.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76086",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76086",signatures:"Ana Florencia de Alzaa, Claudia Guillaume and Leandro Ravetti",book:{id:"9710",type:"book",title:"Olive Oil",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Applications",fullTitle:"Olive Oil - New Perspectives and Applications",slug:"olive-oil-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"January 19th 2022",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9710.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-415-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-414-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-251-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"215436",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Akram",slug:"muhammad-akram",fullName:"Muhammad Akram"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"183110",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Guillaume",fullName:"Claudia Guillaume",slug:"claudia-guillaume",email:"c.guillaume@modernolives.com.au",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"340158",title:"Ms.",name:"Ana Florencia",middleName:null,surname:"de Alzaa",fullName:"Ana Florencia de Alzaa",slug:"ana-florencia-de-alzaa",email:"f.dealzaa@modernolives.com.au",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/340158/images/15156_n.jpg",institution:null},{id:"340760",title:"Mr.",name:"Leandro",middleName:null,surname:"Ravetti",fullName:"Leandro Ravetti",slug:"leandro-ravetti",email:"l.ravetti@modernolives.com.au",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Debunking the myths",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Performance of edible oils when heated",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 What is smoke point and why is it an unreliable measure of oil performance when heated?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 What measurements we should use instead to determine oil suitability for cooking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3 Why should we cook with EVOO?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.1 EVOO composition",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.3.3 What are trans fat and why does cooking with EVOO not produce significant TFAs?",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.3.4 Cooking with EVOO",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_4",title:"2.3.4.1 Frying",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"2.3.4.2 Roasting",level:"4"},{id:"sec_10_4",title:"2.3.4.3 Microwave",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.3.5 EVOO and cookware interaction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15",title:"3. 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Aldehyde sources, metabolism, molecular toxicity mechanisms, and possible effects on human health. Critical reviews in toxicology. 2005;35(7):609-62'},{id:"B27",body:'Stier RF. Toxicology of frying fats and oils. Frying Technology and Practices2004. p. 178-94'},{id:"B28",body:'Warner K, Frankel E, Mounts T. Flavor and oxidative stability of soybean, sunflower and low erucic acid rapeseed oils. Journal of the American Oil Chemist“ Society. 1989;66:558-64'},{id:"B29",body:'Parker TD, Adams DA, Zhou K, Harris M, Yu L. Fatty Acid Composition and Oxidative Stability of Cold-pressed Edible Seed Oils. Journal of Food Science. 2003;68(4):1240-3'},{id:"B30",body:'Shahidi F. Oxidative Stability of Edible Oils as Affected by Their Fatty Acid Composition and Minor Constituents. ACS Symposium Series. 2002;836:201-11'},{id:"B31",body:'Akil E, Castelo-Branco VN, Costa AMM, do Amaral Vendramini AL, Calado V, Torres AG. Oxidative stability and changes in chemical composition of extra virgin olive oils after short-term deep-frying of french fries. Journal of the American Oil Chemists\' Society. 2015;92(3):409-21'},{id:"B32",body:'Casal S, Malheiro R, Sendas A, Oliveira BP, Pereira JA. Olive oil stability under deep-frying conditions. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2010;48(10):2972-9'},{id:"B33",body:'Singh A. Sitosterol as an antioxidant in frying oils. Food Chemistry. 2013;137(1):62-7'},{id:"B34",body:'Salta F, Kalogeropoulos N, Karavanou N, Andrikopoulos N. Distribution and retention of phytosterols in frying oils and fried potatoes during repeated deep and pan frying. European Food Research and Technology. 2008;227:391-400'},{id:"B35",body:'Kodali DR. Trans Fats - Chemistry, occurence, functional need in foods and potential solutions. Trans fats alternatives. USA: AOCS; 2006. p. 4'},{id:"B36",body:'Ganguly R, Pierce GN. The toxicity of dietary trans fat",. 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Frying of Potatoes: Physical, Chemical, and Microstructural Changes. Drying Technology. 2012;30(7):707-25'},{id:"B46",body:'Nikolaos A, Nick K, Angeliki F, Maria B. Performance of virgin olive oil and vegetable shortening during domestic deep-frying and pan-frying of potatoes. