Quadrature weights and points for triangular elements.
\r\n\tAbout 25 percent of all foods produced globally are lost due to microbial growth. L. monocytogenes is a microorganism ubiquitously present in the environment and affects animals and humans. L. monocytogenes can enter a factory and is able to survive in biofilms in the food processing environment. The use of adequate sanitation procedures is a prerequisite in risk prevention. Moreover, effective control measures for L. monocytogenes are very important to food operators.
\r\n\r\n\tThe safety and shelf life maximizing of food products to meet the demand of retailers and consumers is a challenge and a concern of food operators.
\r\n\r\n\tTo obtain food systems more sustainable, several developments are ongoing to ensure safe food products with an extended shelf life and a reduction of food loss and waste. The problem of antimicrobial resistance is also a great issue that must be taken into consideration.
\r\n\r\n\tThe implementation of natural antimicrobials, using food cultures, ferments, or bacteriophages, is one approach to control L. monocytogenes in food products that meet the consumer preference for clean label solutions.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art about Listeria monocytogenes in terms of occurrence in humans, animals, and food-producing plants. Its control by more natural agents allows for more sustainable food systems and points future directions to transform challenges into opportunities.
As an example to the application of Criminale-Ericksen-Filbey (CEF) fluid, we can consider the settling of small particles in a non-Newtonian fluid medium. The geometry of the problem: schematic diagram of a sphere falling through a fluid in a cylinder is shown in (Figure 1). Due to axisymmetry the problem can be considered as 2-D.
\nSchematic diagram of a sphere falling through a fluid in a cylinder.
This problem has great importance in a large number of industrial applications. Because these materials are rather polymeric and consequently viscoelastic, it is obligatory to include the elastic behaviour in the analysis. The notations are the usual ones.
\nThe quantities of interest are the stresses: we must consider the effects of the normal stress in addition to those of the shear stresses and to use a constitutive equation which includes normal stress coefficients, \n
Many constitutive equations developed from the continuum mechanics or microstructural viewpoints, are used to describe the behaviour of non-Newtonian fluids. Among them the second-order Rivlin-Ericksen model is generally preferred because it describes the real behaviour of the fluids with sufficient accuracy and also because its application is not very cumbersome. On the other hand, the material coefficients used being constant, it is not in good agreement with experimental results in case the shear strain-rate is not very small. The CEF constitutive equation removes this draw-back by taking these coefficients variable and dependent of the shear strain-rate. That is why this model is used in the study of the settling of small particles in a non-Newtonian fluid medium.
\nThe constitutive equation of the CEF fluid is:
\nThe merit of CEF constitutive equation is that it stresses the dependence of the viscosity coefficient on shear strain-rate, that is, it takes into account the shear thinning (or shear-thickening) effects, and those of normal stresses which are also dependent on the shear strain-rate. In steady-state shear flow an extremely wide class of viscoelastic constitutive equations simplifies to CEF equation. The first term of the CEF equation for \n
The Rivlin-Ericksen tensors involved in the CEF equation are [5]:
\nThe first invariant of
The shear strain-rate in term of the second invariant
The velocity gradients of
At high shear rates, the viscosity of most polymeric liquids decreases with increasing shear rate (Figure 2). For many engineering applications this is the most important property of polymeric fluids.
\nShear-thinning in a typical non-Newtonian fluid.
An especially useful form has been described by Carreau [4] for the viscosity coefficient (n = 0.364).
\nThe normal stress coefficients may be handled as below:
\nIf
Non-linear results.
The relaxation time (defined as
Treating the curve in the Figure 4 by the least square method, the formula below can be found for the first normal stress coefficient υ1:
\nThe most important points to note about υ2 are that its magnitude is much smaller than υ1, usually about 10–20% of υ1, and that it is negative [4].
\nHence, we shall take
\nConsequently
\nThe choice of Carreau formula is justified by the behaviour similarity of inelastic and viscoelastic fluids concerning the viscosity, and that of the formula about the normal stress coefficients by the fact that the particle settling problem has characteristics close to dilute suspensions.
\nAs an example to the application of the CEF fluid, we can consider the settling of small particles in a non-Newtonian fluid medium. The simulation of this problem according to the fluid mechanics principles may be realized by the flow of a non-Newtonian fluid around a sphere falling along the centerline of a cylindrical tube [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14].
\nThe knowledge of the rate of settling of particles in practice is particularly significant in determining the shelf life of materials such as foodstuffs, cleaning materials and many others. Also, in oil and gas drilling it is important to understand the distribution of loose material, removed by the drill bit and carried to the surface by the drilling mud. Thus, this problem has great importance in many natural and physical processes and in a large number of industrial applications such as chemical, genetic and biomedical engineering operations. The cylindrical tube is considered as stationary. The drag coefficient must be calculated. The equations determining the motion of a sphere in an incompressible fluid under isothermal conditions will be given for a non-Newtonian viscous fluid exhibiting shear-thinning and using cylindrical coordinates [15]. As this study is the simulation of the slow motion of small particles, we can suppose the flow irrotational. Furthermore, due to the data of the considered problem, the motion may be assumed steady, axisymmetric and the fluid incompressible. The global cylindrical coordinate system (
Due to the lack of analytical solutions, one will have to resort to numerical methods. The finite element method (FEM) will be used for this purpose.
\nContinuity equation
\nMotion equations
\nThey have two projections in the axisymmetric problem considered. Hence, there are overall three equations. Unknowns are
According to the assumptions of steady, axisymmetric, incompressible and irrotational flow properties above mentioned, we can write
\nNondimensional variables and scales are introduced as
\nFor brevity * notation will be elected by implication.
\nContinuity equation
\nProjection of the motion equation on the
Projection of the motion equation on the
where
Taking as numerical example
\nwhich ensues
\nThe coefficient
\n
At the inlet of the flow:
Along the cylindrical tube (
Along the centerline of the cylindrical tube (
On the surface of the sphere:
At the outlet of the flow:
Introducing \n
Due to the assumptions Eq. (12), only
All stress variables are expressed in terms of the velocities and the pressures and the stresses are then back-calculated after finding the velocities
For stability the pressure field must be interpolated with a polynomial one order lower than the velocity terms. Here we have chosen linear pressure and quadratic velocity fields over the element.
\nA quadratic triangle for velocities with six nodes, three on the vertices and the three others on mid-sides, and a linear triangle for pressures, both processed with area coordinates (Figure 5).
