\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6856",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Gold Nanoparticles - Reaching New Heights",title:"Gold Nanoparticles",subtitle:"Reaching New Heights",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Gold Nanoparticles - Reaching New Heights contains recent research on the preparation, characterization, fabrication, and potential of optical and biological applications of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). It is promising novel research that has received a lot of interest over the last few decades. It covers advanced topics on optical, physical, medicinal, and biological applications of AuNPs. Development of green nanotechnology is generating the interest of researchers towards the synthesis of eco-friendly, safe, non-toxic applications, which can be used for manufacture at a large scale. These are simple, cost-effective, stable, enduring, and reproducible aqueous room temperature synthesis applications to obtain the self-assembly of AuNPs. This potentially unique work offers various approaches to R&D with AuNP materials in aqueous or non-aqueous phases through fully modified or unmodified states as hybrids. Nanotechnology and nanoscience can regulate substances at the nanoscale, and nanodimension substances of a few nanometers allow us to control the novel practical applications of AuNPs. This book presents an overview of current AuNP fundamental and substantial applications and research worldwide, which investigates the techniques of AuNP preparation, various types of characterization, and possible applications related to AuNP research. It is an important book for research organizations, government research centers, academic libraries, and R&D groups interested in recent research and development of AuNPs.",isbn:"978-1-78984-957-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-998-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-999-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73366",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"gold-nanoparticles-reaching-new-heights",numberOfPages:170,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"23e172496e46e18712a901308d074cfb",bookSignature:"Mohammed Rahman and Abdullah Mohammed Asiri",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6856.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7894,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:28,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:46,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 13th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 7th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 6th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 24th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24438/images/system/24438.jpg",biography:"Prof. Mohammed Muzibur Rahman received his BSc and MSc from Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh, in 1999 and 2001, respectively. He received his Ph.D. from Chonbuk National University, South Korea, in 2007. He worked as a postdoctoral fellow and assistant professor in pioneering research centers and universities located in South Korea, Japan, and Saudi Arabia. Presently, he is an associate professor at the Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR) and Chemistry Department, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He has published more than 245 international and domestic conferences and several book chapters. He has also edited ten books. His research interests include photocatalysis, semiconductors, nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, nanotechnology, electrocatalysis, sensors, ionic liquids, surface chemistry, electrochemistry, and nanomaterials.",institutionString:"King Abdulaziz University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"11",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"198266",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah Mohammed",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Asiri",slug:"abdullah-mohammed-asiri",fullName:"Abdullah Mohammed Asiri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198266/images/system/198266.png",biography:"Prof. Abdullah Mohammed Ahmed Asiri is a professor and chairman of the Chemistry Department, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He is also the director of the university’s Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR). He obtained a Ph.D. in tribochromic compounds and their applications from the University of Wales College, Cardiff, UK, in 1995. He is the director of the Education Affair Unit–Deanship of Community Services. Dr. Asiri is a member of the advisory committee for advancing materials, National Technology Plan, King Abdul Aziz City of Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. He is an editorial board member of the Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, Journal of King Abdul Aziz University, Pigment and Resin Technology Journal, Organic Chemistry Insights, Libertas Academica, and Recent Patents on Materials Science. Dr. Asiri holds membership in several national and international societies and professional bodies.",institutionString:"King Abdulaziz University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"208",title:"Material Science",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science"}],chapters:[{id:"64168",title:"Introductory Chapter: Basic Concept of Gold Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81781",slug:"introductory-chapter-basic-concept-of-gold-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:916,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman and Abdullah Mohamed Asiri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64168",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64168",authors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],corrections:null},{id:"63055",title:"Red or Blue? Gold Nanoparticles in Colorimetric