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2002;37:177-90'},{id:"B47",body:'Sioen I, Haak L, Raes K, Hermans C, De Henauw S, De Smet S, et al. Effects of pan-frying in margarine and olive oil on the fatty acid composition of cod and salmon. Food Chemistry. 2006;98(4):609-17'},{id:"B48",body:'Bastida S, Sánchez-Muniz FJ. Polar content vs. TAG oligomer content in the frying-life assessment of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated oils used in deep-frying. Journal of the American Oil Chemists\' Society. 2002;79(5):447-51'},{id:"B49",body:'Kalogianni EP, Karastogiannidou C, Karapantsios TD. Effect of potato presence on the degradation of extra virgin olive oil during frying. International Journal of Food Science & Technology. 2010;45(4):765-75'},{id:"B50",body:'Brenes M, García A, Dobarganes MC, Velasco J, Romero C. Influence of Thermal Treatments Simulating Cooking Processes on the Polyphenol Content in Virgin Olive Oil. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2002;50(21):5962-7'},{id:"B51",body:'Fullana A, Carbonell-Barrachina AA, Sidhu S. Comparison of volatile aldehydes present in the cooking fumes of extra virgin olive, olive, and canola oils. J Agric Food Chem. 2004;52(16):5207-14'},{id:"B52",body:'Procida G, Cichelli A, Compagnone D, Maggio RM, Cerretani L, Del Carlo M. Influence of chemical composition of olive oil on the development of volatile compounds during frying. European Food Research and Technology. 2009;230(2):217-29'},{id:"B53",body:'Uriarte PS, Guillén MD. Formation of toxic alkylbenzenes in edible oils submitted to frying temperature: Influence of oil composition in main components and heating time. Food Research International. 2010;43(8):2161-70'},{id:"B54",body:'Kalogeropoulos N, Mylona A, Chiou A, Ioannou M, Andrikopoulos N. Retention and distribution of natural antioxidants (α-tocopherol, polyphenols and terpenic acids) after shallow frying of vegetables in virgin olive oil. LWT - Food Science and Technology. 2007;40:1008-17'},{id:"B55",body:'Silva LM, Pinto J, Carrola J, Paiva-Martins F. Oxidative stability of olive oil after food processing and comparison with other vegetable oils. Food Chemistry. 2010;121:1177-87'},{id:"B56",body:'Caponio F, Pasqualone A, Gomes T. Effects of conventional and microwave heating on the degradation of olive oil. European Food Research and Technology. 2002;215(2):114-7'},{id:"B57",body:'Silva L, Garcia B, Paiva-Martins F. Oxidative stability of olive oil and its polyphenolic compounds after boiling vegetable process. LWT - Food Science and Technology. 2010;43(9):1336-44'},{id:"B58",body:'Malheiro R, Casal S, Ramalhosa E, Pereira JA. 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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+5,700 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
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With the increase in alcohol concentration, indigenous or commercial strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae take over and complete the transformation of the grape must sugars into ethanol, CO2, and other secondary metabolites. The presence of non-Saccharomyces during the fermentation has an impact on the wine composition, and consequently, their contribution during the fermentation process cannot be ignored. The new challenges to enhance the appeal and value of wine elaborated by traditional technology are being achieved by selecting and using autochthonous non-Saccharomyces and Saccharomyces strains that may enhance regional identity of wines. Greater understanding of yeast biochemistry and physiology is enabling the selection and development of yeast strains that have defined specific influences on process efficiency and wine quality. The aim of this chapter was to show the different aspects of non-Saccharomyces species that may play a positive incidence in the biotechnological process to conduct to wine elaboration.",book:{id:"5253",slug:"grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Margarita García, Braulio Esteve-Zarzoso and Teresa Arroyo",authors:[{id:"182064",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Arroyo",slug:"teresa-arroyo",fullName:"Teresa Arroyo"},{id:"182068",title:"Ms.",name:"Margarita",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"margarita-garcia",fullName:"Margarita García"},{id:"182089",title:"Dr.",name:"Esteve-Zarzoso",middleName:null,surname:"Braulio",slug:"esteve-zarzoso-braulio",fullName:"Esteve-Zarzoso Braulio"}]},{id:"52380",doi:"10.5772/65055",title:"Influence of Yeasts in Wine Colour",slug:"influence-of-yeasts-in-wine-colour",totalDownloads:2385,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Colour is the first impression that the consumer receives from wine and it influences the taste. Colour gives an idea about wine quality, age, oxidation and structure, so it has an important repercussion on the consumer perception of wine. Yeasts promote the formation of stable pigments by the production and release of fermentative metabolites affecting the formation of vitisin A and B type pyranoanthocyanins. The hydrox- and ycinnamate