Comparative study of the CNTs(Ni)-Al matrix bulk composite and two typical materials with respect to density, hardness and tensile strength
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",isbn:"978-1-83881-111-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-992-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-112-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"acb2875b3bfc189c9881a9b44b6a5184",bookSignature:"Dr. Abdo Abou Jaoudé",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11865.jpg",keywords:"Linear Operators, Normal Operators, Spectral Theorem, Applications, Differential Operators, Integral Operators, Functional Calculus, Complex Variables, Complex Analysis, Theory, Recent Advances, Latest Trends",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 13th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 7th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé is a pioneering Associate Professor of Mathematics and Statistics at Notre Dame University-Louaizé. He holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University and Aix-Marseille University. His research interests are in the field of mathematics.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248271/images/system/248271.jpg",biography:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé has been teaching for many years and has a passion for researching and teaching mathematics. He is currently an Associate Professor of Mathematics and Statistics at Notre Dame University-Louaizé (NDU), Lebanon. He holds a BSc and an MSc in Computer Science from NDU, and three PhDs in Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, and Applied Statistics and Probability, all from Bircham International University through a distance learning program. He also holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University, Lebanon, and Aix-Marseille University, France. Dr. Abou Jaoudé's broad research interests are in the field of applied mathematics. He has published twenty-three international journal articles and six contributions to conference proceedings, in addition to seven books on prognostics, pure and applied mathematics, and computer science.",institutionString:"Notre Dame University - Louaize",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Notre Dame University – Louaize",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lebanon"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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In the past thirty years, thousands of articles have been published to discuss their growth, properties, and applications. For the CNT growth, there are three main methods: arc discharge, laser ablation and chemical vapour deposition (CVD). Compared with the first two methods, CVD was regarded as the most promising one for industrial application with low cost, although it usually introduces more defects in CNTs during the growth process. Furthermore, CVD is the preferred choice to grow patterned CNTs on substrates for nanoelectronic applications. Typically, nanotubes are grown by CVD on metal catalyst particles or islands that are deposited on top of semiconducting or insulating materials, such as alumina, silicon and silicon oxide. These non-conducting substrates assist in the formation of small islands or nanoparticles of metal catalyst on their surfaces, which is necessary for the CNT growth. However, for many applications, such as displays, cell electrodes, gigascale interconnects, high electrical and thermal conductivities are required, usually needing a conductive substrate to connect with CNTs. Furthermore, minimization of the contact resistance between metal substrate and CNTs is also a major challenge in nano-electronics. Apart from geometrical factors, contact resistance depends mostly on alignment of Fermi energy levels of CNT and substrate. Since multi-walled CNTs are predominantly metallic (Single-walled CNTs can be adjusted to be metallic by controlling their structure), a metallic substrate to connect with CNTs is expected to have least contact resistance. In order to assemble the CNTs on metal substrate with fine patterned architectures, the obvious and effective way would be to grow CNTs directly on metal substrates. Herein, the current development of direct growth technique and its applications were summarized.
\n\t\tWith respect to isolating ceramic materials, an important drawback of metal substrate is that the elevated temperature involved in CNT growth by CVD may activate the diffusion of the catalyst material into the metallic substrate, which inhibits its activity. To overcome this problem, one possible strategy is to employ pure catalytic metal or alloys containing at least one of these well known catalyst materials as substrates. However, if the substrate selection is constrained to specific metals not including the known catalyst materials, other solutions must be explored. An alternative effective choice is to deposit a thin barrier layer that restrains the diffusion reaction between catalyst and substrate, while minimizing the effect of this layer on the property of the device.
\n\t\t\tIt is accepted that the most common and effective catalysts are Fe, Co, Ni and their alloys. In order to deposit CNTs on these metal foils, nucleation site formation and density on the foil surface are crucial. Du et. al investigated pure Ni as substrate to grow CNTs without any pretreatment (Du & Pan, 2005). It was found that nickel nanoparticles as nucleation sites for CNT growth come from the fragmentation of nickel surface. However, in most reports, the grown CNTs on pure metal substrates were spaghetti-like, showing low density and weak control of the nanotube growth knetics, even though modifying the surface properties by wet-chemical etching treatments (Mata, et al. 2010), polishing with different roughness (Reddy, et al. 2006). Compared with single catalytic metal, using alloy foils containing at least one of these well known catalyst materials, such as stainless steel (Masarapu & Wei, 2007; Baddour, et al. 2008), mumetal (Benito & Lefferts, 2010) and inconel (Talapatra, et al. 2006), as substrates have generated a higher density of CNTs, which may be related to other experiments that an alloy or intermetallic compound containing catalytic and non-catalytic elements assists the formation of a high density of nucleation sites on silicon substrates (Cui, et al. 2003; Zhang, et al. 2006). As it is known that, the role of catalyst and its interaction with the substrate is a key issue of CNT growth. The chemical composition and thermal stability of the substrate at the growth temperature should aquire important consideration for CNT growth. The chemical nature of the substrate under growth conditions should be such that it neither allows the catalyst to diffuse into its bulk, nor spreads out and forms a continuous film. For some Ni-, Co-, Fe- based superalloys, in situ formation of a conductive passivation oxide layer on the surface of these superalloys played an important role in stabilizing nanoclusters of Fe catalyst under typical growth conditions (Bult, et al. 2009& Pal, et al. 2010). On the other hand, introducing an insulating thin buffer layer (such as Al2O3) between the extra catalyst and metallic substrate, where the buffer layer was too thin to form an insulating barrier on the metallic plate, was suggested to obtain relative higher density and quality of CNT forest (Gao, et al. 2008& Martinez-Latorre, et al. 2009& Lepro, et al. 2010). Moreover, single- and double-walled carbon nanotube forests could be synthesized successfully on various alloys spaning many strandard metals, such as Inconel 601, YEF 426, NiCr, YEF 50, and SUS 310S, covering a wide range of Ni-Fe-Cr compositions, as shown in Fig. 1 (Hiraoka, 2006). Apart from the chemical compostion of substrate, pretreatment of the alloy substrates, especially for that no any other catalyst introduced, significantly affected the efficiency of CNT growth on the metallic substrates. It was reported that surface roughness variation of the alloy by polishing might change the surface chemistry, resulting in inhomogeneous growth of CNTs (Oye, et al. 2010).
\n\t\t\t\tDirect growth of CNT forests on Ni-Cr-Fe alloys with water-assisted CVD. (A) A photograph of a SWNT forest synthesized on Inconel 601. (B) Correlation between components of Ni-Cr-Fe alloys and photographs of CNT forests grown on them. Symbols indicate the level of SWNT selectivity (O high selectivity; △ medium selectivity; low selectivity). (C) A family of histograms showing selectivity of SWNTs, yield per cm2, and G-band/D-band ratio of Raman spectra. (D) TEM images of SWNTs synthesized on Ni-based alloys. (
In current electrical and electronic industries, Cu is the most popular raw material due to their high electric and thermal conductivity with relatively low cost. Thus, it is very interesting to directly grow CNTs on Cu substrate. It is known that Cu can act as effective catalyst for CNT growth under certain conditions (Gan, et al. 2001& Qin, et al. 2004). However, the grown carbon nanostructures catalyzed by Cu are spaghetti-like and the catalytic activity of copper is accepted to be much lower than Fe, Co and Ni (Zhang, 2010). Therefore, it seems necessary to introduce other more active catalyst to grow dense aligned CNTs on copper substrate. Directly deposition of catalyst on Cu substrate is an obvious choice. However, as discussed above, Cu is not an efficient catalyst for CNT growth and easy to form a solid solution with the common catalysts (especially for Ni) at high temperature. The diffusion between catalyst and copper substrate may induce the loss of catalyst. Thus, the catalyst layer should be thick enough to guarantee enough unaffected catalyst residues to catalyze CNT growth (Singh, 2002& Yin, 2008), meanwhile, some authors reported that thicker catalyst layers resulted in larger diameter of grown CNTs (Atthipalli, 2011). Therefore, adding a diffusion barrier layer between catalyst and copper substrate is a promising and preferable choice for high-quality aligned CNT growth, although this may increase the contact resistance between CNTs and Cu substrate in some content. A thin layer of alumina has been used as diffusion barrier in most literatures. Lin et al. investigated the effect of the deposition method and thickness of alumina layer on the quality of CNT growth systematically, infering that a well-controlled conformal alumina support layer played an important role for the aligned CNT growth with high quality and reproducibility (\n\t\t\t\t\t\tLin, et al., 2010\n\t\t\t\t\t). Other ceramic materials, such as TiN, In2O3:Sn (ITO), and SiNx, were also examined as effective barrier, inferring that the extent of CNT coverage depended on the barrier layer quality (Garcı´a-Ce´spedes, et al., 2009). Apart from ceramic materials, some metals, such as Ti (Sung, et al., 2008), Cr, Au, Ta (Nessim, et al., 2009& \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\t), Pa (\n\t\t\t\t\t\tNessim, et al., 2010\n\t\t\t\t\t), Al (Burt, et al., 2009& Kavian, et al., 2011), and so on (Wang, et al., 2003& Kim & Gangloff, 2009), were also used as efficient barrier layers or substrates directly. Although CNT growth on these substrates or underlayers was affected by many factors, understanding the coupled influences of barrier layer thickness, grain size, and catalyst dewetting is an important step in development of a more complete understanding of CNT growth mechanisms.