Sensing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80052",slug:"red-or-blue-gold-nanoparticles-in-colorimetric-sensing",totalDownloads:1373,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been extensively used for the design of colorimetric sensors and probes due to their interesting photophysical properties. In particular, their surface plasmon resonance (SPR) is influenced not only by the size but also by the shape or the properties of the matrix surrounding the nanoparticles. This SPR band is sensitive to the proximity of other nanoparticles, and thus, analyte-triggered aggregation of AuNPs results in an important bathochromic shift of the SPR band and a change in the color of the solution from red to blue due to interparticle surface plasmon coupling. The selectivity of the AuNPs-based sensors toward the different analytes will depend on the recognition properties of the molecules attached to the surface of the nanoparticles. In this chapter, a selection of biologically active molecules has been considered as analytes: neurotransmitters, nerve agents, pesticides, and carboxylates of biological interest.",signatures:"Pablo Gaviña, Margarita Parra, Salvador Gil and Ana M. Costero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63055",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63055",authors:[{id:"251856",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana M.",surname:"Costero",slug:"ana-m.-costero",fullName:"Ana M. Costero"},{id:"257272",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Gavina",slug:"pablo-gavina",fullName:"Pablo Gavina"},{id:"257277",title:"Prof.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Parra",slug:"margarita-parra",fullName:"Margarita Parra"},{id:"257278",title:"Prof.",name:"Salvador",surname:"Gil",slug:"salvador-gil",fullName:"Salvador Gil"}],corrections:null},{id:"64175",title:"Silica-Supported Gold Nanocatalyst for CO Oxidation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80620",slug:"silica-supported-gold-nanocatalyst-for-co-oxidation",totalDownloads:948,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Even though gold is inert in its bulk practice, greatly disseminated gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) with dimensions less than 5 nm have been found to be active for a number of oxygen transfer reactions, particularly for low-temperature CO oxidation. The catalytic activity not only be subject to the particle size of Au but also on the nature of the support and the synthesis method of the catalyst. These factors are frequently inter-related such that their separate contributions cannot be easily unraveled. Also, the activity of a supported Au catalyst is ruled by a complex combination of contributions of the particle morphology, metal dispersion, and electronic properties of the gold. Higher catalytic activity is being observed for Au NPs supported on reducible metal oxides such as TiO2, Co3O4, CeO2, and Fe2O3. However, silica is an inert, inexpensive, and convenient support that can be shaped into a host of attractive and varied morphologies. In this chapter, the study of CO oxidation catalyzed by mono- and bimetallic Au NPs over various silica supports is discussed in detail.",signatures:"Ziyauddin S. Qureshi and EA Jaseer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64175",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64175",authors:[{id:"250147",title:"Dr.",name:"Ziyauddin",surname:"Qureshi",slug:"ziyauddin-qureshi",fullName:"Ziyauddin Qureshi"},{id:"266762",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaseer",surname:"E.A.",slug:"jaseer-e.a.",fullName:"Jaseer E.A."}],corrections:null},{id:"63303",title:"Evolution of Gold Nanoparticles in Radiation Environments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80366",slug:"evolution-of-gold-nanoparticles-in-radiation-environments",totalDownloads:1088,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gold nanoparticles are being explored for several applications in radiation environments, including uses in cancer radiotherapy treatments and advanced satellite or detector applications. In these applications, nanoparticle interactions with energetic neutrons, photons, and charged particles can cause structural damage ranging from single atom displacement events to bulk morphological changes. Due to the diminutive length scales and prodigious surface-to-volume ratios of gold nanoparticles, radiation damage effects are typically dominated by sputtering and surface interactions and can vary drastically from bulk behavior and classical models. Here, we report on contemporary experimental and computational modeling efforts that have contributed to the current understanding of how ionizing radiation environments affect the structure and properties of gold nanoparticles. The future potential for elucidating the active mechanisms in gold nanoparticles exposed to ionizing radiation and the subsequent ability to predictively model the radiation stability and ion beam modification parameters will be discussed.",signatures:"Samuel A. Briggs and Khalid Hattar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63303",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63303",authors:[{id:"259214",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",surname:"Briggs",slug:"samuel-briggs",fullName:"Samuel Briggs"},{id:"259754",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",surname:"Hattar",slug:"khalid-hattar",fullName:"Khalid Hattar"}],corrections:null},{id:"64789",title:"Detoxification of Carcinogenic Dyes by Noble Metal (Ag, Au, Pt) Impregnated Titania Photocatalysts",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80467",slug:"detoxification-of-carcinogenic-dyes-by-noble-metal-ag-au-pt-impregnated-titania-photocatalysts",totalDownloads:1098,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Textile industries produce large quantities of waste water which is notoriously known to contain strong colour, suspended solids and COD. Although