\n(a) A linear triangular element; and (b) a quadratic triangular element.
In our problem gravitational and inertial forces are neglected and the motion is obtained as in the first Stokes problem by drawing the cylinder opposite to the sphere displacement with a constant, upward
The \n
and those concerning the pressure for nodes
Area coordinates.
The element shown satisfies the LBB condition and thus gives reliable and convergent solutions for velocity and pressure fields [16].
\nThe derivatives of the interpolation functions with respect to the global coordinates are of the form
\nwith the Jacobian matrix of transformation
\nThe element area
\nThe integration must be carried out over the elemental volume of the axisymmetric geometry
Quadrature weights and points for triangular elements.
According to the constraint
\nwe eliminate the dependent variable
The flow domain is meshed using linear and quadratic triangular elements [9]. Three unstructured meshes are generated by an adaptive mesh generator, as given in Table 2 and shown in Figure 7. Independent unknown variables are, due to axisymmetry
Mesh | \nSphere surface nodes | \nElements | \nNodes | \n
---|---|---|---|
AM1 | \n21 | \n644 | \n1401 | \n
AM2 | \n31 | \n948 | \n2035 | \n
AM3 | \n41 | \n1242 | \n2645 | \n
Summary of finite element meshes.
Mesh patterns around sphere,
As a typical numerical example after [9], the values below are processed:
\nIn order to provide a basis for a comparison, and to pose the behavioral difference between inelastic and viscoelastic fluids, an example taken from the literature [9], for the simpler case \n
Contours of streamfunction (ψ
The extrema contour levels for the inelastic fluid are again shown in a table (Table 3).
\nFlow domain | \nMinimum | \nMaximum | \n
---|---|---|
0.0000 | \n3.1250 | \n|
−0.1933 | \n0.2171 | \n|
— | \n— | \n|
0.0000 | \n1.1249 | \n|
−4.9296 | \n7.8010 | \n|
−2.6545 | \n3.1418 | \n|
−1.4139 | \n1.8356 | \n|
−1.3276 | \n2.9703 | \n|
−3.6693 | \n2.8291 | \n|
0.244 | \n1.4672 | \n
Extrema contour levels.
The reasons why the results obtained by Townsend [9] cannot be achieved for the generalized fluid by replacing \n
Nonetheless, we think that is beneficial to make a comparison with Townsend [9] solutions.
\nThe model used in this study, which is called as Mesh#1, was obtained as a result of a three-stage optimization. In the “Initmesh” stage, an “adaptive mesh” was formed. In the second stage number of triangles was increased with the “refinemesh” function to obtain an improvement in this first mesh. Finally, at the third stage, an optimization was achieved with the “jigglemesh” function. Therefore, Mesh#1 is an optimal mesh, and it can be considered sufficient in terms of “mesh independence” alone. Mesh#2 is an adaptive mesh, and the number of triangles in this mesh, was increased considerably with respect to Mesh#1 (Figure 9 and Table 4).
\nMesh#1 and Mesh#2.
Definition | \nMatrices for points P | \nMatrices for edges E | \nMatrices for triangles T | \nVector of nodal values V | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Mesh#1 | \n2 / 205 | \n7 / 62 | \n4/346 | \n1/1715 | \n
Mesh#2 | \n2 / 311 | \n7 /84 | \n4/536 | \n1/2625 | \n
Mesh comparison.
Because the subject of this study is based on the fact that the elastic effect in polymeric fluids cannot be neglected, Mesh#1 and Mesh#2 results in Table 5 were presented as comparison of the normal stresses. In this table, the average difference between each mesh is approximately 2%. Because the results of two very different meshes mostly overlap, the results obtained are proven to be independent from mesh configuration, i.e., “mesh independence” is achieved. The generated mesh is improved according to the initmesh, refine mesh and jigglemesh MATLAB programs and the mesh independence is tested and ensured.
\nStresses | \nτrr | \nτθθ | \nτzz | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Extreme values | \nMin | \nMax | \nMin | \nMax | \nMin | \nMax | \n
Mesh#1 | \n−6.0019 | \n3.3792 | \n−6.0115 | \n3.4000 | \n−6.1339 | \n3.7165 | \n
Mesh#2 | \n−5.9810 | \n3.2325 | \n−5.8722 | \n3.4022 | \n−6.3396 | \n3.8825 | \n
Comparison of normal stresses.
The starting example of “Settling of Small Particles in Fluid Medium” problem in the literature which has important applications in many fields such as the shelf life of foodstuffs etc., is given for “generalized Newtonian fluid” medium [9]. As is known, the motion equation is Navier-Stokes in this case, and viscosity coefficient \n
Because of the boundary conditions, the equations are “overdetermined.” The problem is axisymmetric, the global coordinates
It is useful to give following explanatory remarks:
\nAlthough the differential equation is third order, the shape functions are chosen as linear for pressures and quadratic (2nd degree) polynomials for velocities. The degree difference between pressures and velocities is compulsory for stability. These are thought to be sufficient in the literature examples. Using third order polynomial would extend the problem extremely, and make the solution unreachable. Considering the elastic effect (\n
Because the motion is relative, the sphere was taken constant in the problem; however, a motion from bottom to top with a constant
As an example to viscoelastic fluid, Carreau type Separan 30 was chosen [7]. The coefficient \n
The boundary conditions are generally the conditions at the inlet and outlet, and—for velocities—the no slip conditions at the sphere surface and cylinder wall. It was assumed that
Radial velocity (
Axial velocity (
Contour values were found by dividing the space between the max and min contours by ten, and were written on the figures without covering them up. That is why contour labels are generally fractional. If an integer contour (e.g., zero) is to be drawn, it can be shown with linear interpolation on the figure.
\nAs seen in pressure (
Pressure (p) [−3.4962 −2.4411 −1.3860 −0.3310 0.7241 1.7792 2.8343 3.8893 4.9444 5.9995].
3-D surf drawing of pressure.
The extreme values concerning the contours are gathered in Table 6. The flow is not uniform: the existence of the sphere at the center, the wall effect of cylinder (drag) and the boundary conditions prevent the flow from being uniform. Thus, max and min values are obtained.
\nFlow domain | \nMinimum | \nMaximum | \n
---|---|---|
0.0000 | \n3.1416 | \n|
−0.1772 | \n0.2183 | \n|
0.0000 | \n1.0215 | \n|
−3.4962 | \n5.9995 | \n|
−6.0019 | \n3.3792 | \n|
−6.1339 | \n3.7165 | \n|
−6.0115 | \n3.4000 | \n|
−0.3701 | \n0.8390 | \n|
0.0845 | \n1.0000 | \n|
0.0029 | \n0.9981 | \n
Extrema contour levels.