\n\t\t\tDue to a high aspect ratio geometry, small tip radius, good chemical stability, low coefficient of thermal expansion, high thermal and electrical conductivity and mechanical strength, CNTs have attracted great interest as thermal management materials for microelectronic packaging, electrode materials for use in energy storage cells and supercapacitors, field emission (FE) electron sources for use in flat panel displays, e-beam lithography equipment, x-ray sources, and vacuum microwave amplifiers, and so on. For these applications, as discussed above, high electrical and thermal conductivities are required, which usually needs a conductive substrate to connect with CNTs. Compared with the external connections, the biggest benefit for direct growth technique of CNTs on metal substrate is that can reduce the contact resistance and form an ohmic connection between CNTs and metal substrate, which is crucial for electronic devices. Thus, it is expected to have a significant advance toward the goal of replacing external metal conections with CNTs, such as CMOS-compatible processes, by direct growth technique (Nessim, et al., 2009& Kim, et al., 2010). Experimental results indicated electrical contact through the CNT carpet to the metallic substrate (Cu) by direct growth with an approximate resistance of 35 kΩ for multiwall CNT carpets taller than two micrometers (Nessim, 2009). Talapatra et al. further certified that the average total contact resistance of aligned CNTs directly grown on inconel by a vapour-phase catalyst delivery CVD method, measured over many samples (typical pattern size = 70μm×70μm, height=50μm), was even as low as about 500Ω. The power density for the double-layer capacitors fabricated using the Inconel substrate with directly grown aligned nanotubes as electrodes was about 7 kW kg-1 even at a high scan rate of 1000 mV s-1 (Talapatra, et al., 2006). Due to the good bonding and excellent conductivity by interface-controlled growth of CNTs directly on Cu current collectors, Li ion battery using the novel directly grown binder-free CNTs structure as anode showed very high specific capacity, almost three times as that of graphite, excellent rate capability even at a charging/discharging rate of 3 C, and no capacity degradation up to 50cycles (Lahiri, ea al., 2010). The CNT-based field emitters, prepared on metallic substrates by direct thermal chemical vapor deposition, exhibited a very low turn-on field, high emission current, long time stability and good resistance to degradation in high-field, long-time exposure (Mauger, et al., 2004& Sung, et al., 2008& Mahanandia, et al., 2009& Yi & Yang, 2010& Li, et al., 2010& Lahiri, et al, 2010). Furthermore, Zhang, et al. indicated that coiled carbon nanosturctures with more defects by direct growth exhibited better field emission properties than straight CNTs (Zhang, et al., 2010). Several studies have revealed that CNTs have unusually high thermal conductivity in their axial direction (Berber, et al., 2000& Kim, et al., 2010). Thus, one promising application of CNTs in microelectronics is to use vertically aligned CNT arrays as novel thermal interface materials (TIMs). Direct synthesis of vertically aligned CNT TIM layer on the backside of a silican chip is not compatible with current electronic packaging systems. Instead vertically aligned CNT synthesis on metallic substrate, especially for copper, is preferred. The TIM, made up of a thin copper foil covered with Cr-Au-MWCNT on both sides, showed a thermal resistance as low as 12 mm2 K/W (Wang, et al., 2007). Recently, Lin, et al. developed a novel assembling process of incorporating carbon nanotubes as TIM for heat dissipation by synthesizing vertically aligned CNTs on a copper substrate and chemically bonding the carbon nanotubes to a silicon surface. Experimental results indicated that such an interface modification improved the effective thermal diffusivity of the carbon nanotube-mediated thermal interface by an order of magnitude and conductivity by almost two orders of magnitude (\n\t\t\t\t\t\tLin, et al., 2010\n\t\t\t\t\t). Due to the retained mechanical flexibility of the metallic substrate (such as stainless steel) after CNT forest synthesis and its renewability and low cost, direct growth of CNTs on metallic substrate becomes a promising approach for industrial production of CNTs, CNT yarns and sheets (Baddour, et al., 2010& Lepro´, et al., 2010& Iijima, 2011).
\n\t\t\tSince their discovery, carbon nanotubes have been regarded as an ideal reinforcement for composites to overcome the performance limits of conventional materials, due to their excellent mechamical and physical properties. Many research efforts have dealt with CNT/polymer composites, which exhibit a tremendous strengthening effect for the composites (García, et al., 2007). However, the results in metals are not as encouraging as those in polymer. This is mainly due to the difficulties in achieving homogeneous dispersion of CNTs in metal matrix and good interfacial bonding between CNTs and metal matrix. So far, nearly all the efforts were made through powder metallurgy route, which involved
\n\t\t\tSchematic diagram of the CNT growth directly on metal powders
mixing of CNTs with metal powders by ball milling or chemical process (Cha, et al., 2005& Kim, et al., 2006). In the above methods, CNTs was inclined to be damaged and lose their initial properties during the mechanical milling or their functionalization process. Alternatively direct synthesis of CNTs in metal matrix composites may overcome the problems associated with conventional methods and achieve homogeneous distribution of CNTs and good interfacial bonding between CNTs and metal matrix. In this section, we will summarize our recent progress in this field. Several metal powders, such as Al, Cu, Mg, Ag, have been proved as effective support for CNT growth. The catalyst dispersed on these metal powders was prepared by deposition-precipitation. The experimental procedure was described in Fig. 2. CNT growth was performed by a simple CVD process.
\n\t\t\tAs mentioned above, aluminum can be used as effective underlayer or substrate for catalyst deposition, probably due to its easy formation of a passivation oxide layer on the surface of Al (Liu, et al., 2008). In our study, Ni nanoparticles were homogeneously deposited on Al particle surface by a direct deposition-precipitation method. Fig. 3 displays transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of representative Ni–Al catalyst powders. Almost all Al powders are evenly decorated by several Ni nanoparticles. It is found that catalytic particles of different sizes can be formed by varying the reduction temperature, which thus controls the diameter of the growing tubes. When reducing the catalyst precursor at 400º C for 2 h, the diameter of the Ni particles ranged from 5 to 20 nm. It can be clearly seen from Figure 3b that Ni nanoparticles with even diameters are homogeneously dispersed on the surface of the Al powders.
\n\t\t\t\tMicrostructures of the Ni–Al catalyst powders, in which the Ni nanoparticles with a narrow diameter distribution are homogeneously dispersed on the surface of the Al powder. a) TEM image of a Ni–Al catalyst powder, obtained by reducing the catalyst precursor at 400º C for 2 h (scale bar: 50 nm). b) TEM image of a Ni–Al catalyst powder, showing that the gray Al powder is evenly decorated by several black Ni nanoparticles (scale bar: 50 nm).
a) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of a CNT(Ni)–Al composite powder (scale bar: 100 nm). b) Enlarged SEM image of several typical CNTs (indicated by arrows) dispersed in the Al powders, the locations indicated with ellipses show the network structures between CNTs and Al powders (scale bar: 50 nm). c) Low-magnification HRTEM image of a CNT–Al composite powder (scale bar: 50 nm). d) High-resolution TEM (HRTEM) image of a typical CNT, showing a well-graphitized multiwalled nanotube (scale bar: 5 nm).
\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 4a shows a low-magnification scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of homogeneously dispersed CNTs within the Al powders. The surfaces of the walls of the as-grown CNTs are clean, and their diameters range from 5 to 25 nm. In addition, metallic nanoparticles are visible at the tips of the CNTs. The most important feature of our process is that the CNTs are synthesized into the Al powders in situ. The morphology of the CNT(Ni)–Al powders shows an ideal composite microstructure, displaying spherical morphologies with CNTs homogeneously dispersed into the powders. It is also found that the density and length of the CNTs, or the CNT content of the composite powders, can be tuned by adjusting the experimental parameters, such as the growth time and the Ni content in the Ni–Al catalyst. With a shorter time and lower Ni content, shorter and sparser CNTs can be obtained in the Al powders. Figure 4b is an enlarged SEM image of several typical CNTs (indicated by arrows) dispersed in the Al powders. It can be distinctly observed that the CNTs are not agglomerated at all. Moreover, we have noticed that some locations, marked with ellipses in Figure 4b, form network structures between the CNTs and the Al powders.
\n\t\t\t\tThe microstructure details of the CNT(Ni)–Al composite powders were investigated with high-resolution TEM (HRTEM). The low-magnification HRTEM image in Figure 4c further verifies that the tips of the CNTs encapsulate metallic particles. An HRTEM image of a typical CNT, as seen in Figure 4d, demonstrates that the CNTs are well-graphitized multiwalled nanotubes. The graphitic sheets of the CNTs (see Fig. 4d) are apparent, and the interlayer spacing between the sheets is 0.34 nm, consistent with the ideal graphitic interlayer space (0.34 nm). To determine the length of the as-grown CNTs, dilute nitric acid was used to remove the Al from the composite powders. TEM analysis indicates that the CNTs are easily entangled after removing Al as a result of strong van der Waals forces between them, and their lengths range from 1500 to 2500 nm.
\n\t\t\t\tThe CNT(Ni)-Al bulk composite was prepared by pressing and sintering the CNT(Ni) composite powders directly. The microstructure of the composite was investigated by TEM. In the low magnification TEM image of Figure 5a, we see only some black Ni nanoparticles (indicated by arrows) distributed evenly within the Al grains. When investigating the area around the black Ni nanoparticles in detail by high-magnification TEM, it is found that the CNTs with encapsulated Ni nanoparticles are dispersed very homogeneously within the Al matrix (as seen in the inset of Fig. 5a). In particular, the TEM image (Fig. 5a, inset) shows that the interfaces of the CNTs and Al bond well, and that no reactant is formed by the present technique. Furthermore, the Al grains reinforced by CNTs present a very low location density. Figure 5b is an SEM image of the composite fracture surface, which shows CNTs with an obviously tubular structure (Fig. 5b, inset). Moreover, it can be observed that the CNTs are dispersed very well into the Al matrix, and some CNTs are pulled-out or broken (marked with triangles), which indicates that the load transfer from the matrix to the nanotubes is sufficient to fracture the nanotubes.
\n\t\t\t\ta) TEM image of a CNT(Ni)–Al matrix bulk composite, showing the homogeneously dispersed CNT(Ni) within the Al matrix (scale bar: 50 nm, scale bar of inset: 5 nm). b) SEM image of the fractured surface of a CNTs(Ni)–Al matrix bulk composite, showing the existence of pulled-out and broken CNTs (scale bar of inset: 50 nm).
\n\t\t\t\t\tTable 1 presents a comparative study of hardness and tensile strength values of the composite and two other typical materials that were fabricated by the same procedure (i.e., pressing, sintering, and re-pressing). The density of the CNT(Ni)–Al bulk composite (c) was measured by the Archimedes principle as 2.50 g cm–3, which is about 96% of the theoretical density (2.6 g cm–3) of Al with a 5 wt% CNT reinforcement, and about 93% of the matrix density. The hardness (0.65 GPa) and tensile strength (398 MPa) of the CNT(Ni)/Al composites (c) are 4.3 and 2.8 times that of the pure Al matrix (Table 1). To further verify the strengthening effect of the in situ synthesized CNTs for the bulk composites, the same composite was also prepared by a traditional method, which involved the preparation of CNT(5 wt %)–Ni (1 wt %)–Al composite powders by ball-milling the CNTs and the Ni–Al powders, pressing, and sintering of the composite powders. According to Table 1, the hardness and tensile strength of the in situ synthesized CNT(Ni)–Al composites (c) are 2.0 and 1.8 times, respectively, that of the composites with a similar composition (b). This remarkable strengthening is caused by the dispersion strengthening of the homogeneously dispersed CNTs and Ni nanoparticles. Besides, the retention of the perfect structure gives the CNTs their extreme hardness (62–150 GPa), whereas molecular-level homogenous mixing between CNTs and Al powders brings about strong interfacial strength between CNTs and Al powders. Both factors contribute to the tremendous enhancement of the overall hardness and strength of the composites. The strong interfacial strength between CNTs and Al powders that resulted from very good homogeneous dispersion of CNTs in Al powders is especially important to improve the composite performance, because it can cause high load translation during tensile processes (as suggested by pulling out and broken of CNTs in Fig. 5b) and thus raise the fracture energy and the tensile strength of the composites. As for the CNT–Al matrix composite produced by a traditional method, the interfacial strength between CNTs and Al powders can not be expected to be high because of the mere mixing of the CNTs and the Al matrix. Moreover, the high-temperature generated by high-energy ball milling and plasma spraying damages the perfect structure of CNTs. As a result, the reinforcement effect of the CNTs on the composites is not very outstanding (Kuzumaki, et al., 1998& Laha, et al., 2004& George, et al., 2005). Compared to reinforcements such as Al2O3 (Huang, et al., 2003& Kang, et al., 2004), SiC (Moreno, et al., 2006), TiB2 (Huang, et al., 2005), aluminum borate whiskers (Zhu & Lizuka, 2003), TiN (Shyua, et al., 2002), and others used for Al matrix composites (Zambona, et al., 2004& Tang, et al., 2003), the strengthening effect of the CNT reinforcement is the strongest ever reported.