several treatment processes, such as filtration, coagulation, oxidation, ozonation, reverse osmosis, etc., have been practiced for many decades, they all have inherent limitations. They transfer the harmful pollutants from one phase to another and do not address detoxification. Semiconductor photocatalysis is a promising technique for photodegradation of hazardous chemicals found in waste waters. Among various semiconductors, TiO2 has been studied widely. However, the main drawbacks associated with TiO2 are (i) large band gap (Eg > 3.2 eV) (only UV active) and (ii) recombination of excitons. Dye sensitisation, coupling of semiconductors, and transitional metal doping are some of the methods reported to shift its optical response to visible region. Herein, nanoparticles of different noble metals such as Ag, Au and Pt were deposited on synthesised TiO2, characterized by XRD, TEM, FT-IR, BET, UV-Vis and AAS and were subjected to the degradation of some textile dyes namely Tartrazine (TAZ), Reactive Yellow-17 (RY-17) and Reactive Black-5 (RB-5) under both UV and visible irradiations. The reaction conditions such as catalyst concentration, dye concentration, pH, irradiation time, light intensity, and additives were optimized for complete decolourisation and discussed.",signatures:"Sivakumar Thiripuranthagan and Valentine Rupa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64789",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64789",authors:[{id:"256776",title:"Dr.",name:"Sivakumar",surname:"Thiripuranthagan",slug:"sivakumar-thiripuranthagan",fullName:"Sivakumar Thiripuranthagan"}],corrections:null},{id:"64073",title:"Selective Mono-Hydrogenation of Polyunsaturated Hydrocarbons: Traditional and Nanoscale Catalysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81637",slug:"selective-mono-hydrogenation-of-polyunsaturated-hydrocarbons-traditional-and-nanoscale-catalysis",totalDownloads:1229,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Selective hydrogenation of olefins is an important process in both chemical and pharmaceutical industries. This chapter reviews intriguing catalytic studies accomplished by employing a variety of catalysts such as metal complexes, supported materials, supported metal complexes, and nanosized materials for polyene hydrogenation. In addition, new research area involving unsupported colloidal nanoparticle catalysts, which exhibit an excellent activity and selectivity toward the polyene hydrogenation is introduced. The high activity of colloidal metal nanoparticle catalysts often allows the reactions to be completed under mild conditions, at atmospheric pressure, and room temperature. These colloidal nanoparticle catalysts also offer an advantage of facile separation and multiple recycling without significant losses in activity and selectivity. This chapter provides important fundamental understandings on the influence of chemical environments (solvents, ligands, dopants, etc.) and compositions (metal complex, metals, alloys, etc.) toward the catalytic activity and selectivity of various catalysts in homogeneous, heterogeneous, and semi-heterogeneous conditions. The systematic evaluation discussed in this chapter would pave a way to further develop chemo-, regio-, and stereo-selective catalysts for polyene hydrogenation.",signatures:"Ting-An Chen and Young-Seok Shon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64073",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64073",authors:[{id:"259951",title:"Dr.",name:"Young-Seok",surname:"Shon",slug:"young-seok-shon",fullName:"Young-Seok Shon"},{id:"259953",title:"MSc.",name:"Ting-An",surname:"Chen",slug:"ting-an-chen",fullName:"Ting-An Chen"}],corrections:null},{id:"64686",title:"Tailoring the Kinetic Behavior of Hydride Forming Materials for Hydrogen Storage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82433",slug:"tailoring-the-kinetic-behavior-of-hydride-forming-materials-for-hydrogen-storage",totalDownloads:1244,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hydride forming materials, i.e., binary, complex hydrides, and their mixtures, have been extensively investigated owing to their potential hydrogen storage properties. They possess high volumetric hydrogen capacity and relative high gravimetric hydrogen capacity. However, one of the main constraints for their practical application is their slow kinetic behavior. For this reason, enormous effort has been devoted to improve the hydrogenation and dehydrogenation rates. Several strategies have been developed for the enhancement of the kinetic behavior of the most relevant hydride forming materials such as MgH2, MBH4 (M = Li, Ca, Mg, Na, K), MNH2 (M = Li and Mg), MBH4 + ‘MH2 (M = Li, Ca, Mg; ‘M = Li, Mg, Ca), and MNH2 + ‘MH2 (M = Li, Mg; ‘M = Li). Tuning the kinetic behavior of these hydride forming materials involves different approaches and their combinations. The most relevant approaches are: (1) improving the microstructural refinement via mechanical milling, (2) doping with transition metal and transition metal compounds, (3) forming in situ catalyst, and (4) nanoconfining doped hydride forming materials. Herein, basic concepts about the chemical reaction for the hydride compound formation/decomposition, thermodynamics, kinetics, and applied strategies to enhance the kinetic behavior of hydride compounds and systems are comprehensively described and discussed.",signatures:"Julián Atilio Puszkiel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64686",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64686",authors:[{id:"262065",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Julián",surname:"Puszkiel",slug:"julian-puszkiel",fullName:"Julián Puszkiel"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6218",title:"Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9f38af20209e9d816b7d57ecbba386b9",slug:"carbon-nanotubes-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman and Abdullah Mohamed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6218.