In the adaptive “mesh” drawn, there are 755 nodes. At these nodes
We transformed the partial equation system with the aid of FEM to nonlinear overdetermined algebraic equation system. As we have numerous simultaneous and highly nonlinear equations, which moreover are overdetermined due to the existence of the boundary conditions, we were compelled to resort to the optimization techniques to resolve the equation system [22].
\nThe end of the iterative optimization process is determined according to the fulfillment of the Error computation, Standard deviation, Histogram and minimum and maximum values of the minimized equation vector
Average error | \n0.1004 | \n
Standard Deviation | \n0.1820 | \n
η_avg | \n0.1104 | \n
C | \n1.6502 | \n
Error computation, standard deviation, the average of η values at sphere surface (η_avg) and drag coefficient (C).
Error spaces | \n0–0.5 | \n0.5–1.0 | \n1.0–1.5 | \n1.5–2.0 | \n2.0–2.5 | \n
Equation number | \n1637 | \n66 | \n11 | \n1 | \n0 | \n
Percentage (%) | \n95.4519 | \n3.8484 | \n0.6414 | \n0.0583 | \n0 | \n
Histogram results concerning equation errors; 1715 equations were used in total.
Min., Max. and Norms: | \nMin(F) | \nMax(F) | \n||F||2 | \n||F||∞ | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
\n | −1.3449 | \n1.6251 | \n8.6075 | \n1.6251 | \n
Euclidean and infinite norms and minimum and maximum values of the minimized equation vector F.
Obtained mesh configuration contains (linear and quadratic) 755 nodes in total (Figure 14). Totally, 1715 equations are used. Extrema contour levels are given in Table 6. Error computation, Standard deviation, Drag coefficient in Table 7 and Histogram results about equation errors are given in Table 8. Minimum and maximum values of the minimized equation vector F, Euclidean and Infinite norms are shown in Table 9.
\nMesh scheme for
Stream function \n
Stream function (Ψ) [0.00 0.01 0.05 0.20 0.44 0.77 1.25 1.88 2.67 3.14].
3-D mesh drawing of radial velocity.
3-D surf drawing of radial velocity.
3-D mesh drawing of axial velocity.
3-D surf drawing of axial velocity.
3-D mesh drawing of pressure.
Normal stress (τrr) [−6.0019 −4.9595 −3.9172 −2.8748 −1.8325 −0.7902 0.2522 1.2945 2.3369 3.3792].
Axial stress (τzz) [−6.1339 −5.0394 −3.9449 −2.8504 −1.7560 −0.6615 0.4330 1.5275 2.6220 3.7165].
Azimuthal stress (τθθ) [−6.0115 −4.9658 −3.9200 −2.8743 −1.8286 −0.7829 0.2628 1.3086 2.3543 3.4000].
Shear stress (τrz) [−0.3701 −0.2358 −0.1014 0.0329 0.1673 0.3016 0.4360 0.5703 0.7047 0.8390].
Viscosity coefficient (
Normal stress coefficient (υ1) [0.0029 0.1135 0.2241 0.3346 0.4452 0.5558 0.6663 0.7769 0.8875 0.9981].
Equation numbers producing error are shown on the vertical axis.
In order to make a comparison and to compare the findings given in the literature in connection with settling of small particles for inelastic fluids with the behaviour of viscoelastic non-Newtonian fluids having variable material coefficient that show shear-thinning due to being mostly polymeric and viscoelastic nature of aforementioned materials; based on an example given by Rameshwaran et al. [9] for generalized Newtonian fluid, results of a typical example (CEF fluid) discussed in this study are compared visually with stream function, velocities, pressures and stresses with contour curves, and numerically with extrema tables. For both fluids the contour curves are shown in Figure 8 and in Figures 10–13 and in Figures 15–27, and the contour levels are shown numerically in Table 3 and 6. The contours are drawn for the \n
As explained above, although the transition from system we used to a simpler example in the literature taking υ1 as equal to 0 is not completely possible, this comparison was very useful in general terms and allowed for new findings.
\nThis comparison results can be explained as follows:
\n\n\n
The viscosity coefficient (
The main differences are at the stresses. These support our expectations. The magnitudes of normal stresses \n
So, the shear effect decreased relatively, while the extensional effect increased. The category of the flow slightly changed from shear flow toward extensional flow (Table 10).
\nStresses | \nτrr | \nτθθ | \nτzz | \nτrz | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Extreme values | \nMin | \nMax | \nMin | \nMax | \nMin | \nMax | \nMin | \nMax | \n
Inelastic | \n−2.6545 | \n3.1418 | \n−1.4139 | \n1.8356 | \n−3.6693 | \n2.8291 | \n−1.3276 | \n2.9703 | \n
Viscoelastic | \n−6.0019 | \n3.3792 | \n−6.0115 | \n3.400 | \n−6.1339 | \n3.7165 | \n−0.3701 | \n0.8390 | \n
Comparison of the normal and shear stresses.
Since the materials under consideration are rather polymeric and consequently viscoelastic, it is compulsory to include the elastic behaviour in the analysis by taking the effects of the normal stress into account in addition to those of the shear stresses and to use a constitutive equation appropriate to this. In this study, this point of view is tried to be ensured, and in order not to neglect the viscoelastic effect, a constitutive equation such as CEF, which includes normal stress coefficients, υ1, υ2, is used.
\nThe results of the analysis, as expressed above in the findings and discussion section, confirms this idea. Comparison of the normal and shear stresses given in Table 10 exposed an increase which reaches 3 times in absolute value in the normal stresses and in parallel a decrease which reaches 4 times in the shear stresses. This table reveals that elastic effect in polymeric fluids cannot be neglected. In this manner a fact has been emphasized, and an important point in fluid literature has been clarified.
\nParasitic diseases are a global problem for health and animal production performance due to endoparasites or ectoparasites, Among ectoparasites (ticks, mites, flies, fleas mosquitoes etc.), ticks have adapted to most of the terrestrial niches on the planet and have specialized in feeding on the blood of mammals, birds and reptiles around the world [1, 2, 3]. The evolutionary adaptation of ticks to hematophagy, is the major reason of the great economic losses caused by this group of parasites, however, the greatest impact of tick infestations to human and animal health is also related with the tick borne diseases.