\n\t\t\t\tMaterial | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTheoretical density [cmˉ³] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMeasured density[gcmˉ³] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHardness [GPa] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTensile strength at RT [MPa] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Pure Al | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.69 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t140 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
CNT(5wt%)-Ni (1wt%) matrix composite [a] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.48 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.32 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t213 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
CNT(5wt%)-Ni (1wt%) matrix composite [a] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.65 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t398 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[a] Obtanied by ball-milling CNTs and Ni-Al povders. [b] Optanied by in situ CVD synthesis. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Comparative study of the CNTs(Ni)-Al matrix bulk composite and two typical materials with respect to density, hardness and tensile strength
From the binary phase diagram, it is known that Cu is inclined to form solid solution with Ni, Co and Fe. Experimental results showed that there were almost no carbon deposits synthesized by CVD using Ni catalyst nanoparticles deposited on Cu particle surface (prepared by deposition-precipitation) at any conditions. XRD analysis indicated that Ni and Cu had alloyed completely by diffusion at even lower than 500º C. It is also impossible to deposit a diffusion barrier layer on Cu particle surface, like that on buck Cu substrate. Thus, the only alternative way is to prepare a new kind of stable and effective catalyst, which is not affected by the underlayer materials. Herein, a novel Y stabilized Ni catalyst was successfully prepared by deposition-precipitation. XRD examination of the Ni-Y catalyst reduced at 500º C indicated that there were no reactions between Ni and Cu. However, we did not found any phase peaks that possibly contained Y element (Fig. 6a). Fig. 6b shows the TEM images of the Ni-Y catalyst with a weight ratio of 4:1 (Ni:Y) reduced at 500º C. It can be seen that the crystal lattice structure of the catalyst nanoparticle is very complex. The basic structure of the nanoparticle is Ni crystal lattice, while, some very small crystals with larger interplanar spacing (about 0.3nm, which is similar to that of the (111) plane of Y2O3) seems to insert in the basic crystal lattice, as indicated by arrows in Fig. 6b. Thus, the whole particle demonstrates a mixture of Ni and Y2O3 (very small Y2O3 crystals embedded in Ni, which may be responsible to that why the XRD cannot detect any phases containing Y). The more Y content in the composite catalyst, the more stable the catalyst is. However, Y (Y2O3) itself does not have any catalytic activity for CNT growth. Too Y loading will degrade the general activity of the novel composite catalyst.
\n\t\t\t\ta) XRD analysis of the Ni/Y catalyst (Ni:Y =4:1) precursor calcined at 300º C and 400º C for 2h respectively under N2 atmosphere and catalyst reduced at 500º C for 2h under H2 atmosphere (b) TEM image of the catalyst after reduction
In order to prepare Cu composite with homogeneous CNT dispersion, the first step is to obtain homogeneously dispersed active catalyst on the Cu particle surface (Fig. 7a) and then grow CNTs with controllable content and quality by CVD (Fig. 7.b). The resulting powder was termed as in situ CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite powder. Since some ceramic materials are suggested to be suitable as catalyst support, the in situ CNT synthesis has been widely used in the fabrication of ceramic matrix composite, which develops homogeneous CNT dispersion in the matrix (Peigney, et al., 2002). However, most of the CNTs are located on the surface of ceramic powders, which inhibits the diffusion of matrix materials across or along the powder surfaces; thus, sintering cannot easily proceed without damaging the CNTs or removing them from the powder surface. Even if sintering is successful, CNTs are mostly located at grain boundaries of the matrix and are insignificant in improvement of material performance. Furthermore, the CNTs should be short enough to avoid entanglement (Balani, et al., 2008). In order to overcome these shortcomings, we introduce the third step effectively to implant CNTs into the Cu powders. The in situ synthesized CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite powders and copper ions from the copper salt (Cu(NO3)2•2.5H2O) were added into a minimal amount of ethanol and the solution was heated under constant magnetic stirring until the ethanol was vaporized completely (Fig. 7c). Because the direct grown CNTs are attached on the Cu particles by metallurgical bond, CNTs can flow with the Cu particles without separation during the solution mixing by magnetic stirring, which prevents the agglomeration of CNTs. Thus, this unique process combining in situ synthesis of CNTs and a solution mixing can easily obtain a high dispersion of CNTs in metal matrix and a clean interfacial bond between the CNTs and matrix materials. The quantity of copper ions added is equal to that of the in situ CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite powders. The powders generated in the third step are generally a mixture, where the CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite powders were encapsulated by the basic Cu salts from decomposition of Cu(NO3)2•2.5H2O (Fig. 7d). The fourth is the calcination and reduction process to obtain chemically stable crystalline powders (Figure 1e). During this process, the powders become CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu-CuO(Cu2O) by heating at 300º C in air and are then reduced to CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite powders under a hydrogen atmosphere. Finally, the composite powers are hot pressed at 500º C for 30min in a vacuum of 10-6 torr with an applied pressure of 50MPa.
\n\t\t\t\tSchematic illustration of the fabrication of CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite powders: a) formation of active catalyst nanoparticles scattered homogeneously on the surface of Cu powder by deposition-precipitation followed by calcination and reduction processes, b) in situ synthesis of CNTs in the matrix by CVD, c) mixing a Cu salt and the in situ CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite powders in ethanol, d) vaporization of the solvent by heating under constant magnetic stirring, e) calcination and reduction to obtain CNT-implanted Cu matrix composite powders
a) SEM image of the Ni/Y-Cu catalyst, showing a homogeneous dispersion of Ni/Y catalyst on the surface of Cu powder; (b) variation of carbon yield with growth time by CVD at 500º C using 2%Ni1%Y-Cu catalyst
SEM images show that almost all of the Cu powders are evenly decorated by Ni/Y composite nanoparticles after the first processing step. Figure 8a displays a high-magnification SEM image of representative Ni/Y catalyst supported on Cu powders (containing 2wt.%Ni and 1wt.%Y). It can be seen that the catalyst (Ni/Y) nanoparticles with a diameter of about 20-40nm have been homogeneously dispersed on the surface of the Cu powders. The density and length of the CNTs, or the CNT fraction in the composite powders, can be tuned by adjusting the experimental parameters, such as growth time. Figure 8b is a typical growth time-carbon yield curve of the composite powders by CVD at 500º C using 2%Ni1%Y-Cu catalyst. With longer time, the slope of the time-carbon yield curve is almost stable at first and then decreases, which is similar with previous reports (Venegoni, et al., 2002).
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 9a shows a low-magnification SEM image of the in-situ CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite powders obtained by CVD. Almost all Cu particles are decorated by CNTs, displaying spherical morphologies with CNTs highly dispersed into the powders. The most important feature of our process is that the CNTs are synthesized into the Cu powders in situ, resulting in a relatively firm bonding between CNTs and Cu powders. From Figure 9b, we can observe the direct growth of CNFs on the surface of Cu powder (indicated by white arrows). The diameter of CNFs ranges from 20-50nm. A high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) image of a typical CNT, as inserted in Figure 9b, demonstrates the well-graphitized herringbone structure. The graphitic sheets of CNTs are apparent, and the interlayer space between the sheets is similar with the ideal graphitic interlayer spacing (0.34nm). It is also found that the surface of the CNTs is not smooth, displaying a zigzag structure.
\n\t\t\t\tDuring the third mixing process, the in-situ composite powder at micrometer level is easy to disperse highly in the solution under constant stirring, and the fluid force can not separate the CNTs and force them to move with the Cu powders. Furthermore, the Cu ions at the atomic level are mixed with CNTs in the solution and thus contact with CNTs very well. Figure 10 shows the microstructures of CNT(Ni/Y)-CuO and CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite powders. It can be seen that CNTs are located within the powders rather than on the powder surface. The morpholgies of the CNT(Ni/Y)-CuO and CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite powders show an ideal composite microstructure, which displays a network with CNTs implanted in the Cu powders. It is also interesting that Cu is directly synthesized at the surface of neat CNTs, producing CNT-Cu chains instead of agglomerating together to form large particles (see Figure 10b), thus, realizing excellent wetting of the tubes by Cu, separation of the tubes, and excellent dispersion in the matrix.
\n\t\t\t\ta) SEM image of the in-situ CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite powders; (b) High-magnification SEM image of a representative composite powder, the inserted is a HRTEM image of a typical CNT, showing a multi-walled nanotube with herringbone structure
Microstructures of CNT(Ni/Y)-CuO (a) and CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu (b) composite powders, where the CNTs are homogeneously covered with copper
The final composite powders were consolidated into a bulk CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite by a vacuum hot pressing process. Fig. 11a shows a low-magnification SEM micrograph of the CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite surface after chemical etching. There are many dark gray particles highly dispersed into the light gray area. High-magnification SEM images indicated that there are many twin striations in the dark gray particles, which is the typical character of crystalline copper (Fig. 11b). These dark gray particles are the original copper particles in the in situ CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu powders, which have been encapsulated completely and not oxidized during the calcination in air. XRD analysis of the calcined powders also indicates the existence of Cu. The inserted picture in Fig. 11b shows a typical boundary between the dark gray particles and the gray matrix area. It can be seen that the CNTs are still connected with the Cu particles, inferring that the CNTs are not separated from the in situ CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu powders during the mechanical stirring or the bonding strength between the CNTs and Cu support is strong enough to endure the flowing force. The flowing trace of CNTs with the solution can be observed (indicated by white arrow and ellipse). The gray area shows a highly homogeneous distribution of CNTs within the Cu matrix (Fig. 11c). Particularly, the CNTs form a 3-dimensional (3-D) network within the Cu grains instead of locating at the grain boundary (Fig. 11c insert).
\n\t\t\t\tSEM images of the CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite surface after chemical etching, showing homogeneous 3-D distribution of CNTs in the composite.
The mechanical properties of the CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite were characterized using compressive tests. As shown in Fig. 12a, the compressive yield strengths of CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite were much higher than that of the Cu matrix, which was fabricated by the same hot pressing process without adding CNT(Ni/Y). A 3.4wt.% CNT-reinforced Cu composite showed a yield strength of 581MPa, which is more than 3.6 times higher than that of Cu. Even with as much as 5.7wt.% CNTs, the yield strength was still 448MPa, which is 2.8 times higher than that of Cu. The reduction of the properties of the composites with high fraction of CNTs may be due to the local agglomeration of CNTs and low relative density. However, compared with that obtained by traditional methods, the yield strength of the composites with 5.7%CNTs was still higher, meaning that the agglomeration of CNTs is not serious. By reducing the powder size of Cu used for catalyst and post treatment of the composites, such as hot extrusion, it has high potential to improve the properties of the composites further. Such research is in the processing. The linear coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE, 30-200º C ) of the composite with 5.7wt.% CNTs reduced to 10.1*10-6/ ºC, about 57.7% the CTE measured on the Cu. As shown in Table 2, the reinforcement efficiency for reduction of CTE of composites, i.e., the effect of a given volume percentage of reinforcement on the matrix, is more than two times that of W, Mo, SiC and diamond (Table 2). This indicates that the composites with high CNT content have potential as advanced heat sink materials, which requires low CTE, high thermal conductivity and machinability.