decarboxylase activity showed by some yeast strains produces highly reactive vinylphenols stimulating the formation of vinylphenolic pyranoanthocyanins from grape anthocyanin precursors during fermentation. Some yeasts also influence the formation of polymeric pigments by unclear mechanisms that can include the production of linking molecules such as acetaldehyde. Grape anthocyanins adsorbed in yeast cell walls during fermentation are removed from wine after racking processes affecting final pigment content. Moreover, the intensive use of non‐Saccharomyces yeasts in current oenology makes it interesting to assess the effect of new species in the improvement of wine colour.",book:{id:"5253",slug:"grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Morata Antonio, Loira Iris and Suárez Lepe Jose Antonio",authors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"},{id:"186423",title:"Dr.",name:"Iris",middleName:null,surname:"Loira",slug:"iris-loira",fullName:"Iris Loira"},{id:"186424",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Suárez Lepe",slug:"jose-antonio-suarez-lepe",fullName:"Jose Antonio Suárez Lepe"}]},{id:"52244",doi:"10.5772/65102",title:"Aroma Compounds in Wine",slug:"aroma-compounds-in-wine",totalDownloads:3140,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Volatile aroma compounds are very important to grape wine quality. In order to understand the flavor of wine, a multitude of scientific investigations was carried out and a number of appropriate analytical tools for flavor study were developed in the past few decades. This chapter deals with major achievements reported in wine aroma and flavor. Firstly, we illustrate the existing knowledge on aroma compounds contributing to wine flavor, as well as the types of wine aroma compounds. Furthermore, the main factors affecting flavor quality in wine are discussed. Finally, the genomics and biotechnology of wine flavor are also summarized. This chapter broadens the discussion of wine aroma compounds to include more modern concepts of biotechnology and also provides relevant background and offers directions for future study.",book:{id:"5253",slug:"grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Fengmei Zhu, Bin Du and Jun Li",authors:[{id:"180555",title:"Dr.",name:"Fengmei",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"fengmei-zhu",fullName:"Fengmei Zhu"},{id:"180943",title:"Dr.",name:"Bin",middleName:null,surname:"Du",slug:"bin-du",fullName:"Bin Du"},{id:"180945",title:"Prof.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"jun-li",fullName:"Jun Li"}]},{id:"44142",doi:"10.5772/52933",title:"The Current Status of Wild Grapevine Populations (Vitis vinifera ssp sylvestris) in the Mediterranean Basin",slug:"the-current-status-of-wild-grapevine-populations-vitis-vinifera-ssp-sylvestris-in-the-mediterranean-",totalDownloads:4173,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"3143",slug:"the-mediterranean-genetic-code-grapevine-and-olive",title:"The Mediterranean Genetic Code",fullTitle:"The Mediterranean Genetic Code - Grapevine and Olive"},signatures:"Rosa A. Arroyo García and Eugenio Revilla",authors:[{id:"154744",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Adela",middleName:null,surname:"Arroyo-Garcia",slug:"rosa-adela-arroyo-garcia",fullName:"Rosa Adela Arroyo-Garcia"},{id:"164824",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugenio",middleName:null,surname:"Revilla",slug:"eugenio-revilla",fullName:"Eugenio Revilla"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52017",title:"Grape Drying: Current Status and Future Trends",slug:"grape-drying-current-status-and-future-trends",totalDownloads:2988,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"With high moisture and sugar content, fresh grapes respire and transpire actively after harvest, which contribute to quality loss. Drying can process grapes into raisins for longer shelf-life as well as dehydrated grapes, which can be used for wines or juice production. The pre-treatments, drying method and drying conditions, can significantly influence the quality of final products. In this chapter, firstly, different pre-treatments as a necessary operation previous to the drying of grapes into raisins is introduced. These pre-treatments include chemical pre-treatment, physical pre-treatment, and blanching. In addition, the quality and drying characteristics of different pre-treatments is summarized too. Secondly, the current status of different technologies for grape drying and their effects on drying kinetics and quality attributes of seedless grapes are described to highlight the advantages and disadvantages of each drying method. These drying methods include the traditional open sun drying, shade drying, hot-air drying, freezing drying, microwave drying, as well as the vacuum impulsed drying. Thirdly, influences of drying on bioactive substances (flavonoids, phenolics, anthocyanin, and resveratrol) and antioxidant capacity of grape by-products including seed, skin, stem, and stalk are also examined. Finally, the