Ticks are considered responsible for more than 100,000 cases of human diseases, and are the most important vectors of disease-causing pathogens in wild and domestic animals. Globally, they are the second most important disease vectors in humans only after the mosquitoes [4, 5], however they are considered to be the most important vector of pathogens in North America [6].
The families Argasidae and Ixodidae are two groups of thelmophagous ticks of great importance for human and animal health, since they act as reservoirs of a lot of pathogens including parasitic protozoos (
Ticks belong to the group of ectoparasites that cause important economic losses in the cattle industry in tropical and subtropical ecosystems all over the world. Specifically,
Life cycle of the one host thelmophagous cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus, showing a parasitic and a free living stage and four different ontological forms: Egg, larvae, nymph and adult or engorged female. (Artwork composed by Fernando Rosario & Delia Inés Dominguez 2021).
Bovine cattle is parasitized by
The parasitic phase (Figure 1), begins when the larvae overcome the climatic and host barriers, since its life cycle is influenced by climatic factors acting on the free living tick stage and the host response against the tick as a parasite. Larvae, then reaches the bovine skin, where they will start the physiological processes of feeding, molting and copulation of the larva, nymph and adult stages respectively [14]. The duration of the parasitic phase is relatively constant, it has been estimated that the duration of this stage from larvae to the adult engorged female, occurs approximately from 18 to 22 days, including feeding, molting and change to the next stage; the whole process takes place all the time on the bovine. The mortality rate of ticks in this phase is determined by the resistance of the host, since, larvae as we already mentioned, is influenced by changing climatic factors as well as the host response against the different tick parasitic stages, the larvae, nymph and the adult engorged female [14].
The non-parasitic phase (Figure 1), begins when the engorged female detaches from the host in search of suitable places for oviposition, the eggs laid remain under the grass, until the larvae hatches and appear on the grassland ready to infest the bovine host. Under the grass, the non-parasitic cycle goes through several stages: pre-oviposition, oviposition, incubation and larval hatching. The intervals duration for the completion of each stage, are variable and greatly conditioned by factors such as season, host abundance, selection of host species, and the climatic conditions mainly humidity and temperature [15]. Biologically, these processes involve the physiological and behavioral response of ticks to temperature, moisture stress and day length that result in specific patterns of seasonal population dynamics and hosts availability [14].
Undoubtedly Ticks are the most important group of pathogen vectors causing diseases in wild and domestic animals [5]. Its great economic and sanitary importance is due to its wide distribution, vectorial capacity, hematophagous habits and the number of cattle it affects [17].
The control of tick populations and the diseases they transmit in countries with emerging economies in Latin America, is a prevailing need due to the millionaire economic losses they cause. On the other hand acaricides with a tick-killing effect is the main tool available to control ticks [18].
The cattle fever tick
Infested cow from the Northern transboundary region between Mexico and the United States, shows the tick infestations resulting from the intensive use of acaricides based on a regular and systematic chemical application approach. (The photograph has been kindly provided by Dr. Martin Ortiz Estrada).
Map showing the distribution of the cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus and the current state of tick control officially recognized by the National Tick Campaign Office from the National Center for Verification Services on Animal Health SENASICA from the Mexican Government. Consulted and taken from the official SENASICA web site on August 19, 2021. (
Acaricides have been intensively used for tick control; as a result the use of chemicals combined with the plasticity of tick genomes, has increased progressively the appearance of resistance to different families of acaricides unavoidably (Figures 2 and 4) [22], and in many cases to the appearance of multiple resistance. The appearance of resistance in the cattle industry has highlighted the greater inconvenience of the use of acaricides, the selection of resistant tick populations due to the use of acaricides or mixtures of acaricides elaborated based on the ignorance of the resistance mechanisms [22]. There are some critical and basic concepts that allow us to make a road map, on how acaricide resistance occurs, after the continuous and frequent application of chemical treatments. After the continuous exposure, the acaricide kills a fraction of the susceptible ticks, and an increase of tick resistant phenotypes gradually occurs, as illustrated in Figure 4. As a consequence, the half-life of pesticides in some regions of northern Mexico has been reduced to such a degree that they no longer represent an alternative to control ticks (Figure 2), and the interest of looking for new approaches is currently focused to search for new potentially useful immunogenic vaccine candidates to control resistant tick populations [23].
Theoretical illustration showing the increase of acaricide resistance phenotypes and/or allele frequency levels in a tick population. Some individuals (black) with genetic traits allowing them to survive the acaricide applications can reproduce; if the selection pressure is frequent, they progressively become the preponderant part of the tick population. (Artwork composed by Fernando Rosario & Delia Inés Dominguez 2021).
Acaricide resistance is a genetic condition driven by randomly arise genetic traits that can be inherited to the progeny and spread throughout the population along time, promoted by natural or artificial selective pressure on a toxic environment, contaminated with synthetic or natural acaricides.
Parasitic diseases have become a global problem due to free trade agreements or commercial exchange of goods and services, because the geographical borders between countries have disappeared from the political geography. One of the biggest issues associated with exportation and importation of animals and products, is the free movement of vector and vector borne diseases associated with animal health and food safety [24], as well as the tick genomes, encoding the acaricide resistance traits that will be transferred to the progeny.
Two general mechanisms of acaricide resistance have been described in
Illustration showing the different phases of detoxification mechanisms and the participation of multigenic families of hydrolyzing (Esterases and cytochrome P450), modifying enzymes (GST) or the group of transporter proteins ATP binding Cassette (ABCt) at different levels of the metabolic detoxification process (transformation, conjugation and exportation). (Artwork composed by Fernando Rosario & Delia Inés Dominguez 2021).
However, the most common mechanism in pyrethroid resistant tick populations in the field, is the target site modification, mediated by a substitution occurring on gene sequences as it was demonstrated for the occurrence of a point mutation located at the segment six domine III (S6III) of the sodium channel gene [30], which encodes the substitution of a Phenylalanine by an Isoleucine in Mexican field samples (Figure 6).
Genotype and larval survival percentages obtained by the allele specific PCR and LPT respectively, were plotted in order to show the statistical correlation between the presence of the mutation on the sodium channel gene and the resistance to pyrethroids in samples collected from Yucatán, Mexico (p < 0.05). Tick strains were classified by their phenotype as: Very resistant (strains 1, 2 and 3), intermediate resistance (strains 4, 5 and 6) and very susceptible (7, 8 and 9). Genotypes are represented by blue bars and phenotypes by red bars. (Graph from Dr. R. Rosario-Cruz archives).