\n\t\t\t\ta) stress-strain curves of CNF(Ni/Y)-Cu composites obtained by compressive testing, and b) SEM image of the crack structure of the composite under compressive testing.
matrix | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\treinforcement | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVol.% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCTE σ (10-6/K) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEfficiency of the reinforcement R[a] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cu | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSiCp (Mo) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t11.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.81 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cu | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDiamond (0.8Cr) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t42 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.84 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cu | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAlN | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t9.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.09 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Al | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSiCp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.06 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cu | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t60-85 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6.27-9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<0.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cu | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t80-90 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.6-9.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<0.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cu | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCNFs | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t23[b] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.76 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
[a] The efficiency of the reinforcement R=(σc-σm)/Vfσm.[b] The density of CNFs is estimated as 1.8g/cm-3.The efficiencies of several reinforcement materials for reduction of CTE of composites (Schubert, et al., 2008& Wu, et al., 2006& Geffroy, et al., 2007& Lee, et al., 2007)
Such excellent strengthening by CNT reinforcement was due to the high dispersion of CNTs and the high load-transfer efficiency of CNTs in the metal matrix. The fracture surface of the CNT(Ni/Y)-Cu composite under bending test indicates that almost all dimples, inferring ductile fracture mechanism of the composite, are evenly decorated by CNT tips, further confirming the high dispersion of CNTs. Moreover, all the CNTs that pull out are very short, meaning that some CNTs may be broken during the fracture and thus indicating that the load transfer from the matrix to the nanotube is sufficient to break the CNTs. Fig. 12b shows the fracture surface after a compression test. It can be observed that there are composite particles instead of single CNTs that pull out, also inferring the strong interfacial bonding strength between CNTs and Cu. bridging CNTs between the pull-out particles and bulk composite can be observed (indicated by circle in Fig. 12b). As is known, there are three main load transfer mechanisms that control the full operation of the stress transfer, including micro-mechanical interlock, chemical bonding (interaction) and a weak van der Waals attractive force. Because Cu cannot react with untreated CNTs, chemical bonding between CNTs and Cu in our experiments is impossible. The weak van der Waals attractive force cannot transfer high loads. Thus, the possible main mechanism is micro-mechanical interlock. As observed by SEM, the nanotubes have physically contacted well with the Cu from the copper salt by mixing in a solution. Furthermore, the herringbone structure and uneven wall of CNTs also increase the micro-mechanical interlock strength.
\n\t\t\tApart from Al and Copper, other popular metal powders, such as Ag and Mg, were also examined as catalyst support for CNT growth. For the Ni/Ag catalyst, the CVD processes were performed at temperatures among 500-700º C. The weight of the catalyst before and after CVD was increased only a very little amount (<1wt.%). TEM and SEM analysis showed that there was almost no carbon deposit observed in the product obtained at 500º C, while, only a few amorphous carbon or graphite fragments was detected in the product obtained at 700º C and the diameter of most catalyst particles became micro-size level (Fig. 13), meaning that the activity and selectivity of the catalyst was impaired seriously even there was only a little diffusion of Ag into Ni, apart from the aggregation of the catalyst.
\n\t\t\t\tTEM image of the products obtained by CVD using Ni/Ag catalyst at 700º C
XRD analysis of the 10%Ni/Mg catalyst precursor after calcination (a) and reaction products by CVD at 400º C (b); 450º C (c) and 500º C (d)
SEM images and Raman spectra of the products obtained by CVD using Ni/Mg catalyst at 400º C (a, c); 450º C (b)
\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 14 shows the XRD analysis of the products obtained by CVD using Ni/Mg at various reaction temperatures. Both Ni and MgO peaks are detected in the product obtained at 400º C. However, MgO can not resist the reactions between Ni and Mg at higher temperature, inferring that MgO is not compact and some Ni particles may be attached directly on the Mg surface. From Fig. 14b, it is observed that Mg2Ni begins to be formed when the temperature increases to 450º C. SEM image and Raman spectrum show that short and thin CNTs are obtained at 400º C (Fig. 15a and c). When the reaction temperature is above 400º C, there are almost no carbon deposits formed as shown in Fig. 15b, indicating that Mg2Ni can not catalyze the decomposition of CH4.
\n\t\t\t\tBased on the above analysis, it seems that the chemical reaction or diffusion between catalyst and substrate impairs the activity of the catalyst seriously. When the catalyst reacts with substrate, the catalyst will poison. The novel Ni/Y catalyst was also applied in Ag an Mg powders. Experimental results indicated that CNTs grown on Ag particles using Ni/Y catalyst was similar with that on Cu particles. Ni/Y catalyst supported on Mg, which presents a higher stability and catalytic property than Ni catalyst, was also successful to catalyze CNT growth directly on Mg particles. Those results infer that different metal supports have relative little effect on the activity of the catalyst if the reaction between catalyst and support is critically controlled, meaning that all metal powders are possible to be used as catalyst carriers for CNT growth by CVD. The works using these in situ CNT-metal composite powders to fabricate buck composites are in progress.
\n\t\t\tIn summary, carbon nanotube integration with metal substrate by direct growth technique has been explored as a new approach for electronic device design and CNT-based composite fabrications. Many teams demonstrated solutions to the key challenge of growing high-quality CNTs directly on various metal substrates. The performance of electronic devices by direct growth of CNTs, such as field emitters, supercapacitors, lithium ion batteries and ITMs, has been validated to be more excellent than that by external connection of CNTs. Direct growth of CNTs in metal powders can greatly improve the dispersion of CNTs in matrix and interfacial properties between CNTs and metal matrix, thus promoting the performance of the CNTs/metal composites. The next milestone will be the commercialization of this technology.
\n\t\tThis work was sponsored by National Basic Research Program of China (2010CB934700),National Natural science Foundation of China (No.51071107 and No. 51001080) and the open project of The State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites (No. mmc-kf09-03).
\n\t\tCitrus fruits are the most predominantly produced fruits worldwide. The citrus species, Rutaceae family, is one of the major fruit crops in the world, which has provided an immune-enhancing source of vitamin C, nutrients, and medicinal value since ancient times [1]. Citrus crops are cultivated in more than 135 countries worldwide [2]. Worldwide citrus production is estimated at over 124.3 million tons annually [3]. Cultivated commercial citrus plants, consisting of rootstock and scion varieties, have a significant impact on scion growth, fruit quality, yield, and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses [4, 5]. Therefore, the selection of rootstock may make a significant contribution to the success or failure of the planting process [2]. However, various biotic and abiotic stresses impede citrus production worldwide, among which Huanglongbing is one of the significant pernicious diseases devastating the citriculture industry in the last few decades. Citriculture industries in Asia, Africa, and America have suffered massive economic losses due to the devastating Huanglongbing (HLB) malady [6].
Citrus HLB (Yellow dragon disease or citrus greening) is one of the highly ruinous diseases in citrus species caused by proteobacteria
Citrus are susceptible to HLB, that is, nearly all commercial citrus and some citrus relatives.
Many strategies to combat HLB were initiated, such as thermotherapy, antibiotics, plant defense initiators, pesticide, vector control management, chemotherapy, nanotechnology, and a transgenic approach [15, 16]. Beta-lactams, tetracyclines, and silver nanoparticles have obtained better results against HLB malady [17, 18]; however, the emergence of antibiotic resistance to microorganisms and indirect effects on human health and the environment is a significant and increasing risk that certainly restricts the use of antibiotics at the field level [18]. However, no effective strategies to eliminate or repress the HLB pathogens have been identified. This review attempts to provide an overall picture of HLB disease, distribution, casual organism and its pathogenic mechanism, and vector control management, and post the current and possible strategies to mitigate/combat HLB malady in the field.
HLB (also known as Yellow Dragon/shoot disease) was first identified as an unknown disease in citrus trees by citrus farmers in Guangdong Province, China, at the end of the nineteenth century [19], but studies suggest that HLB most likely originated in Taiwan in 1870 where it was known as Likubin (“Drooping disease”) [20, 21]. Later, the HLB spread to other parts of China; by 1935, it had become a severe disease of citrus species [21]. Like HLB, dieback was first described in the central parts of India in the middle of the eighteenth century [22]. At that time, it might have been limited, but HLB was recorded in Assam in the eighteenth century and, by 1912, was a devastating disease in Bombay, India. However, the Citrus tristeza virus might cause this disease. Raychaudhuri [23] exhibited that dieback was the same as HLB. African greening disease was first identified in a sweet orange orchard in parts of South Africa in 1929 [24]. Outside of China, HLB was known as the “Greening” disease in South Africa, where extensive research was conducted in the 1950s. In Indonesia, the HLB disease was first noticed in the 1940s and is called the “citrus phloem degeneration” disease [25]. Reinking, in 1919, first described this disease in English as yellowing and leaf mottle of citrus noticed in China. According to International nomenclature rules, the name “Huanglongbing” was considered the official name by citrus pathologists at the 13th conference of the International Organization of Citrus Virologists in China [26]. “Huanglong” means yellowing of the shoot, as well as the yellow dragon (the symptom appears almost like a yellow dragon over the infected trees) and “bing,” which means disease in Chinese [10]. Since the discovery of HLB, it has been named differently worldwide [27]. HLB was known outside under the name “citrus dieback” in India [23], “mottle leaf disease” in the Philippines [28], “vein phloem degeneration disease” in Indonesia [25], “yellow branch,” “blotchy mottle,” or “greening” disease in South Africa [29].
Globally, HLB has been considered one of the significant threats to citrus commercial and sustainable production. HLB was confirmed in citrus-producing regions of various countries, such as Nepal, Bangladesh, Thailand, Pakistan, Japan, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Central African Republic, Comoros, Ethiopia, Kong Hong, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Saudi Arabia, Reunion, Rwanda, Yemen, Zimbabwe, Somalia, Tanzania, Swaziland, and various region of United States of America including California, Florida [7, 27]. HLB has been reported in 24 countries and territories in East, South, Southwest Asia, East, and South Africa. Since then, it has been widely spread in other Asian, American, and African countries [27].
HLB symptoms are more evident in cold weather conditions than in hot seasons [30]. It is difficult to specify the period between when the citrus tree is affected by HLB and the onset of disease symptoms. It will exhibit in different parts of the plants or only in infected sectors when it eventually manifests symptoms. It is, therefore, difficult to diagnose and control at the early stage of HLB disease [31]. The HLB-infected tree exhibits symptoms in various parts of the plant depending on the stage of infection. If infection occurs soon after propagation, the entire tree gets affected and turns yellow all over the canopy, which leads to a decline irrevocably. Both the symptoms and the causative organisms were restricted to the infected sector in the event of later infection [27]. Only the infected sector will exhibit symptoms in the case of citrus trees affected by HLB, while the remaining parts will show normal growth and good-quality fruits. The symptoms observed on the HLB-affected tree include a heavy drop in the leaf and out-of-season flushing and blooming. Chronically, HLB-affected trees displayed stunting growth, twig dieback, sparse yellow foliage, or severe fruit drop [24]. The initial stage of HLB is vein yellowing [32], and the secondary level includes (infected leaves) small, upright with various chlorotic patterns similar to that caused by nutrient deficiency, such as zinc, sulfur, iron, boron, manganese, and calcium [33, 34]. In severe cases, the leaves were utterly void of chlorophyll, except for rounded green spots located on the leaves at random places [24]. The most accurate diagnostic symptom for HLB is that the infected fruits are small, lopsided, and taste bitter and salty. HLB-affected trees with premature shedding of green fruit drops while remaining on the tree, in which fruits with yellow halo-like lesions were staying green on the shaded side, hence the name “greening” [7, 34]. Root systems are developed in severely infected trees that exhibit poorly formed roots with few fibrous roots due to undernourishment [24] and repression of new root growth and rootlets decay [10].