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"861",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f32b97a9aa541939cb212373d471d477",slug:"nanomaterials",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/861.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5403",title:"Advances in Colloid Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"38413a6aefb978b024eac803fba6c354",slug:"advances-in-colloid-science",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman and Abdullah Mohamed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5403.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7230",title:"Recent Advances in Ionic Liquids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cebbba5d7b2b6c41fafebde32f87f90b",slug:"recent-advances-in-ionic-liquids",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7230.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5308",title:"Nanofiber Research",subtitle:"Reaching New Heights",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e5d2ad58b1840ec81e587914d52f5e0b",slug:"nanofiber-research-reaching-new-heights",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman and Abdullah M. 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Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. 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Amongst numerous materials containing organic and inorganic, nanotubes show versatile properties due to promising candidates such like carbon nanotubes, contributing a great part in potential applications relevant to disciplinary medicinal chemistry [1, 2]. Foundation of fullerenes [3] was extracted from carbon nanotubes (CNTs) that explore fabrication on a macroscopic level, thereby exhibiting continuous evolution [4]. The cylindrical shape of CNT is caused by rolling up of graphitic sheets; length is measured in micrometer scale while maximum diameter is taken as 100 nm. CNT also appears in bundle shape to form prominently complex nature structure [5]. Hexagon rings are in arranged form on which metallic nature or semiconducting behavior of CNT is evaluated. CNT belongs to the properties towards robust applications like fillers; bio-sensors are amongst nanotechnological pillars in exciting fields [6, 7]. However, some limitations such as insolubility and non-manipulation in solvents play role for creating hindrance to CNT use as solute in organic solvents as well as aqueous media. Dispersion of CNT may be carried out through sonication; however, precipitation is also occurred caused by the interruption of the process followed by the mechanism. Moreover, numerous studies also showed that CNT might react with a variety of chemical compounds [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
Innovative nanodevices are greatly desired in research work and it may be met only by CNT best fabricating processing that is obtained by the synthesis of complex nature composites [18, 19, 20]. Furthermore, CNTs become highly reliable when chemical reactions are carried out to incorporate them in soluble activities into different systems such as organic or inorganic and biological accordingly. Thus, CNTs solubility approach in chemical reactions opens new routes for introducing promising materials [21, 22]. Unidirectional CNT structures may be prepared by modified approaches and their structural study is done by following group study containing three categories, first is that various chemical groups are incorporated on the surface of CNTs via covalent bonding, secondly non-covalent wrapping of functional groups and thirdly endohedral fulfillment of cavity. Many citations in this study have been appreciated due to which it is rapidly increasing by worth in literature, while this review presents a limited approach providing useful information in all citations followed in this study [23, 24, 25, 26]. It has been systematically studied that CNTs may be prepared by employing synthesis methods containing arc discharge approach or chemical-vapor-deposition and laser-ablation technique [27, 28].
In arc discharge approach temperature is kept greater than 3000°C. This temperature is indispensable to evaporate carbon atoms to form a plasma state, in this way CNTs are shaped as single-walled as well as multi-walled structures. In this process, catalytic agent may or may not be involved during the formation of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). However, inclusion of catalytic agent is mandatory to create individual single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs). The catalytic agents like Cobalt, Nickel, and Iron may be used as mandatory steps to complete the reactions reasonably [29, 30, 31, 32]. In chemical-vapor-deposition (CVD) approach methane, ethylene, etc. are incorporated as hydrocarbon sources necessary to carry out reactions successfully. As far as laser-ablation approach is concerned, evaporation process of graphite occurs in a furnace at a temperature of 1200°C. Moreover, graphite appears as dominant material to produce species with converting ratio at maximum level. Moreover, biomaterial targets are achieved depending on degree of purity level, that is why macroscopic approach is carried out for the improved quality of carbon materials owing to achieve some characteristics like length and alignment [33]. It has been reported that MWCNTs were collected first time by Iijima (by employing arc-discharge approach), and this approach is too old that was adopted for carbon fibers synthesis [34, 35]. Subsequently, an in-situ emulsion of polymerization was presented by Khan et al. [36] in 2016 to synthesize carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in the form of composites, which was completed by employing a colloidal system to fabricate nanostructured brush.
Nanotubes may be categorized into SWCNTs as well as MWCNTs (see Figure 1). A comparison between both SWCNT and MWCNT is demonstrated in Table 1 [38, 41].