Figure 6, show the association between genotypes and phenotypes of nine tick strains that were grouped based on three different phenotypes: very resistant, moderately resistant and susceptible to pyrethroids as measured by the larval packet test (LPT) and later analyzed by the allele specific PCR amplification test in order to identify the three different genotypes (RR, RS and SS) in samples collected from Yucatán, Mexico.
Results demonstrated that PCR test can be used as a molecular tool to detect and predict the appearance of pyrethroid resistance phenotypes, since a resistant allele frequency lower than ten percent, started showing up in the susceptible strains while they were still susceptible as measured by the LPT [30]. According to this results the genotype and phenotype frequency (Figure 3) increases in parallel with the continuous application of acaricides (p < 0.05) (Figure 4).
Up to date, numerous studies have been reported in order to predict the mode of inheritance of pyrethroid resistance in various insects such as mosquitoes (31), the horn fly
There are evidences demonstrating that in
The use of acaricides has been the most important tool against ticks; however, the abuse of chemical control has led to multiple resistance to different classes of commercially available acaricides [36, 37]. Due to recent problems of multiple resistance, different research groups in Mexico and around the world, have focused on finding different alternatives such as plant extracts with acaricide activity [38] and recombinant proteins, potentially useful for vaccine development as an alternative to control tick infestations caused by
Livestock industry in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, is affected by tick infestations, and the economic losses it causes due to the direct effects associated to their blood-sucking habits, such as skin damage and pathogens transmission in tropical and subtropical areas [5, 12, 40]. The producers also have important losses associated with decreased weight gain and low production of milk and meat due to the economical impact on cattle by pathogens causing Babesiosis (
The cattle tick control has been traditionally based on application of acaricide strategies, by dip bath, sprying, pour on or injection, ignoring the consequences of frequent acaricide applications and the biology of the vector. In some states of Mexico, multi-resistance is a constant and current threat, which affects the National livestock production and therefore the economy of producers, since they depend completely on the use of acaricides, but do not have access to technical advice from any public or private office, in order to design a control program to prevent the sudden loss of efficacy of the acaricides used for tick control [43].
The most reliable information on global economic losses, date from the 1980s, these figures estimate that one billion head of cattle are exposed to tick infestations in tropical and subtropical regions of the world and in 1984, economic losses were estimated in eight US billion dollars [44].
Reported data in the literature does not include the loss of human life due to ticks and tick borne diseases, such as the thousands of cases of Lyme disease that occur annually in Europe and North America [45, 46], tick-borne encephalitis cases in Europe [47], and tick-borne rocky spotted fever cases in the United States [48].
In the context of animal health, the most important tick is
Recent experimental trials of an integrated tick management (ITM) program in Mexico, suggest that ITM programs should included the combined use of acaricides with an anti-tick vaccine against
Comparison of 21 days old adult engorged females, collected from vaccinated and unvaccinated cattle under an integrated tick management program in the coastal state of Guerrero, Mexico. (Photo from Dr. R. Rosario-Cruz archives).
These data was used to calculate the reduction of production costs due to the purchase of pesticides but did not include the purchase of antibiotics to control babesiosis and anaplasmosis, for calculation purposes [52]. The cost of chemical tick control in this study was $ 408.3 Mexican pesos per animal, while the combined program was only $ 128 pesos, which mean a reduction of 68.63% for the purchase of ixodicides.
The extrapolation of these data to the national livestock herd estimated in 30 million head of cattle, is equivalent to 12,248.7 million Mexican pesos. The use of a combined control program would reduce these losses from 12,248.7 million of Mexican pesos to 3,843.7, that is a reduction of 68.63% of the losses applied to the Mexican livestock herd [52].
The data published in this paper shows an estimated annual loss of 942 million USA dollars, (considering a current exchange rate of 20 Mexican pesos/US dollar, the equivalent annual losses would be 612 US million Dollar) it is worth mentioning that this and other previously published papers, does not include the loss of animals dead by ticks and tick borne diseases such as Babesiosis and Anaplasmosis, nor the expenses produced by the costs of the medication used to control these tick borne pathogens which can double the annual losses due to tick infestations.
Edward Jenner was the first to scientifically prove in studies carried out in 1796, a method to protect against smallpox, thereby laying the foundations of vaccinology, and although the invention is not directly attributed to him, he is often considered the father of vaccines due to his scientific approach that proved that the “vaccination” method worked, and from then until today, more than 200 years after its discovery, new biotechnological tools have substantially improved not only the application of vaccines, but the way to produce them.
A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides an active acquired immunity to a particular pathogen. The vaccine preparation stimulates the immune system to recognize a foreign threat and thus destroys and remembers it, so that the immune system can easily destroy any of these pathogens when they later invade into the body. The vaccine characteristics can be enhanced by Biotechnology.
Vaccines have been the most significant advance in public health, and its preventive prophylactic treatment has been demonstrated as we mentioned, for over 200 years for bacterial and viral diseases preventing morbidity and mortality in millions of people annually [53]. Vaccine development during the pre-genomic era was based on the use of dead, live or attenuated organism or on the use of subunitarian proteins purified from total extracts from organisms of interest [54].
These subunitarian proteins may contain one or more antigens combined. To develop such vaccines is a critical necessary step, identification of proteins of interest and eliminating others that are not useful. In this particular case, in order to be recognized as protector, an antigen must be able to limit the development or reproduction of the organism, parasite or pest in question in subsequent exposure challenges [55].
The empirical approach to the development of subunit vaccines includes several steps: a) culturing the parasite, microorganism or pest to be controlled, b) the analysis, and identification of its components, c) purification of antigens having immunogenic properties required for product development and d) the subsequent challenge with the infectious agent or parasite against which we want to develop the vaccine, in an appropriate animal model to evaluate the immunogenic characteristics of this technology [56, 57].
This methodology has difficulties inherent in the process of identification and purification of the fractions possessing the optimal antigenic characteristics for vaccine development and the availability of macro or microorganism to be controlled by this biotechnological tool because the vaccine production It is severely limited when the target organism cannot easily grow [58]. There are other drawbacks that have to do also with the biology of the target organism, since in some cases the most abundant proteins are not necessarily immunoprotective, or may be the case that the antigens expressed during in vivo or infestation infection as the case are not the same as those expressed during cultivation in vitro latter may not be the case in ticks [59].