HLB disease is challenging to diagnose based on symptoms, particularly during the early stages of the disease. Numerous symptoms of HLB might occur, and citrus trees are often caused by other diseases or nutrient deficiencies that may lead to similar symptoms [11, 30, 35]. Symptoms could be aggravated by other pathogens being coinfected. Several reports from Asian countries postulated that HLB-affected citrus trees are commonly coinfected with the
Early identification and isolation of
The bacterium associated with citrus HLB was
Scientific classification of
Kingdom: Bacteria.
Phylum: Proteobacteria.
Class: Alphaproteobacteria.
Order: Rhizobiales.
Family: Rhizobiaceae.
Genus:
The isolation of
The secretome of a pathogenic bacterium represents an array of molecules that play offensive roles during colonization, among which effectors are an important class of proteins capable of suppressing defense and/or manipulating host physiology [50, 51]. Interestingly, Las contain type I secretion systems (T1SSs) and a complete general secretory pathway (Sec), but lack other secretion systems (T2SS and T3SS) [15, 52], which play a significant role in extracellular pathogenic attacks on plant and animal host [16].
Liberibacter genome analyses found a complete T1SSs system in Las and Laf, but not in Lam [15]. Genes encode for serralysin and hemolysin; a T1SSs effector protein has been identified in Las and Laf genomes [53]. Serralysin is a metalloprotease secreted by gram-negative bacteria to inactivate peptides and antimicrobial proteins produced by the host plant. Las bacterium might use serralysin to degrade antimicrobial proteins in the host as its defense mechanism. This degraded protein is used for growth and metabolism by the Las bacterium as a carbon and nitrogen nutrient [16]. On the other hand, the hemolysin gene has been identified in all sequenced Liberibacters, which play an essential role in bacteria survival in the host plant. Las-produced hemolysin triggers ion leakage and water molecules from the host cell that lead to host cell apoptosis [16, 54].
The Secretary pathway (Sec) or Sec-translocon facilitates these effector proteins’ transports outside the cytoplasm membrane vital for bacterial viability. The Sec machinery also secretes essential virulence factors in some plant-pathogenic bacteria [15].
Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), also known as endotoxin, are critical components derived from the outer membranes of gram-negative bacteria consisting of lipid A, an oligosaccharide core, and an O-antigen. LPSs are involved in outer membrane functions that are crucial for bacterial growth, survival against antimicrobial chemicals, and virulence, particularly within a host-parasite interaction. Lipid A is highly conserved, then the oligosaccharide core and O-antigen [15, 16]. LPSs are classical activators of defense responses in plants during plant-pathogen interaction [58]. Las bacteria use gene encoding active salicylate hydroxylase (SahA) to degrade salicylic acid (SA) and suppress plant defense mechanism. Intriguingly, the
The bacterial flagellum organelle, an intricate multiprotein essential for its rotational propulsion, promotes host colonization through adherence and induces plant immune modulation [15]. Las flagella have been reported to trigger host plant defense
The
Several pathogenic bacteria harbor prophages or phage remnants integrated into their genome, encoding lysogenic genes that are proven or suspected virulence factors [59]. Las- and Lam-sequenced genome contains two potential prophages, Type 1 represents prophage SC1, and Type 2 represents prophage SC2. SC1 involved in the lytic cycle of forming phage particles. SC2 was implicated in the lysogenic conversion of Las pathogenesis [60, 62]. Type 3 prophage (P-JXGC-3) was identified in Las samples collected from Southern China. This prophage carries another bacterial defense system, such as a restriction-modification system (RM system) [63]. This RM system is fortified with endonucleases, which cleaves invading DNA that protects host DNA by altering specific sequences [64]. Type 1 and Type 2 prophages were not detected in the Las strain from Southern China. It is not clear whether these strains contain prophages or have unknown prophages. There are no comprehensive studies to describe the Las prophage repertoire [65]. Among strains observed in an extensive survey of Las isolates in China, it was typical for Las to have a single prophage, with Guangdong isolates harboring mainly the type 2 prophage, whereas isolates from Yunnan are dominated by the type 1 prophage [65]. The Las strain genome from Japan does not contain prophages [56]. Among the Las whole-genome sequences recently reported from different geographic areas around the globe, eight Las genomes contain extensive prophage sequences [63]. A survey of prophage prevalence in southern China revealed active prophage-phage interactions in the Las bacterial strains [63]. The exact function of the RM system has yet to be experimentally determined in Type 3 prophages. However, the lack of a prophage in many Las strains does not relate to the lack of HLB symptoms because Ishi-1 and the Guangdong isolates, which do not contain any prophages, induce similar HLB symptoms as isolates containing prophages [54, 65]. Overall, this evidence suggests that prophages contribute to bacterial virulence but are not required for Las pathogenicity.
Las bacteria reside within phloem and colonize sieve tubes [15, 16, 66]. Phloem dysfunction is a primary modification due to hyperactive differentiation of vascular cambium and hypertrophy of parenchyma cells surrounding the necrotic phloem pocket that may determine the development of HLB symptoms [32, 67]. HLB-associated Liberibacter secretes virulence factor and Sec-dependent effectors (SDEs) into phloem that stimulates HLB symptoms by interfering with either phloem or companion cell protein and genes of the host [15]. The secreted SDEs and virulence factors may interact with plastids, mitochondria, vacuole, and endoplasmic reticulum in the host phloem and target host genes and proteins to promote pathogen growth and disease development and suppress host immune responses [15]. Eventually, it leads to phloem malfunction in the host plant due to the Liberibacter virulence factors and SDE effects on sieve tubes and companion cells, which provide protein and transcripts to the sieve elements. Necrotic phloem was found in the HLB-infected plants due to starch (Figure 1) and callose deposition [32]. Callose accumulation was observed in sieve plates of Las-infected citrus [67]. Phloem dysfunction is generally associated with phloem sieve elements plugged with extensive deposition of callose and phloem protein 2 [67, 68], followed by phloem cell wall distortion and sieve element collapse [69]. Subsequently, photoassimilate transport was significantly blocked due to necrotic phloem [15, 16, 66, 68], which might result in substantial quantities of starch particles in almost all living cells of aerial parts, including phloem parenchyma and the sieve tube elements [32, 70]. The excessive accumulation of starch and zinc deficiency in chloroplast disrupts the thylakoid resulting in nonuniform loss of chlorophyll that triggers noticeable blotchy mottle appearance in the HLB-infected leaves [40, 70, 71]. The anatomical transverse section of HLB-infected leaf midrib exhibited phloem collapse with cell wall distortion and thickening in Valencia sweet orange and SB siblings [72]. In addition, hyperactive vascular cambium regenerates new phloem in the HLB-infected trees, consisting of assemblies of sieve elements, companion cells, and phloem parenchyma cells, but lacks phloemic fibers [72].
In addition to anatomical changes, several metabolic imbalances and genetic reprogramming are noticed in HLB-affected plants [57, 66]. Salicylic acid and downstream signaling play a key role in provoking plant defense mechanisms against biotrophic pathogens [73, 74]. Wang and Trivedi postulated that a protein with potential salicylate hydroxylase activity might convert salicylic acid into catechol [75]. Salicylic acid pathway depression was observed in HLB-susceptible citrus plants [76]. Based on the
The graft transmitted HLB was due to a viral disease [77]. Soon afterward, similar opinions were put forward in South Africa, strengthened by the results of grafting trials showing that greening was inconsistently transmitted to healthy plants. Lin [21] confirmed that HLB was transmitted through grafting in China, thus establishing the causative agent as a pathogen. McClean and Oberholzer [78] confirmed the graft transmissibility of African greening in 1965. The pathogen is not easily transmitted to progeny trees propagated by buds from infected trees, possibly due to sieve tube necrosis and uneven pathogen distribution, but more transmission occurs if stem pieces are used. No infection could be obtained when material from apparently healthy sectors of diseased trees was used. In 1964, natural spread by exposing seedlings to insects in a HLB-affected orchard developed yellowing symptoms similar to greening [79].
Two insect vectors are responsible for the rapid transmission of citrus HLB from Las-infected citrus to healthy citrus species, Asian citrus psyllid
Asian citrus psyllid is widespread around the world and found in hot and humid conditions and lower-lying areas in China, India, Myanmar, Taiwan, Philippine Islands, Malaysia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Thailand, Nepal, Ryukyu Islands (Japan), Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Reunion, and Mauritius [81]. Asian citrus psyllid firstly evolved in India [82], then spread in South America in the 1940s, invading Brazil, Argentina, and Venezuela, and then invaded the West Indies (Guadeloupe), Abaco Island, Grand Bahama Island, Cayman Islands, and the USA in the 1990s. In 2001, ACP was found in the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Texas [83, 84]. Asian citrus psyllid has been reported more recently in many new Americas, including Mexico, Costa Rico, Belize, Honduras, and the states of Alabama, Arizona, California, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina, USA [85].
African citrus psyllid (AfCP) thrives in cool and moist temperatures, at higher areas about 100 to 500 m above sea level. And it is sensitive to excessive heat and exists in Africa from the islands of the Indian Ocean through east and central Africa to South Africa, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, the northwestern region of the Iberian Peninsula, Cameroon, Kenya, Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Malawi, Galicia, northern Portugal, Swaziland, Madagascar, Rwanda/Burundi, and Reunion [86]. Psyllid populations in Africa, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen might be able to adapt and settle under a wide range of environmental conditions, such as equatorial, arid, and warm temperate climates with varying temperatures and rainfall [86].