future research trends of grape and its by-product drying are indentified and discussed.",book:{id:"5253",slug:"grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Jun Wang, Arun S. Mujumdar, Weisong Mu, Jianying Feng,\nXiaoshuan Zhang, Qian Zhang, Xiao-Ming Fang, Zhen-Jiang Gao\nand Hong-Wei Xiao",authors:[{id:"28871",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhenjiang",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",slug:"zhenjiang-gao",fullName:"Zhenjiang Gao"},{id:"180873",title:"Prof.",name:"Hong-Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Xiao",slug:"hong-wei-xiao",fullName:"Hong-Wei Xiao"},{id:"181023",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jun-wang",fullName:"Jun Wang"},{id:"186411",title:"Prof.",name:"Arun S",middleName:null,surname:"Mujumdar",slug:"arun-s-mujumdar",fullName:"Arun S Mujumdar"},{id:"186412",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoshuan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"xiaoshuan-zhang",fullName:"Xiaoshuan Zhang"},{id:"186413",title:"Prof.",name:"Weisong",middleName:null,surname:"Mu",slug:"weisong-mu",fullName:"Weisong Mu"},{id:"186414",title:"Prof.",name:"Qian",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"qian-zhang",fullName:"Qian Zhang"},{id:"186415",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiao-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Fang",slug:"xiao-ming-fang",fullName:"Xiao-Ming Fang"}]},{id:"52146",title:"Grape and Wine Metabolites: Biotechnological Approaches to Improve Wine Quality",slug:"grape-and-wine-metabolites-biotechnological-approaches-to-improve-wine-quality",totalDownloads:3030,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Grape metabolites can be affected by many extrinsic and intrinsic factors, such as grape variety, ripening stage, growing regions, vineyard management practices, and edaphoclimatic conditions. However, there is still much about the in vivo formation of grape metabolites that need to be investigated. The winemaking process also can create distinct wines. Nowadays, wine fermentations are driven mostly by single-strain inoculations, allowing greater control of fermentation. Pure cultures of selected yeast strains, mostly Saccharomyces cerevisiae, are added to grape must, leading to more predictable outcomes and decreasing the risk of spoilage. Besides yeasts, lactic acid bacteria also play an important role, in the final wine quality. Thus, this chapter attempts to present an overview of grape berry physiology and metabolome to provide a deep understanding of the primary and secondary metabolites accumulated in the grape berries and their potential impact in wine quality. In addition, biotechnological approaches for wine quality practiced during wine alcoholic and malolactic fermentation will also be discussed.",book:{id:"5253",slug:"grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Fernanda Cosme, Berta Gonçalves, António Inês, António M. Jordão\nand Alice Vilela",authors:[{id:"60559",title:"Prof.",name:"Berta",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"berta-goncalves",fullName:"Berta Gonçalves"},{id:"181011",title:"Dr.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Vilela",slug:"alice-vilela",fullName:"Alice Vilela"},{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"},{id:"186820",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:null,surname:"Inês",slug:"antonio-ines",fullName:"António Inês"},{id:"186821",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:null,surname:"M. Jordão",slug:"antonio-m.-jordao",fullName:"António M. Jordão"}]},{id:"52244",title:"Aroma Compounds in Wine",slug:"aroma-compounds-in-wine",totalDownloads:3144,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Volatile aroma compounds are very important to grape wine quality. In order to understand the flavor of wine, a multitude of scientific investigations was carried out and a number of appropriate analytical tools for flavor study were developed in the past few decades. This chapter deals with major achievements reported in wine aroma and flavor. Firstly, we illustrate the existing knowledge on aroma compounds contributing to wine flavor, as well as the types of wine aroma compounds. Furthermore, the main factors affecting flavor quality in wine are discussed. Finally, the genomics and biotechnology of wine flavor are also summarized. This chapter broadens the discussion of wine aroma compounds to include more modern concepts of biotechnology and also provides relevant background and offers directions for future study.",book:{id:"5253",slug:"grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Fengmei Zhu, Bin Du and Jun Li",authors:[{id:"180555",title:"Dr.",name:"Fengmei",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"fengmei-zhu",fullName:"Fengmei Zhu"},{id:"180943",title:"Dr.",name:"Bin",middleName:null,surname:"Du",slug:"bin-du",fullName:"Bin Du"},{id:"180945",title:"Prof.