Difficult as it may seems, the hard work has already made great progresses, the number of cloned and analyzed genes are already a big list, and experiments have shown that genes as Bm86, subolesin, ferritin, aquaporin and a growing number of orthologous genes can be used to control ticks. The future in the field of vaccine development is becoming shorter, and the scope of modern technology in the field is increasingly longer. Landing knowledge regarding the tick vaccines development for tick control, is very close to pays off as seen by the growing list of new antigens discovered, although the tick control still represents a challenge for the scientific community.
Ticks and tick-borne pathogens constitute a growing problem for human and animal health worldwide, since, they are considered, the most important vectors of disease-causing pathogens in wild and domestic animals and the second most important vector of pathogens causing diseases in humans, only after the mosquitoes.
Resistance to acaricides impacts directly the economy and the competitiveness of producers, and its presence within the ranches implies the expenses associated to control of ticks and tick borne diseases. Efficient integrated control programs are required to mitigate the direct effects on cattle infested with resistant ticks, and to keep a low prevalence of tick borne diseases.
The use of an integrated tick management program in Mexico, including a combined control strategy (acaricides and tick vaccine), reduced the use of acaricides for tick control by 80% approximately, with a cost–benefit ratio of 3:1, lowering the environmental and food products contamination derived from this activity, reducing the mortality attributed to Babesiosis and Anaplasmosis and contributing to the development of a sustainable, and environmentally friendly livestock production system.
New candidate protective antigens and research on tick vaccine development need to be addressed to establish and design better strategic control programs, since vaccines have demonstrated to be the most effective and an environmentally friendly intervention for the control of tick infestations and tick-borne diseases.
The hard work, difficult as it may seems, has already made great progresses, the future in the field of tick vaccine development is becoming shorter, and very close to pays off as seen by the growing list of new antigens discovered, although the tick control still represents an innovation challenge for the scientific community in Mexico and all over the world.
The authors declare having no relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript.
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Stuchlik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6250.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"207908",title:"Dr.",name:"Ales",middleName:null,surname:"Stuchlik",slug:"ales-stuchlik",fullName:"Ales Stuchlik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6092",title:"Neuroplasticity",subtitle:"Insights of Neural Reorganization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1003fc63680b1c04e9135f3dea18a8c3",slug:"neuroplasticity-insights-of-neural-reorganization",bookSignature:"Victor V. Chaban",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"83427",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Chaban",slug:"victor-chaban",fullName:"Victor Chaban"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5521",title:"Synaptic Plasticity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9eea3c7f926cd466ddd14ab777b663d8",slug:"synaptic-plasticity",bookSignature:"Thomas Heinbockel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"59437",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74318",title:"Music and Brain Plasticity: How Sounds Trigger Neurogenerative Adaptations",slug:"music-and-brain-plasticity-how-sounds-trigger-neurogenerative-adaptations",totalDownloads:2157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"This contribution describes how music can trigger plastic changes in the brain. We elaborate on the concept of neuroplasticity by focussing on three major topics: the ontogenetic scale of musical development, the phenomenon of neuroplasticity as the outcome of interactions with the sounds and a short survey of clinical and therapeutic applications. First, a distinction is made between two scales of description: the larger evolutionary scale (phylogeny) and the scale of individual development (ontogeny). In this sense, listeners are not constrained by a static dispositional machinery, but they can be considered as dynamical systems that are able to adapt themselves in answer to the solicitations of a challenging environment. Second, the neuroplastic changes are considered both from a structural and functional level of adaptation, with a special focus on the recent findings from network science. The neural activity of the medial regions of the brain seems to become more synchronised when listening to music as compared to rest, and these changes become permanent in individuals such as musicians with year-long musical practice. As such, the question is raised as to the clinical and therapeutic applications of music as a trigger for enhancing the functionality of the brain, both in normal and impaired people.",book:{id:"6092",slug:"neuroplasticity-insights-of-neural-reorganization",title:"Neuroplasticity",fullTitle:"Neuroplasticity - Insights of Neural Reorganization"},signatures:"Mark Reybrouck, Peter Vuust and Elvira Brattico",authors:[{id:"196698",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Reybrouck",slug:"mark-reybrouck",fullName:"Mark Reybrouck"},{id:"209976",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvira",middleName:null,surname:"Brattico",slug:"elvira-brattico",fullName:"Elvira Brattico"},{id:"209977",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Vuust",slug:"peter-vuust",fullName:"Peter Vuust"}]},{id:"57827",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71165",title:"A Role for the Longitudinal Axis of the Hippocampus in Multiscale Representations of Large and Complex Spatial Environments and Mnemonic Hierarchies",slug:"a-role-for-the-longitudinal-axis-of-the-hippocampus-in-multiscale-representations-of-large-and-compl",totalDownloads:1442,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The hippocampus is involved in spatial navigation and memory in rodents and humans. Anatomically, the hippocampus extends along a longitudinal axis that shows a combination of graded and specific interconnections with neocortical and subcortical brain areas. Functionally, place cells are found all along the longitudinal axis and exhibit gradients of properties including an increasing dorsal-to-ventral place field size. We propose a view of hippocampal function in which fine-dorsal to coarse-ventral overlapping representations collaborate to form a multi-level representation of spatial and episodic memory that is dominant during navigation in large and complex environments or when encoding complex memories. This view is supported by the fact that the effects of ventral hippocampal damage are generally only found in larger laboratory-scale environments, and by the finding that human virtual navigation studies associate ventral hippocampal involvement with increased environmental complexity. Other mechanisms such as the ability of place cells to exhibit multiple fields and their ability to scale their fields with changes in environment size may be utilized when forming large-scale cognitive maps. Coarse-grained ventral representations