Biocontrol uses natural enemies by import, augmentation, and conservation to control the population density of disease pathogens or pests in agriculture [87]. Asian citrus psyllid (
In addition to wasps, many insects native to Florida are recognized as
A range of fungi species was reported to infect Asian citrus Psyllid, particularly under humid conditions [81], including entomopathogenic fungi,
RNA interference, a process in which a double-stranded RNA exerts a silencing effect on the complementary mRNA, has become a powerful tool in entomology. Advantages, such as ease of use, specific targeting, and lack of environmental persistence, make RNAi techniques highly attractive for crop protection against many insect pests [107]. The main challenges in using RNAi-based pest control methods are compelling target gene selection and reliable delivery of dsRNA. The over-expression of dsRNAs in transgenic plants has induced RNAi in targeted insects [108, 109]. The transgenic approach in citrus, however, is slow and difficult. Hajeri et al. [110] targeted
Petroleum-based horticultural mineral oils (HMO) are a vital constituent of integrated management programs for many pathogens and several phytophagous arthropods pathogens that affect the productivity of fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals in the commercial cultivation field as well as greenhouse conditions [112]. Since the 1980s, HMOs have been employed to control mites and scales in China [113]. HMO controls citrus leaf miner, citrus rust mite, citrus red mite, red scale, chaff scale, spiny whitefly, and Asian citrus Psyllid in citrus [114, 115]. By lowering the number of HMOs used in treatment to 0.25 ± 0.5% and maximizing the number of sprays during each season, a significant level of pest control was achieved without the threat of phytotoxicity. The combined treatment with oils and
Antibiotics are crucial for controlling bacterial diseases in fruit-bearing trees, vegetables, and ornamentals. Although antibiotics can be detected on plant surfaces using delicate analytical chemistry techniques for up to a month after application, their ability to inhibit bacterial growth is lost within a week [120]. In-plant disease control, nearly 40 antibiotics were screened; only streptomycin and tetracycline were used extensively in fruit trees [121]. The only commercially applied treatment for HLB was tetracycline, which is bacteriostatic rather than bactericidal, in Reunion Island’s orchards [122, 123]. Tetracycline was the only approved antibiotic injection in trees injected directly into the trunks of HLB-affected citrus trees in China, Indonesia, India, Taiwan, and South Africa during the 1970s [36, 117, 124]. Although the symptoms of HLB were considerably decreased, this antibiotic trunk injection method was not in practice owing to its phytotoxicity and labor costs. The use of penicillin-carbendazim antibiotics in citrus trees showed significant control of HLB disease. The antibiotic disadvantage is a reduction in the fruit size owing to phytotoxicity and the residues of the antibiotics in citrus fruits [125]. The development of therapeutic compounds and bactericidal agents to control devastating HLB could provide an additional solution for an effective integrated disease management program. However, other than selective antibiotics, nonselective bactericide is recommended for general use in most crops, particularly citrus [126]. The combination treatment of streptomycin with penicillin efficiently eliminated or repressed the Las bacterium compared with the separate administration of either antibiotic [126]. The treatment of penicillin combined with streptomycin also significantly reduced the bacterial titer of Las in greenhouse citrus plants. Kasugamycin and Oxytetracycline combination therapy
S.No | Antibiotics | Working concentration (mg/L) | Effectiveness | Phytotoxicity |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Actidione | 25 | High | Highest |
2 | Validoxylamine A | 100 | Partly | Less |
3 | Zhongshengmycin | 100 | Partly | Less |
4 | Amikacin sulfate | 100 | None | NIL |
5 | Gentamicin sulfate | 100 | None | NIL |
6 | Hygromycin B | 150 | Partly | NIL |
7 | Kanamycin sulfate | 100 | Partly | None |
8 | Kasugamycin hydrochloride | 100 | None | NIL |
9 | Neomycin hydrate trisulfate | 50 | None | NIL |
10 | Spectinomycin dihydrochloride pentadrate | 20 | Partly | None |
11 | Streptomycin sulfate | 100 | None | NIL |
12 | Tobramycin | 20 | None | NIL |
13 | Ampicillin sodium | 100 | High | Less |
14 | Carbenicillin disodium | 100 | High | Less |
15 | Penicillin G potassium | 100 | High | Less |
16 | Cefalexin | 100 | High | Less |
17 | Vancomycin hydrochloride | 40 | None | NIL |
18 | Lincomycin hydrocloride | 100 | None | NIL |
19 | Cycloserine | 50 | Partly | NIL |
20 | Rifamycin sodium | 50 | Partly | Less |
21 | Rifampicin | 50 | High | Less |
22 | Rifaximin | 50 | Partly | Less |
23 | Colistinmethane sulfonate sodium | 20 | None | NIL |
24 | Polymixin B sulfate | 300 | None | NIL |
25 | Cinoxacin | 300 | None | NIL |
26 | Ciprofloxacin hydrochloride | 300 | Partly | NIL |
27 | Sulfadimethoxine sodium | 100 | Partly | Moderate |
28 | Sulfamethoxazole | 100 | Partly | Moderate |
29 | Sulfathiazole sodium | 100 | Partly | Moderate |
30 | Chloramphenicol | 30 | Partly | Less |
31 | Oxytetracycline hydrochloride | 100 | High | Highest |
Antibiotics effectiveness against CLas bacterium and phytotoxicity.
Heat treatment or thermotherapy of planting material is a century-old disease control method that has proven effective against various pathogenic microorganisms. Thermotherapy, simple in principle, can eliminate the conserved pathogens depending on temperature/time regime and can cause mild injuries to the host during the treatment. Heat is mainly generated by water, vapor, or air [133]. The main advantage of thermotherapy treatment is that it is more environmentally friendly than harmful agrochemicals. Thermotherapy has proven to be an effective strategy against HLB that helps to enhance the vigor of citrus trees and promotes new root growth and development. The efficacy of thermotherapy against HLB pathogens depends on the temperature and citrus varieties [134]. Therapy could recuperate HLB-affected citrus plants by eliminating or suppressing Las bacterial titers at temperatures above 40°C [6, 134].
Lin opined on eliminating yellow shoot disease with water-saturated hot air treatment of graft wood 48–58°C with no loss of tissue viability [137]. In India, the thermotherapy of budwood at 47°C for 2 hours of diminished disease incidence, and more prolonged treatment eradicated the pathogen [138]. Heat treatment at temperatures around 38–40°C for 3 or 4 weeks killed HLB pathogens in young infected plants or citrus seedlings grafted with infected tissues [138, 139]. In South Africa, HLB-infected budwoods were treated with hot water baths at 51°C for 1 hour, 49°C for 2 hours, and 47°C for 4 hours, eliminating HLB pathogens with some loss of viability at higher temperatures [140]. In HLB-affected trees topped with polyethylene fiberglass sheets for 2 to 5 months, the number of diseased fruits decreased. However, this technique is not feasible for extensive use in citrus groves [27]. The HLB-affected citrus seedlings were continuously exposed to 40 to 42°C heat therapy for 7 to 10 days, significantly reducing titer or eliminating Las bacteria. This treatment can be helpful to combat HLB-affected plants in greenhouse and nursery settings [134]. Ehsani et al. [141] also postulated a decrease in HLB symptoms in groves of citrus trees after heat treatment. The combined thermo- and chemotherapy of sulfathiazole sodium or sulfadimethoxine sodium was more effective at 45°C than in thermotherapy alone, chemotherapy alone, or a combination of thermotherapy at 40°C and chemotherapy [142]. The temperature treatment at 45°C for 8 h per day for a week and a combination of ampicillin sodium, actidione, and validoxylamine A as a bark paint on grapefruits plant significantly reduced Las titer [143]. Two-year-old graft HLB-affected citrus reticulate treated with thermotherapy at 45°C and 48°C showed diminished HLB symptoms and Las titers 8 weeks after treatment in the greenhouse condition [144]. Commercial and residential citrus trees covered with portable plastic enclosures exposed to elevated temperatures through solarization showed vigorous growth in 3–6 weeks after treatment. Although commercial citrus trees showed Las after heat treatment, many trees generated extensive flushes and grew strongly for 2 to 3 years after therapy [145]. Inner bark heat treatment with 60°C–0.03 MPa-30s in 9-year-old citrus plants exhibited significantly reduced Las bacterial titer with vigorous plant growth from all treated HLB-affected trees [146]. Abdulridha et al. [147] reported that HLB-affected trees with canopy cover were treated with combined hot water and steam therapy at 55°C for 90 seconds. The temperature distribution inside the canopy cover was not uniform; the canopy temperatures were more significant than the trunk temperatures. The mobile thermotherapy treatment needs to be improved to increase the temperatures around the tree trunk to nearly the same temperature as a canopy. Vincent et al. [132] postulated that heat treatment from 43 to 54°C for no longer than 45 s showed adverse effects on citrus tree growth.
HLB is a systemic disease. Efficient elimination of Las bacteria from the entire citrus tree, including roots, is vital to managing the disease. The current thermotherapy challenge is that although adequately elevated temperatures can reach the above-ground areas of the plant, killing temperatures are unlikely to be attained at the roots where the temperature is mitigated by the soil [148]. Therefore, heat treatment is unlikely to reduce the populations of HLB pathogens in the roots, which then acts as a site for canopy reinfection during flushes. The efficacy of heat treatment in eliminating Las bacterial populations in underground roots must be enhanced to become a feasible part of integrated citrus HLB management [15]. To overcome this barrier, Hoffman et al. [134] suggest that heat treatment, coupled with chemotherapy in HLB-affected plants, can lead to a potential future strategy for controlling citrus HLB.
Trunk injection is an alternative target-precise technique for efficiently delivering plant protective chemicals in tree fruit crops. It harnesses the rapid transportation ability of the xylem that enables therapeutic compounds’ translocation and subsequent distribution into the canopy where plant protection is needed [149]. There has been limited research on the trunk injection of antibiotics and plant defense activators for better disease control. Several recent field studies have demonstrated the utility of trunk injection of bactericides and plant defense activators in disease management [150].
Treatments with β-aminobutyric acid (BABA), 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole (BTH), 2,6-dichloroisonicotinic acid (INA), ascorbic acid (AA), and the nonmetabolizable glucose analog 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DDG) plant defense inducers individually or in combination found effective in suppressing Las bacterial population in plants and sustaining fruit production to a certain extent. Treatment with BABA and BTH was the most effective in reducing the Las population in plant tissues compared with other plant defense inducers [151]. Hu and Wang proved that trunk injection of oxytetracycline in HLB-affected trees exhibited long-lasting suppression of Las populations. It also prevented the tree decline by promoting new growth without the disease [152]. Trunk injections of salicylic acid, potassium phosphate, acibenzolar-S-methyl, and oxalic acid in the HLB-affected tree significantly suppressed the Las titer and HLB disease progress [150].
Brassinosteroids (BRs) are a class of steroid hormones that regulate gene expression, growth, and developmental processes in response to biotic and abiotic stress [153]. The plant defense mechanism of brassinosteroids was mediated by leucine-rich repeat receptor kinase (LRR-RK) BAK1, which serves as a coreceptor for both microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) and steroid hormone [154], which binds to BRs and FLS2 eliciting microbe-induced immunity. BR treatment showed increasing disease resistance against many pathogens [6]. Canales et al. [155] postulated that applying epibrassinolide as a foliar spray in HLB-infected plants improved immunity against
HLB is caused by Las proteobacteria that reside in the phloem of infected citrus trees. It is, therefore, challenging to deliver effective compounds into the phloem through a foliar spray. The presence of wax, cutin, and pectin in plant cuticles prevents the effective bactericidal compounds from entering the phloem through a foliar spraying method. The use of chemical adjuvant enhanced the foliar uptake of agrochemicals [156, 157]. However, foliar spray treatment, including the combination of antibiotic PS and adjuvants in dimethyl sulfoxide and Silwet L-77, did not significantly impact the HLB-affected citrus trees [128]. Therefore, there is a need for candidate adjuvants, which can potentially increase the permeability of citrus cuticles to deliver antimicrobial compounds into citrus phloem.