Molecular representations of SWCNT (top left) and MWCNT (top right) with typical transmission electron micrographs below [
SWCNT | MWCNT |
---|---|
Single-layer of graphene. | Multiple layers of graphene |
Catalyst is required for synthesis. | Can be produced without catalyst. |
Bulk synthesis is difficult as it requires proper control over growth and atmospheric condition. | Bulk synthesis is easy. |
Not fully dispersed, and form bundled bundled formation. | Homogeneously dispersed with no apparent structures. |
Resistivity usually in the range of 10−4 – 10−3 Ω.m | Resistivity usually in the range of 1.8 × 10−5 – 6.1 |
Purity is poor. Typical SWCNT content in as-prepared samples by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method is about 30–50 wt%. However high purity up to 80% has been reported by using arc discharge synthesis method. | Purity is high. Typical MWCNT content in as-prepared samples by CVD method is about 35–90 wt%. |
A chance of defect is more during functionalization. | A chance of defect is less especially when synthesized by an arc-discharged method. |
Characterization and evaluation are easy. | It has a very complex structure |
It can be easily twisted and are more pliable. | It cannot be easily twisted. |
SWCNT comprised of carbon atoms from graphene sheet containing benzene rings in hexagonal shape as illustrated in Figure 2a. Cylindrical graphene sheets comprising honeycomb lattice are visualized in single-atomic graphitic-layer of crystalline nature, while MWCNT is in stacked form of graphene sheets that are rolled up into cylinders having same centers. The composition of nanotube molecules contains a million atoms having length of tens micrometers and diameters are comparable with 0.7 nm value [41]. SWCNTs containing 10 atoms often lie along the circumference of tube-like structure with one-atom-thick thickness. A length to diameter ratio of carbon nanotubes is measured about 1000 (large aspect ratio), giving rise to be considered as unidirectional structures [43]. MWCNTs structure is formed by various single-walled tubes that are stacked in concentric cylinders inside each other. The MWCNTs are identified as nanostructures showing the outer diameter is (15 nm or less) while structures having a diameter more than 15 nm are considered as nanofibers, not nanotubes. CNTs are different from carbon-fibers owing to not a single (molecule) yet strand layers sheets of graphitic nature [43, 44, 45, 46].
(a) Unrolled single-layer graphene sheet showing the geometry of the SWCNT, (b-d) Examples of the three types of nanotube sidewall; zigzag, armchair, and chiral (A color version of this figure can be viewed online) [
Depending upon the two aforesaid basic structures, carbon nanotubes may be categorized into three varieties as an armchair, zigzag, and chiral carbon nanotubes. The structure of a variety of carbon nanotubes depends on the formation of rolled up graphitic cylinders during synthesis process. The main focus is selection of rolling-axis relative to hexagonal graphitic network of sheets as well as radius of closing cylindrical network of nanotubes that are raised in various types of SWCNTs. In this structure, chiral vector contains 𝑛 and 𝑚 indices corresponding to two unit vectors directing along two-axis in graphene crystal lattice structure. In case of m = 0 zigzag-type nanotube, but when n = m the armchair nanotube is obtained while other configurations are attributed to chiral type nanotubes accordingly. In addition, SWCNTs with armchair structure, zigzag, and chiral structures have been illustrated in Figure 2b–d. Moreover, a further detailed structure may be visualized in literature reviews [7, 43, 47, 48].
Mechanical properties may drastically be raised, caused by the electrostatic forces between sp2 carbon–carbon-bonds. Previously no material has been yet found to display the collective mechanical, electronic, and thermal properties up till now. Densities of materials have been observed below 1.3 g/cm3 value (one-sixth stainless steel). Young’s moduli measured material stiffness that was greater than 1 TPa and is considered approximately 5x higher than that of stainless steel [49, 50]. However, uniqueness of materials still depends upon strength that makes them apart from others. Furthermore, carbon nanotubes are those materials that showed the strongest stiffness in the history of mankind. The tensile strength of carbon nanotubes measured so far is up to 63 GPa that is considered about 50 times greater than that of stainless steel [51]. However, carbon nanotubes that are identified as the weakest one show only several GPa strength [52]. As far as chemical, environmental stability, thermal conductivity etc. are compared to diamond. Owing to such attractive properties along with lightness of carbon nanotubes opens new routes towards variety of applications particularly in the field of aerospace [40, 53, 54, 55].
Carbon nanotubes highly exhibit electronic properties as compared to other materials. On comparing with copper carbon nanotubes show an extraordinary electrical conductivity. The most notable fact here is metallic as well as semiconducting nature of carbon nanotubes. The rolled-up structure comes forward to break up symmetric shape of the planar system. In this way, different directions are observed attributing to hexagonal lattice of carbon material and also axial direction is disturbed. Axial direction and unit vectors describe hexagonal lattice, therefore, depending on electrical properties carbon nanotubes may have nature of metal or semiconducting material. Amongst other nanotubes, semiconducting nanotubes may have band gap inversely with diameter. Band gap range was found between (1.8–0.18 eV) relative to small diameter tubes as well as very wide SWCNT respectively [56, 57]. Consequently, various nanotubes may belong to higher conductivity as compared to copper metal, while some others relative to silicon have a more conducting nature. There is a still promising interest in fabrication of nanoscale electronic devices by active use of nanotubes. Various areas of technology need carbon nanotubes to prepare advanced materials. Thus carbon nanotubes are already frequently used in those areas of research. Some outcomes of nanotubes are flat-panel displays, fuel cells, scanning probe microscopes, and sensing fabricated devices [58].