may overlap with and provide multi-modal global contexts to finer-grained intermediate and dorsal representations, a mechanism that may support mnemonic hierarchies of autobiographical memory in humans.",book:{id:"6250",slug:"the-hippocampus-plasticity-and-functions",title:"The Hippocampus",fullTitle:"The Hippocampus - Plasticity and Functions"},signatures:"Bruce Harland, Marcos Contreras and Jean-Marc Fellous",authors:[{id:"210681",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruce",middleName:null,surname:"Harland",slug:"bruce-harland",fullName:"Bruce Harland"},{id:"210682",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras",slug:"marco-contreras",fullName:"Marco Contreras"},{id:"210683",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Fellous",slug:"jean-marc-fellous",fullName:"Jean-Marc Fellous"}]},{id:"61465",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76603",title:"The Importance of Distinguishing Allocentric and Egocentric Search Strategies in Rodent Hippocampal-Dependent Spatial Memory Paradigms: Getting More Out of Your Data",slug:"the-importance-of-distinguishing-allocentric-and-egocentric-search-strategies-in-rodent-hippocampal-",totalDownloads:1471,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"While the brain works as a dynamic network, with no brain region solely responsible for any particular function, it is generally accepted that the hippocampus plays a major role in memory. Spatial memory operates through the hippocampus with communication with the prefrontal and parietal cortices. This chapter will focus on two separate reference frames involved in spatial memory, egocentric and allocentric, and outline the differences of these reference frames and associated search strategies with relevance to behavioural neuroscience. The importance of dissociating these search strategies is put forward, and steps researchers can take to do so are suggested. Neurophysiological and clinical differences between these spatial reference frames are outlined to further support the view that distinguishing them would be beneficial.",book:{id:"6250",slug:"the-hippocampus-plasticity-and-functions",title:"The Hippocampus",fullTitle:"The Hippocampus - Plasticity and Functions"},signatures:"Adrienne M. Grech, Jay Patrick Nakamura and Rachel Anne Hill",authors:[{id:"230389",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachel",middleName:null,surname:"Hill",slug:"rachel-hill",fullName:"Rachel Hill"},{id:"230394",title:"Ms.",name:"Adrienne",middleName:null,surname:"Grech",slug:"adrienne-grech",fullName:"Adrienne Grech"},{id:"230395",title:"Mr.",name:"Jay",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",slug:"jay-nakamura",fullName:"Jay Nakamura"}]},{id:"57312",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70854",title:"The Hippocampus as a Neural Link between Negative Affect and Vulnerability for Psychostimulant Relapse",slug:"the-hippocampus-as-a-neural-link-between-negative-affect-and-vulnerability-for-psychostimulant-relap",totalDownloads:1591,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Psychostimulant dependence (including cocaine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine) is a chronic relapsing disorder with significant personal, health, and financial burdens. Attempts at abstinence produce a severe and protracted withdrawal syndrome characterized by stress hypersensitivity that can facilitate drug craving, anxiety, and dysphoria. These negative withdrawal symptoms can induce relapse, maintaining the addiction cycle. The hippocampus mediates cognitive, emotional, and endocrine responses to stressors. The ventral hippocampus is in a pivotal position to regulate the mesoaccumbal dopamine reward system, and interacts with serotonergic and glucocorticoid systems that mediate anxiety and stress responsiveness. Psychostimulant actions on the hippocampus induce long-term changes to these systems and impact the process of adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus, which may facilitate drug dependence by altering drug-cue learning and emotional regulation. Multiple studies indicate that psychostimulant-induced hippocampal neuroadaptations heighten hippocampal-mesoaccumbal activity to amplify drug- and drug-cue responses while persistent dysregulation of hippocampal emotional systems potentiate negative affect. Understanding how psychostimulants modulate the hippocampus to alter hippocampal-mesoaccumbal activity—and how hippocampal neurogenesis influences drug-related memories and reward—is important for identifying novel treatment strategies that can ameliorate negative affect and relapse vulnerability in psychostimulant addiction.",book:{id:"6250",slug:"the-hippocampus-plasticity-and-functions",title:"The Hippocampus",fullTitle:"The Hippocampus - Plasticity and Functions"},signatures:"Jeffrey L. Barr, Brenna Bray and Gina L. Forster",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"219827",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Barr",slug:"jeffrey-barr",fullName:"Jeffrey Barr"},{id:"219828",title:"BSc.",name:"Brenna",middleName:null,surname:"Bray",slug:"brenna-bray",fullName:"Brenna Bray"}]},{id:"54143",doi:"10.5772/67127",title:"Plasticity of Dendritic Spines. Not Only for Cognitive Processes",slug:"plasticity-of-dendritic-spines-not-only-for-cognitive-processes",totalDownloads:1384,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Excitatory synaptic transmission is associated with the input of “new” information at synaptic junctions established by dendritic spines. The role that each type of spine plays in the transmission of the synaptic impulses is different. Indeed, there is a close relationship between the shape of spines and the differential processing of the excitatory synaptic information that is relayed to them, influencing in turn the transmission of synaptic information related to several psychoneural processes.",book:{id:"5521",slug:"synaptic-plasticity",title:"Synaptic Plasticity",fullTitle:"Synaptic Plasticity"},signatures:"Ignacio González-Burgos, Dulce A. Velázquez-Zamora, David\nGonzález-Tapia, Nallely Vázquez-Hernández and Néstor I. Martínez-\nTorres",authors:[{id:"190521",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez-Burgos",slug:"ignacio-gonzalez-burgos",fullName:"Ignacio Gonzalez-Burgos"},{id:"196267",title:"Dr.",name:"Dulce A",middleName:null,surname:"Velázquez-Zamora",slug:"dulce-a-velazquez-zamora",fullName:"Dulce A Velázquez-Zamora"},{id:"196269",title:"MSc.