Nanoemulsions or submicron emulsions are colloidal dispersion systems with average droplets size ranging from 50 to 1000 nm that has extensively studied for delivering chemical compounds. Nanoemulsions were pondered as thermodynamically and kinetically stable isotropic dispersions, composed of two immiscible liquids such as water and oil, stabilized by an interfacial film composed of an appropriate surfactant and co-surfactant to form a single-phase [158]. However, the approach efficacy relies on nanoemulsions droplet characteristics, such as low surface tension, tiny size, ample surface area, and low interface tension [159]. Our research group postulated that water in oil nanoemulsions containing ampicillin coupled with adjuvant Brij 35 was used as a foliar spray to enhance the permeability through the citrus cuticle into the phloem and more efficiently eliminated Las bacteria in HLB-affected citrus
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are one of the most investigated and used in agricultural science to enhance the yield and sustainable development of the crop. This has long been reported to have significant antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and pesticide effects. AgNPs are used as foliar sprays to prevent the development of rot, mold, fungi, and other plant pathogens [162]. Stephano-Hornedo et al. [18] evaluated the commercially available AgNPs to directly eradicate
Globally, insect pests are responsible for significant crop losses through direct harm and transmission of plant diseases [163]. The best long-term alternative strategy for managing citrus HLB is to develop disease-resistant cultivars in commercial citrus production. Due to the lack of resistant cultivars, developing HLB-resistant plants by conventional citrus breeding is difficult. Resistance occurs in citrus relatives, such as kumquat, where its genetic background influences the quality and yield of the fruit [164]. In addition, conventional citrus breeding is labor- and time-consuming, and very costly as citrus species are polygenic, extremely heterozygous plants with a long juvenile phase. The genetic transformation approach is an essential strategy that would aid in incorporating disease-resistant genes into citrus cultivars to combat the HLB disease. The progression of citrus breeding through genetic transformation is still early, indicating a lack of molecular pathogenesis understanding of innate disease resistance in citrus [165].
Systemic acquired resistance (SAR), a natural plant defense response mechanism, has been well characterized in
Dutt et al. [170] postulated that the overexpression of the
HLB is one of the century-old diseases in the history of citrus pathology. The global spread of HLB disease causes economic loss in most citrus-producing countries. The causal agent of HLB,
Based on the extensive prevention strategy experiments in the citriculture field by Chinese farmers, it has been shown that the control of HLB disease can be carried out in the three-pronged approach.
Nanotechnology-driven farming is still early, but it is an exciting and challenging field of research to be developed in the future, especially if the proper emphasis is placed on understanding the fundamental interactions between nanoscale materials and crop plants [172]. Future nanotechnology will enable the development of biosensors for early diagnosis of disease, new methods for suppression of disease pathogens in field and greenhouse conditions, and new molecular tools for understanding pathogenic mechanisms in pathogens and plants [173]. Nanotechnological investigations in phytopathology have increased dramatically over the last decade. Nanomaterials can be engineered as biosensors to diagnose plant diseases and as a means of delivery of genetic material, probes, and agrochemicals. Nanotechnology has been incorporated into disease management strategies, diagnostic tools, and molecular tools. Nanotechnologies could provide an alternative treatment to citrus farmers to be integrated into their existing HLB management programs in the citrus groves.
This work was funded by the Science and Technology Major Project of Guangxi (Gui Ke AA18118046).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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This would enhance the understanding of the gaps in the field and, hence, provide directions for future research and developments.",book:{id:"8095",slug:"liposomes-advances-and-perspectives",title:"Liposomes",fullTitle:"Liposomes - Advances and Perspectives"},signatures:"Christian Isalomboto Nkanga, Alain Murhimalika Bapolisi, Nnamdi Ikemefuna Okafor and Rui Werner Maçedo Krause",authors:[{id:"284670",title:"Prof.",name:"Rui",middleName:null,surname:"Krause",slug:"rui-krause",fullName:"Rui Krause"},{id:"284672",title:"Mr.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Bapolisi",slug:"alain-bapolisi",fullName:"Alain Bapolisi"},{id:"284673",title:"MSc.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Nkanga",slug:"christian-nkanga",fullName:"Christian Nkanga"},{id:"284675",title:"Mr.",name:"Okafor",middleName:null,surname:"Nnamdi",slug:"okafor-nnamdi",fullName:"Okafor Nnamdi"}]},{id:"52680",doi:"10.5772/65715",title:"Endogenous Antioxidants: A Review of their Role in Oxidative Stress",slug:"endogenous-antioxidants-a-review-of-their-role-in-oxidative-stress",totalDownloads:4096,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Oxidative stress (OxS) constitutes a disturbance caused by an imbalance between the generation of free radicals and antioxidant system, which causes damage to biomolecules. This, in turn, may lead the body to the occurrence of many chronic degenerative diseases. Therefore, it is very important to know the functioning of those endogenous (and exogenous) antioxidants systems to prevent such diseases. Due to evolutionary conditions in living beings, among other functions have been developed and selected defense systems against the deleterious action of free radicals. Such systems are intrinsic in cells (at level intracellular and extracellular) and act together with the dietary exogenous antioxidants. All these antioxidant systems have very important role in preserving the oxide/reduction equilibrium in the cell. To understand the role of the transcription factor Nrf2 in regulating the processes of antioxidant defense, it must also know the role of many of the endogenous antioxidants that occur because of its activation. Therefore, this chapter makes a literature review of the most important general aspects of endogenous antioxidant systems, which will provide another point of view from which to approach the study and treatment of many chronic degenerative diseases, such as diabetes, hypertension, and Parkinson.",book:{id:"5407",slug:"a-master-regulator-of-oxidative-stress-the-transcription-factor-nrf2",title:"The Transcription Factor Nrf2",fullTitle:"A Master Regulator of Oxidative Stress - The Transcription Factor Nrf2"},signatures:"Tomás Alejandro Fregoso Aguilar, Brenda Carolina Hernández\nNavarro and Jorge Alberto Mendoza Pérez",authors:[{id:"154732",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza-Pérez",slug:"jorge-a.-mendoza-perez",fullName:"Jorge A. Mendoza-Pérez"},{id:"154908",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomás A.",middleName:null,surname:"Fregoso-Aguilar",slug:"tomas-a.-fregoso-aguilar",fullName:"Tomás A. Fregoso-Aguilar"},{id:"194794",title:"Dr.",name:"Brenda Carolina",middleName:"Carolina",surname:"Hernandez Navarro",slug:"brenda-carolina-hernandez-navarro",fullName:"Brenda Carolina Hernandez Navarro"}]},{id:"59054",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72898",title:"Has Molecular Docking Ever Brought us a Medicine?",slug:"has-molecular-docking-ever-brought-us-a-medicine-",totalDownloads:3151,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Molecular docking has been developed and improving for many years, but its ability to bring a medicine to the drug market effectively is still generally questioned. In this chapter, we introduce several successful cases including drugs for treatment of HIV, cancers, and other prevalent diseases. The technical details such as docking software, protein data bank (PDB) structures, and other computational methods employed are also collected and displayed. In most of the cases, the structures of drugs or drug candidates and the interacting residues on the target proteins are also presented. In addition, a few successful examples of drug repurposing using molecular docking are mentioned in this chapter. It should provide us with confidence that the docking will be extensively employed in the industry and basic research. Moreover, we should actively apply molecular docking and related technology to create new therapies for diseases.",book:{id:"6365",slug:"molecular-docking",title:"Molecular Docking",fullTitle:"Molecular Docking"},signatures:"Mark Andrew Phillips, Marisa A. Stewart, Darby L. Woodling and\nZhong-Ru Xie",authors:[{id:"214567",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhong-Ru",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",slug:"zhong-ru-xie",fullName:"Zhong-Ru Xie"},{id:"223007",title:"Ms.",name:"Marisa A.",middleName:null,surname:"Stewart",slug:"marisa-a.-stewart",fullName:"Marisa A. Stewart"},{id:"223009",title:"Mr.",name:"Darby L.",middleName:null,surname:"Woodling",slug:"darby-l.-woodling",fullName:"Darby L. Woodling"},{id:"223013",title:"Mr.",name:"Mark Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Phillips",slug:"mark-andrew-phillips",fullName:"Mark Andrew Phillips"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69775",title:"Principles of Chromatography Method Development",slug:"principles-of-chromatography-method-development",totalDownloads:4294,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"This chapter aims to explain the key parameters of analytical method development using the chromatography techniques which are used for the identification, separation, purification, and quantitative estimation of complex mixtures of organic compounds. Mainly, the versatile techniques of ultra−/high-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC/HPLC) are in use for the analysis of assay and organic impurities/related substances/degradation products of a drug substance or drug product or intermediate or raw material of pharmaceuticals. A suitable analytical method is developed only after evaluating the major and critical separation parameters of chromatography (examples for UPLC/HPLC are selection of diluent, wavelength, detector, stationary phase, column temperature, flow rate, solvent system, elution mode, and injection volume, etc.). The analytical method development is a process of proving the developed analytical method is suitable for its intended use for the quantitative estimation of the targeted analyte present in pharmaceutical drugs. And it mostly plays a vital role in the development and manufacture of pharmaceuticals drugs.",book:{id:"8912",slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies"},signatures:"Narasimha S. Lakka and Chandrasekar Kuppan",authors:[{id:"304950",title:"Prof.",name:"Chandrasekar",middleName:null,surname:"Kuppan",slug:"chandrasekar-kuppan",fullName:"Chandrasekar Kuppan"},{id:"309984",title:"Mr.",name:"Narasimha S",middleName:null,surname:"Lakka",slug:"narasimha-s-lakka",fullName:"Narasimha S Lakka"}]},{id:"72074",title:"The Chemistry Behind Plant DNA Isolation Protocols",slug:"the-chemistry-behind-plant-dna-isolation-protocols",totalDownloads:3797,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Various plant species are biochemically heterogeneous in nature, a single deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) isolation protocol may not be suitable. There have been continuous modification and standardization in DNA isolation protocols. Most of the plant DNA isolation protocols used today are modified versions of hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB) extraction procedure. Modification is usually performed in the concentration of chemicals used during the extraction procedure according to the plant species and plant part used. Thus, understanding the role of each chemical (viz. CTAB, NaCl, PVP, ethanol, and isopropanol) used during the DNA extraction procedure will benefit to set or modify protocols for more precisions. A review of the chemicals used in the CTAB method of DNA extraction and their probable functions on the highly evolved yet complex to students and researchers has been summarized.",book:{id:"8912",slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies"},signatures:"Jina Heikrujam, Rajkumar Kishor and Pranab Behari Mazumder",authors:[{id:"74521",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajkumar",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor",slug:"rajkumar-kishor",fullName:"Rajkumar Kishor"},{id:"309357",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranab Behari",middleName:null,surname:"Mazumder",slug:"pranab-behari-mazumder",fullName:"Pranab Behari Mazumder"},{id:"318351",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jina",middleName:null,surname:"Heikrujam",slug:"jina-heikrujam",fullName:"Jina Heikrujam"}]},{id:"64549",title:"Plant Lipid Metabolism",slug:"plant-lipid-metabolism",totalDownloads:2677,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"In plants, the synthesis of fatty acids takes place in the chloroplast and the fatty acid synthase is prokaryotic type. In plants, the structure of membrane lipids is different from that of eukaryotic cells. The membranes of the chloroplasts are essentially formed of galatolipids. This chapter will also focus on the structure and biosynthesis of fatty acids and membrane lipids in plants. Lipids of seeds are essentially composed of TAG; it would be interesting to describe their synthesis during the maturation of the seeds. Some plants contain in their reserve lipids unconventional fatty acids such as gamma linolenic acid in Borrago officinalis L., short-chain fatty acids C: 12 and C: 10, fatty acids with very long chains, and fatty acids that are cyclical. All of these fatty acids can have industrial and/or pharmaceutical applications.",book:{id:"7036",slug:"advances-in-lipid-metabolism",title:"Advances in Lipid Metabolism",fullTitle:"Advances in Lipid Metabolism"},signatures:"Fatiha AID",authors:[{id:"256576",title:"Prof.