Electronic properties owing to SWNTs have been theoretically studied in early decades. SWNTs may be predicted metallic or semiconductors based on parameters that are followed in structure formation of the nanotubes [35]. As far as metallic and semiconducting nature of nanotubes is concerned, one third belongs to metallic whereas two-third relates to semiconducting nanotubes concerning selected indices (n, m). The aforesaid model is identified as π tight-binding model related to zone-folding scheme. Tight-binding data is based on (σ and π) bands that produce the curvature of σ and π bands. This bending behavior indicates a very small gap lying between metallic and semiconducting nanotubes [59, 60].
Electrical properties of carbon nanotubes show electrical transport impact that becomes an interesting area of various possible applications attributing to fabricate electronic devices at nanoscale basis. Nanotubes are classified as one-dimensional conductor owing to which attractive microscopic phenomena are observed at low temperatures. Phenomena are likewise single-electron charging, superconductivity, and resonant tunneling. On the other hand, high temperature based tunneling conductance expresses power-law suppression that is evaluated as a function of (temperature and bias voltage) consistent with one-dimensional Luttinger liquid. Scattering mechanism is raised by optical or zone-boundary-phonons in metal-like nanotubes. Scattering along with coherent-backscattering phenomena has resulted in the form of low-temperature phenomena. Probe measurements were two-type as well as four-type in transport experiments performed with respect to MWNTs [61], isolated SWNTs, and SWNT bundles respectively [62, 63].
Initially, electrical resistance was measured towards unique MWNT below T = 20 mK, Langer et al. determined [61], whereas magnetic field shows a logarithmic conductance trend at declining temperature whereas saturation level was identified at the temperature below T ~ 0.3 K. However, when magnetic field impact was measured and found perpendicular towards tube axis, at that time magneto-resistance measurements were also observed. Furthermore, temperature effect on conductance in magnetic field was also observed that was found inconsistent with two-dimensional weak-localization.
Atomic-vibrations into carbon nanotubes were successfully evaluated by employing force-constant models (zone-folding-approximation) [64], also for concrete structure of nanotubes [65], ranging (tight-binding-models) [66, 67, 68, 69] and finally, ab-initio models were also observed [70]. To measure vibrational eigenfrequencies, experiments were performed by using light resonant Raman scattering in case of laser-light-energy when energy measurements are very close to available electronic transitions. Resonance limitations are entirely different for all types of nanotubes; therefore Raman spectroscopy presents results to display various nanotubes structures that exist in the nanotube specimen. Currently, Raman spectroscopy measured parallel polarized light relevant to MWNTs [71], SWNTs [72, 73] and cross-polarized-light on isolated SWNTs [74].
Phonons were used to measure specific heat as well as thermal conductivity of carbon nanotube systems. When temperature was kept low enough, acoustic phonons were observed indicating dominant role of phonon contribution in the nanotube systems. Linear specific heat measurements and thermal conductivity yield at or above 1 K but below room-temperature [75, 76], whereas 0.62 T specific heat identifies temperature at or below 1 K [77]. Linear temperature was evaluated depending on linear k-vector and modes of vibration of acoustic phonons such as longitudinal and twist like vibrations [78]. Transverse acoustic phonons are relative to specific heat exhibits dependence behavior attributing to specific heat at or below 1 K along with quadratic k-vector trend [79]. Thermoelectric measurement power (TEMP) for nanotube systems presents active and direct information about carrier types along with conductivity mechanisms [80, 81, 82, 83].
High-quality carbon nanotubes are considered to be superior quality materials and proved to be main pillar towards promising and versatile applications, various synthesis routes are employed to achieve feasible application of CNTs as described in Figure 3. Superior quality indicates that density of structural defects is significantly less over length scale between 1 to 10 microns along tube-axes. Carbon nanotubes synthesis is rapidly increasing in research field but still, challenges are prevailing. Those challenges are required to resolve with respect to synthesis of CNT. The main challenges are of four types regarding nanotube synthesis [84]. First is mass-production scale, containing low-cost based synthesis with large-scale synthetic routes to produce high-quality SWCNTs nanotubes. Second is a selective production scale that raises control over structural defects and changes electronic properties relevant to produced nanotubes. Third is Organization level regarding control over location along with specific orientation towards produced nanotubes on specific substrate. Fourth is mechanism level that presents all procedures followed during growth of nanotubes in synthetic processes. But growth mechanism is considered still controversial because alternative mechanisms may be employed during fabrication of CNTs [27, 85, 86].