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"jun-li",fullName:"Jun Li"}]},{id:"52240",title:"Grapevine Biotechnology: Molecular Approaches Underlying Abiotic and Biotic Stress Responses",slug:"grapevine-biotechnology-molecular-approaches-underlying-abiotic-and-biotic-stress-responses",totalDownloads:2513,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Grapevine is one of the most abundant crops worldwide, with varieties destined for fresh and dry consumption, as well as wine production. Unfortunately, grapevine plants are affected by both biotic and abiotic stresses, generating significant economic losses. These conditions can negatively impact grape cultivation at different stages: plant and berry development during pre- and post-harvest, production, fresh fruit processing and export, along with wine quality. Most of the grapevine varieties are susceptible to several pathogens and within this chapter, particular attention is given to fungi (Botrytis cinerea and Erysiphe necator) and viruses, since they are a worldwide concern. Within the latter, special focus is given to the grapevine leafroll disease, a complex and destructive infection. On the other hand, abiotic stress is also relevant in grapevine, and in this chapter it will be exemplified by UV-B radiation and its impact on growth and fruit development, plant adaptive responses and its relationship with the quality of grape berries for winemaking. The main biotic and abiotic grapevine stress factors are reviewed in this chapter, considering a special focus on biotechnological approaches carried out in order to address them and minimize their detrimental consequences.",book:{id:"5253",slug:"grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Grace Armijo, Carmen Espinoza, Rodrigo Loyola, Franko Restovic,\nClaudia Santibáñez, Rudolf Schlechter, Mario Agurto and Patricio\nArce-Johnson",authors:[{id:"181474",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricio",middleName:null,surname:"Arce-Johnson",slug:"patricio-arce-johnson",fullName:"Patricio Arce-Johnson"},{id:"182101",title:"Dr.",name:"Grace",middleName:null,surname:"Armijo",slug:"grace-armijo",fullName:"Grace Armijo"},{id:"182102",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Espinoza",slug:"carmen-espinoza",fullName:"Carmen Espinoza"},{id:"182108",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"Loyola",slug:"rodrigo-loyola",fullName:"Rodrigo Loyola"},{id:"186721",title:"Dr.",name:"Franko",middleName:null,surname:"Restovic",slug:"franko-restovic",fullName:"Franko Restovic"},{id:"186722",title:"MSc.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Santibáñez",slug:"claudia-santibanez",fullName:"Claudia Santibáñez"},{id:"186723",title:"MSc.",name:"Rudolf",middleName:null,surname:"Schlechter",slug:"rudolf-schlechter",fullName:"Rudolf Schlechter"},{id:"186724",title:"MSc.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Agurto",slug:"mario-agurto",fullName:"Mario Agurto"}]},{id:"44143",title:"Production of Anthocyanins in Grape Cell Cultures: A Potential Source of Raw Material for Pharmaceutical, Food, and Cosmetic Industries",slug:"production-of-anthocyanins-in-grape-cell-cultures-a-potential-source-of-raw-material-for-pharmaceuti",totalDownloads:7996,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:74,abstract:null,book:{id:"3143",slug:"the-mediterranean-genetic-code-grapevine-and-olive",title:"The Mediterranean Genetic Code",fullTitle:"The Mediterranean Genetic Code - Grapevine and Olive"},signatures:"Anthony Ananga, Vasil Georgiev, Joel Ochieng, Bobby Phills and Violeta Tsolova",authors:[{id:"74792",title:"Dr.",name:"Joel W.",middleName:null,surname:"Ochieng",slug:"joel-w.-ochieng",fullName:"Joel W. Ochieng"},{id:"126149",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Ananga",slug:"anthony-ananga",fullName:"Anthony Ananga"},{id:"136830",title:"Dr.",name:"Devaiah",middleName:null,surname:"Kambiranda",slug:"devaiah-kambiranda",fullName:"Devaiah Kambiranda"},{id:"137412",title:"Dr.",name:"Violetka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsolova",slug:"violetka-tsolova",fullName:"Violetka Tsolova"},{id:"165414",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasil",middleName:null,surname:"Georgiev",slug:"vasil-georgiev",fullName:"Vasil Georgiev"},{id:"165415",title:"Dr.",name:"Bobby",middleName:null,surname:"Phills",slug:"bobby-phills",fullName:"Bobby Phills"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"344",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",slug:"azhar-rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",slug:"attilio-rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",slug:"yanfei-(jacob)-qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280338/images/7961_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fujita Health University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"40",type:"subseries",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive Species, Destruction of Habitats, Overexploitation of Natural Resources, Pollution, Global Warming, Conservation of Natural Spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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