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Aid",slug:"fatiha-aid",fullName:"Fatiha Aid"}]},{id:"66369",title:"General Perception of Liposomes: Formation, Manufacturing and Applications",slug:"general-perception-of-liposomes-formation-manufacturing-and-applications",totalDownloads:3320,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:"Liposomes are currently part of the most reputed carriers for various molecular species, from small and simple to large and complex molecules. Since their discovery, liposomes have been subject to extensive evolution, in terms of composition, manufacturing and applications, which led to several openings in both basic and applied life sciences. However, most of the advances in liposome research have been more devoted to launching new developments than improving the existing technology for potential implementation. For instance, the evolution of the conventional lipid hydration methods to novel microfluidic technologies has permitted upscale production, but with increase in manufacturing cost and persistent use of organic solvents. This chapter intends to present general concepts in liposome technology, highlighting some longstanding bottlenecks that remain challenging to the preparation, characterization and applications of liposomal systems. This would enhance the understanding of the gaps in the field and, hence, provide directions for future research and developments.",book:{id:"8095",slug:"liposomes-advances-and-perspectives",title:"Liposomes",fullTitle:"Liposomes - Advances and Perspectives"},signatures:"Christian Isalomboto Nkanga, Alain Murhimalika Bapolisi, Nnamdi Ikemefuna Okafor and Rui Werner Maçedo Krause",authors:[{id:"284670",title:"Prof.",name:"Rui",middleName:null,surname:"Krause",slug:"rui-krause",fullName:"Rui Krause"},{id:"284672",title:"Mr.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Bapolisi",slug:"alain-bapolisi",fullName:"Alain Bapolisi"},{id:"284673",title:"MSc.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Nkanga",slug:"christian-nkanga",fullName:"Christian Nkanga"},{id:"284675",title:"Mr.",name:"Okafor",middleName:null,surname:"Nnamdi",slug:"okafor-nnamdi",fullName:"Okafor Nnamdi"}]},{id:"61865",title:"A Click Chemistry Approach to Tetrazoles: Recent Advances",slug:"a-click-chemistry-approach-to-tetrazoles-recent-advances",totalDownloads:2687,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Introduction to tetrazole and click chemistry approaches was briefed in a concise way in order to help the readers have a basic understanding. Tetrazole and its derivatives play very important role in medicinal and pharmaceutical applications. The synthesis of tetrazole derivatives can be approached in ecofriendly approaches such as the use of water as solvent, moderate conditions, nontoxic, easy extractions, easy setup, low cost, etc. with good to excellent yields.",book:{id:"6365",slug:"molecular-docking",title:"Molecular Docking",fullTitle:"Molecular Docking"},signatures:"Ravi Varala and Bollikolla Hari Babu",authors:[{id:"212519",title:"Dr.",name:"Varala",middleName:null,surname:"Ravi",slug:"varala-ravi",fullName:"Varala Ravi"},{id:"221476",title:"Dr.",name:"Bollikolla",middleName:null,surname:"Hari Babu",slug:"bollikolla-hari-babu",fullName:"Bollikolla Hari Babu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"43",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82531",title:"Abnormal Iron Metabolism and Its Effect on Dentistry",slug:"abnormal-iron-metabolism-and-its-effect-on-dentistry",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104502",abstract:"Iron is a necessary micro-nutrient for proper functioning of the erythropoietic, oxidative and cellular metabolism. The iron balance in the body adversely affects the normal physiologic functioning of the body and structures in the oral cavity. Various abnormalities develop owing to improper iron metabolism in the body which reflects in the oral cavity. The toxicity of iron has to be well understood to immediately identify the hazardous effects which arise owing to it and to manage it. It has been very well mentioned in the chapter. The manifestations of defects of iron metabolism in the oral cavity should be carefully studied to improve the prognosis of the treatment of the same. Disorders related to iron metabolism should be managed for improvement in the quality of life of the patient.",book:{id:"10842",title:"Iron Metabolism - A Double-Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg"},signatures:"Chinmayee Dahihandekar and Sweta Kale Pisulkar"},{id:"82403",title:"Use of Plant Secondary Metabolites to Reduce Crop Biotic and Abiotic Stresses: A Review",slug:"use-of-plant-secondary-metabolites-to-reduce-crop-biotic-and-abiotic-stresses-a-review",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104553",abstract:"Plant secondary metabolites (PSM) are small molecules of organic compounds produced in plant metabolism that have various ecological functions, such as defense against pathogens, herbivores, and neighboring plants. They can also help to reduce abiotic stresses, such as drought, salinity, temperature, and UV. This chapter reviewed the ecological functions of the PSM and how people utilize these metabolites to reduce crop biotic and abiotic stresses in agriculture. Specific topics covered in this review are (1) extraction of PSM from plant parts and its application on crops; (2) screening of crop/cover crop germplasms for high PSM content and with resistance to pathogens, herbivores, and/or neighboring plants; (3) regulation of PSM biosynthesis (including plant hormones and defense activators) to increase plant readiness for defense; (4) transcriptome and genome technology improvements in the last decade leading to valuable tools to characterize differential gene expression and gene composition in a genome, and lineage-specific gene family expansion and contraction. In addition, there is a critical need to understand how the biosynthesis and release of allelochemicals occur. Filling this knowledge gap will help us to improve and encourage sustainable weed control practices in agriculture.",book:{id:"11331",title:"Secondary Metabolites - Trends and Reviews",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11331.jpg"},signatures:"Ziming Yue, Varsha Singh, Josiane Argenta, Worlanyo Segbefia, Alyssa Miller and Te Ming Tseng"},{id:"81728",title:"Plant Secondary Metabolites: Therapeutic Potential and Pharmacological Properties",slug:"plant-secondary-metabolites-therapeutic-potential-and-pharmacological-properties",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103698",abstract:"Plants are an essential source for discovering novel medical compounds for drug development, and secondary metabolites are sources of medicines from plants. Secondary metabolites include alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, coumarins, quinones, carotenoids, and steroids. Each year, several new secondary metabolites are extracted from plants, providing a source of possibilities to investigate against malignant illnesses, despite certain natural chemicals having distinct anticancer activities according to their physicochemical features. Secondary metabolites found in plants are frequently great leads for therapeutic development. However, changes in the molecular structure of these compounds are improving their anticancer activity and selectivity and their absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion capacities while minimizing their toxicity and side effects. In this section, we will discuss the most significant breakthroughs in the field of plant secondary metabolites, some of which are currently in clinical use and others that are in clinical trials as anticancer drugs. This study gives an up-to-date and thorough summary of secondary plant metabolites and their antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer effects. Furthermore, antioxidant and antibacterial, and anticancer effects of secondary metabolites are addressed. As a result, this article will serve as a thorough, quick reference for people interested in secondary metabolite antioxidants, anticancer, and antibacterial properties.",book:{id:"11331",title:"Secondary Metabolites - Trends and Reviews",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11331.jpg"},signatures:"Muhammad Zeeshan Bhatti, Hammad Ismail and Waqas Khan Kayani"},{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",abstract:"Iron is the trace element. We get the iron from the dietary sources. The enterocytes lining the upper duodenal of the intestine absorb the dietary iron through a divalent metal transporter (DMT1). The absorbed ferrous iron is oxidized to ferric iron in the body. This ferric iron from the blood is carried to different tissues by an iron transporting protein, transferrin. The cells in the tissues take up this ferric form of iron by internalizing the apo transferrin with its receptors on them. The apo transferrin complex in the cells get dissociated resulting in the free iron in cell which is utilized for cellular purposes or stored in the bound form to an iron storage protein, ferritin. The physiological levels of iron are critical for the normal physiology and pathological outcomes, hence the iron I rightly called as double-edged sword. This chapter on iron introduces the readers basic information of iron, cellular uptake, metabolism, and its role cellular physiology and provides the readers with the scope and importance of research on iron that hold the great benefit for health care and personalized medicine or diseases specific treatment strategies, blood transfusions and considerations.",book:{id:"10842",title:"Iron Metabolism - A Double-Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg"},signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar"},{id:"81233",title:"Secondary Metabolites of Fruits and Vegetables with Antioxidant Potential",slug:"secondary-metabolites-of-fruits-and-vegetables-with-antioxidant-potential",totalDownloads:43,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103707",abstract:"An antioxidant is of great interest among researchers, scientists, nutritionists, and the public because of its ability to prevent oxidative damage, as indicated by various studies. This chapter mainly focuses on the free radicals and their types; antioxidants and their mode of action against free radicals; fruits, vegetables, and their byproducts as a source of antioxidants; and various analytical methods employed for assessing antioxidant activity. Antioxidants discussed in this chapter are ascorbic acid, Vitamin E, carotenoids and polyphenols, and their mechanism of action. Different antioxidant activity assay techniques have been reported. Fruits and vegetables are abundant sources of these secondary metabolites. The waste generated during processing has many bioactive materials, which possibly be used in value-added by-products.",book:{id:"11331",title:"Secondary Metabolites - Trends and Reviews",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11331.jpg"},signatures:"Ravneet Kaur, Shubhra Shekhar and Kamlesh Prasad"},{id:"81044",title:"Metabolomics and Genetic Engineering for Secondary Metabolites Discovery",slug:"metabolomics-and-genetic-engineering-for-secondary-metabolites-discovery",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102838",abstract:"Since 1940s, microbial secondary metabolites (SMs) have attracted the attention of the scientific community. As a result, intensive researches have been conducted in order to discover and identify novel microbial secondary metabolites. Since, the discovery of novel secondary metabolites has been decreasing significantly due to many factors such as 1) unculturable microbes 2) traditional detection techniques 3) not all SMs expressed in the lab. As a result, searching for new techniques which can overcome the previous challenges was one of the most priority objectives. Therefore, the development of omics-based techniques such as genomics and metabolomic have revealed the potential of discovering novel SMs which were coded in the microorganisms’ DNA but not expressed in the lab or might be produced in undetectable amount by detecting the biosynthesis gene clusters (BGCs) that are associated with the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. Nowadays, the integration of metabolomics and gene editing techniques such as CRISPR-Cas9 provide a successful platform for the detection and identification of known and unknown secondary metabolites also to increase secondary metabolites production.",book:{id:"11331",title:"Secondary Metabolites - Trends and Reviews",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11331.jpg"},signatures:"Ahmed M. Shuikan, Wael N. Hozzein, Rakan M. Alshuwaykan and Ibrahim A. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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