Currently used methods for CNTs synthesis [
Different techniques have been systematically employed to develop and produce SWNTs as well as MWNTs showing various structural and morphological characters in laboratory quantities. Methods commonly followed are three in number to synthesize CNTs, first is arc discharge [87, 88], second is laser ablation [66, 89] and third is chemical vapor deposition [67, 68, 69, 90, 91]. Catalysts are considered basic elements that are selected as source of carbon towards nanotubes formation, having sufficient energy. A significant feature of all methods followed for CNTs fabrication is to enhance energy for carbon source producing fragments of carbon atoms that may recombine to yield SWNTs or MWNTs. The main goal is source of energy that is electricity and heat from an arc discharge and CVD respectively or high-intensity-light for laser ablation.
Amongst various methods that were allowed regarding SWNTs synthesis, arc-discharge or laser-ablation methods contributed relatively on large-scale basis (Figure 4). Subsequently, carbons atoms in a gaseous state are condensed caused by evaporation process of solid-state carbon atoms [92]. While growing single-wall-nanotubes (SWCNTs) in arc-discharge system, metallic catalyst is mandatorily required to incorporate for speed-up desired chemical reactions [93]. On the other hand, superior-quality (SWCNTs) are successfully fabricated (1–10 g scale) by using a laser oven approach [94]. Besides aforementioned method wave, CO2-laser system was also employed regarding industrial-scale production of SWCNTs [95]. However, costly equipment as well as high energy consumption requirement makes them unfavorable approaches towards production of nanotube materials. Through employing arc ablation or laser methods only powder type specimens of carbon materials into bundle-shape form are controllably produced. The most common characteristic relevant to arc-discharge and laser-ablation approaches indicates higher energy need to induce carbon atoms to rearrange forming CNTs. Favorable temperature is prominently 3000 ∘C (or higher value) that is considered more beneficial for fine crystallization growth of CNTs at this level since products are obtained with attractive graphite-alignment. Moreover basic needs of the systems such as vacuum-conditions, repeated graphite-target substitution create barriers towards production of CNTs on an industrial scale [96].
Schematic diagram showing the Arc discharge method [
CVD approach presents carbon compounds decomposition in gaseous state where metallic nanoparticles are used as catalysts resulting in nucleation sites available for initial growth of carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Main drawback found in previous both methods was lack of large-scale fabrication of carbon materials, but CVD approach has presented preferred route towards carbon nanotubes production at large scale [97, 98, 99]. In this work, carbon is extracted from hydrocarbon source or some other carbon generating source. These chemical reactions are only successfully performed by using catalysts at or below 1200 ∘C temperature. Resultantly, CNT structure involved parameters like wall number, length, alignment, and diameter that have proven controllable CVD process. In addition, CVD approach has greater scope and advantages over other methods showing mild operation with low cost and selective process. The previous twelve years period describe that various approaches have presented promising industrial-scale synthesis of carbon nanotubes. All approaches indicate that CVD methods are main pillars of large scale production of nanotubes. Among various methods, main approaches are five in numbers that have proven to be successful large-scale yield [100].
Methane(CH4) chemical vapor deposition (CVD) approach has been reported in 1998 showing bulky synthesis of SWCNTs by employing CVD method directly from CH4 at temperature level (900 ∘C) [101, 102]. But Su
High-Pressure carbon monooxide (HPCO) approach presented catalytic-decomposition of CO through CO (a carbon source) at high pressure towards SWCNTs fabrication [104]. Aforesaid catalysts were used in decomposition process in the form of a gas phase state collected from organometallic-catalyst that was used as a precursor.
In CO-CVD approach CO gas plays role to feed gas. On comparing with previously prepared samples with same methane catalyst, amorphous carbon rate was drastically reduced. In addition, the use of Co-Mo catalyst was considered an additional advancement in previously employed CO-CVD approach [105]. This approach incorporates Co/Mo bimetallic catalyst along with fluidized CVD-reactor during production of SWCNTs at large scale. The main benefit that arises from controllable use of fluidized CVD reactors was that they stop continuous addition as well as removal of solid-like particles during operation without stopping reactor work.
Alcoholic CVD approach has been presented by Maruyama
Currently Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) approach has been used widely towards fabrication of MWCNTs and SWCNTs carboneous compounds [107, 108, 109]. Moreover reactive species present in plasma-system may seriously affect growth of carbon nanotubes with small diameter, thereby creating implications for diameter control along with selective etching attributing to metallic SWCNTs growth.