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"González-Tapia",slug:"david-gonzalez-tapia",fullName:"David González-Tapia"},{id:"196270",title:"MSc.",name:"Nallely",middleName:null,surname:"Vázquez-Hernández",slug:"nallely-vazquez-hernandez",fullName:"Nallely Vázquez-Hernández"},{id:"196271",title:"MSc.",name:"Nestor I",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Torres",slug:"nestor-i-martinez-torres",fullName:"Nestor I Martínez-Torres"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58530",title:"Sleep Disorders in Multiple Sclerosis",slug:"sleep-disorders-in-multiple-sclerosis",totalDownloads:1208,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) have multiple causes of poor sleep and potential triggers may relate to MS-related symptoms, co-morbidities and adverse effects from medication. Sleep disorders may occur independently of demographic factors, gender and clinical condition. The real frequency of sleep disturbances in MS and their impact on the patients’ quality of life are unknown. The prevalence of sleep problems in the population with MS ranges between 47 and 62% and is more frequent in women, as well as having a higher risk of mortality. High psychological burden has been associated with poor sleep and with increased risk of co-morbid conditions such as heart disease, obesity, dyslipidemia and diabetes, which may have a profound impact on long-term health. The poor sleeping patients with MS were more likely to report fatigue and sleepiness. Insomnia is present in mood disorders, restless leg syndrome (RLS), pain, nocturia and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), in patients with MS. All the symptoms are intermixed, and it is not possible to discern the precipitating factor or the perpetuating factor. Clinicians should routinely ask about sleep when forming a comprehensive care plan for patients with MS. Sleep specialty referrals should be considered for management of conditions that require polysomnography (PSG) diagnosis.",book:{id:"6092",slug:"neuroplasticity-insights-of-neural-reorganization",title:"Neuroplasticity",fullTitle:"Neuroplasticity - Insights of Neural Reorganization"},signatures:"Montserrat González Platas and María Yaiza Pérez Martin",authors:[{id:"202099",title:"Dr.",name:"Montserrat",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Platas",slug:"montserrat-gonzalez-platas",fullName:"Montserrat Gonzalez Platas"},{id:"231355",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Yaiza",middleName:null,surname:"Perez Martín",slug:"maria-yaiza-perez-martin",fullName:"Maria Yaiza Perez Martín"}]},{id:"53927",title:"GABAergic Synapse Dysfunction and Repair in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy",slug:"gabaergic-synapse-dysfunction-and-repair-in-temporal-lobe-epilepsy",totalDownloads:1668,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Severe medial temporal lobe epilepsy (mTLE) is often associated with pharmacoresistant seizures, impaired memory and mood disorders. In the hippocampus, GABAergic inhibitory interneuron dysfunction and other neural circuit abnormalities contribute to hyperexcitability, but the mechanisms are still not well understood. Experimental approaches aimed at correcting deficits in hippocampal circuits in mTLE include attempts to replace GABAergic interneurons through neural stem cell transplantation. Evidence from studies in rodent mTLE models indicates that transplanted GABAergic progenitor cells integrate into the hippocampus, form inhibitory synapses, reduce seizures and improve cognitive deficits. Here, we review current work in this field and describe potential molecular mechanisms underlying successful transplantation.",book:{id:"5521",slug:"synaptic-plasticity",title:"Synaptic Plasticity",fullTitle:"Synaptic Plasticity"},signatures:"Meghan A. Van Zandt and Janice R. Naegele",authors:[{id:"154904",title:"Prof.",name:"Janice",middleName:null,surname:"Naegele",slug:"janice-naegele",fullName:"Janice Naegele"},{id:"194530",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Meghan",middleName:null,surname:"Van Zandt",slug:"meghan-van-zandt",fullName:"Meghan Van Zandt"}]},{id:"54067",title:"Neuroplasticity in Bipolar Disorder: Insights from Neuroimaging",slug:"neuroplasticity-in-bipolar-disorder-insights-from-neuroimaging",totalDownloads:1630,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Background: Advances in neuroimaging techniques have produced evidence about disrupted frontolimbic circuits related to emotional regulation. These neuroimaging studies may suggest impairments in cellular plasticity in bipolar disorder (BD) patients. However, the long-term use of mood stabilizers may restore these dysfunctions by neurotrophic effects",book:{id:"5521",slug:"synaptic-plasticity",title:"Synaptic Plasticity",fullTitle:"Synaptic Plasticity"},signatures:"Marlos Vasconcelos Rocha, Fabiana Nery, Amanda Galvão-de-\nAlmeida, Lucas de Castro Quarantini and Ângela Miranda-Scippa",authors:[{id:"192139",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marlos",middleName:"Vasconcelos",surname:"Rocha",slug:"marlos-rocha",fullName:"Marlos Rocha"},{id:"192876",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabiana",middleName:null,surname:"Nery-Fernandes",slug:"fabiana-nery-fernandes",fullName:"Fabiana Nery-Fernandes"},{id:"192877",title:"Prof.",name:"Ângela",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Scippa",slug:"angela-miranda-scippa",fullName:"Ângela Miranda-Scippa"},{id:"192878",title:"Prof.",name:"Lucas",middleName:null,surname:"De Castro Quarantini",slug:"lucas-de-castro-quarantini",fullName:"Lucas De Castro Quarantini"},{id:"192879",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Ladeia-Rocha",slug:"giovanna-ladeia-rocha",fullName:"Giovanna Ladeia-Rocha"},{id:"192880",title:"Prof.",name:"Amanda",middleName:null,surname:"Galvão-de Almeida",slug:"amanda-galvao-de-almeida",fullName:"Amanda Galvão-de Almeida"}]},{id:"59437",title:"Music and Brain Plasticity: How Sounds Trigger Neurogenerative Adaptations",slug:"music-and-brain-plasticity-how-sounds-trigger-neurogenerative-adaptations",totalDownloads:2155,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"This contribution describes how music can trigger plastic changes in the brain. We elaborate on the concept of neuroplasticity by focussing on three major topics: the ontogenetic scale of musical development, the phenomenon of neuroplasticity as the outcome of interactions with the sounds and a short survey of clinical and therapeutic applications. First, a distinction is made between two scales of description: the larger evolutionary scale (phylogeny) and the scale of individual development (ontogeny). In this sense, listeners are not constrained by a static dispositional machinery, but they can be considered as dynamical systems that are able to adapt themselves in answer to the solicitations of a challenging environment. Second, the neuroplastic changes are considered both from a structural and functional level of adaptation, with a special focus on the recent findings from network science. The neural activity of the medial regions of the brain seems to become more synchronised when listening to music as compared to rest, and these changes become permanent in individuals such as musicians with year-long musical practice. As such, the question is raised as to the clinical and therapeutic applications of music as a trigger for enhancing the functionality of the brain, both in normal and impaired people.",book:{id:"6092",slug:"neuroplasticity-insights-of-neural-reorganization",title:"Neuroplasticity",fullTitle:"Neuroplasticity - Insights of Neural Reorganization"},signatures:"Mark Reybrouck, Peter Vuust and Elvira Brattico",authors:[{id:"196698",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Reybrouck",slug:"mark-reybrouck",fullName:"Mark Reybrouck"},{id:"209976",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvira",middleName:null,surname:"Brattico",slug:"elvira-brattico",fullName:"Elvira Brattico"},{id:"209977",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Vuust",slug:"peter-vuust",fullName:"Peter Vuust"}]},{id:"54566",title:"Introductory Chapter: Mechanisms and Function of Synaptic Plasticity",slug:"introductory-chapter-mechanisms-and-function-of-synaptic-plasticity",totalDownloads:2244,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"5521",slug:"synaptic-plasticity",title:"Synaptic Plasticity",fullTitle:"Synaptic Plasticity"},signatures:"Thomas Heinbockel",authors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1175",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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