Both laser ablation and arc discharge approaches have the same principles with similar mechanisms. However, they are not similar with respect to energy sources that are adopted to complete reactions. A laser is main source of desired energy for laser ablation method and Figure 5 is showing schematic experimental setup. The schematic structure contains quartz tube with graphitic block. Graphite block is heated at 1200°C temperature by using high-power-laser whereas metal particles are incorporated catalysts [110]. Argon gas is controllably used in stream form during reaction process. Graphite lying in quartz is systematically vaporized by functioning of laser. Argon present in chamber removes vapors of carbon by condensation process towards downstream cooler quartz-walls. Condensation process is completed in the presence of both SWCNTs and metallic nanoparticles (see Figure 5). Literature reveals that laser power may strongly affect CNTs diameter. On increasing laser pulse power rate a very thin diameter carbon nanotube is collected [40]. On other hand, some other reports give more information in favor of laser pulses that they behave like great potential, owing to be capable to provide SWCNTs in large amount [89, 111]. Reports indicate pure and superior quality production of SWCNTs in this case. Curved graphene sheets are observed showing position of carbon atoms in condense phase state caused by set up created by metal-catalyst to fabricate condensed carbon nanotubes.
Schematic structure showing the laser ablation method.
In this case, carbon atoms rearrange them for formation of ring shape and in this way, electronegative properties become dominant to play role in preventing open edge from sealing [110]. Furthermore, there are main benefits relative to this method that indicate metallic impurities less in amount but high in yield owing to vaporization tendency creating at tube end of metallic atoms at closing position. However main drawback of technique is observed with respect to synthesis aspect of nanotubes that they are not regularly straight rather indicate degree of branching to some extent. In addition this technique involves high-quality graphitic rods with high-power laser rate. However, in this case, CNTs are produced but not greater than arc-discharge technique. Carbon-2019 for “PEER REVIEW” describes high-power-laser when metal particles are incorporated as mandatory catalysts in reaction process [110]. Argon gaseous stream is continuously used during reaction mechanism. Graphitic quartz is passed through vaporization process using a laser, argon media captures carbon vapors that result in condensed downstream towards cooler-walls of quartz but still SWCNTs with metallic-particles are located in condensation process. Laser power may also clearly affect CNTs diameter. Furthermore, diameter becomes comparatively narrowed on increasing laser pulse rate [30]. Other studies reported that ultrafast laser pulses are of great potential, and are capable to produce larger quantities of SWCNTs [112]. SWCNTs collected by this technique are observed owing to high-purity and superior-quality in nature. Location sites where carbons atoms initiate condensation process may set up curved shape graphene sheet along with metal-catalyst atoms. In this way condensed nanotubes are properly obtained showing peculiar properties. Moreover, carbon atoms merge to form specific rings, thereby raising electronegative properties relative to metallic atoms that become capable to prevent open-edge from closing [113].
The main benefit belongs to followed method, in this case, metallic impurities are observed relatively less in amount but with high yield that is caused by vapors formation tendency belonging to metallic atoms from tube end when closed once in a time. However main drawback relative to this technique indicates irregularity in straight shape for synthesized nanotubes whereas degree of branching occurs to some extent. Furthermore, pure graphitic rods are involved in this procedure along with high laser power rate. Resultantly production of CNTs was not in great amount as compared to arc- discharge method.
Carbon nanotubes have the ability to be more investigated, and it is possible to drive further advancements by using CNTs in different fields. The findings obtained in the synthesis, functionalization, and structure of CNTs have contributed significantly to promising developments in various fields. However, further perfections in synthesis protocols are needed to obtain highly durable CNTs for preferred applications. For an instant, catalyst size is directly influenced on diameter of CNT during CVD reaction. So, further analysis should also be undertaken to discover more effective methods of processing precisely uniform-sized catalyst particles in order to ensure the production desired diameter of SWCNTs; but CNTs are costly than other carbon nanomaterials. Efforts should be proceeded to look for modern, cost-effective, and plentiful carbon sources, so that cost of CNTs can be lowered to an acceptable amount.
During disease outbreaks health care workers (HCWs) are play important role which is primary to the control of further debilitating conditions and the maintenance the overall health of the public; this condition cuts across all populations worldwide [1]. As part of the solution several studies have identified principles for training and preparing health care workers (HCWs) to equip them for the competent handling of these difficult situations. There is evidence that the education of HCWs, including midwives, which involves training and preparation activities is very important to ensure that populations experiencing disease outbreak survive the event and recover meaningfully to optimum community health conditions. This involve equipping HCWs with skills vital for the conduction of competent surveillance, communication, reporting, and containment of outbreaks [2, 3]. It should be noted here that midwives operate under the domain of normal pregnancies, childbirth, and peuperium however, their clinical interventions during a virulent outbreak can become complicated with the high risk for contracting deadly diseases or transmitting the diseases to their patients. Several factors influence the availability and positive response of HCWs including midwives to contribute to the containment of the disease during disease outbreaks. Some of these factors include their willingness in spite of the risks involved such as uncertainty and insecurity. Other factors are their perceptions and attitudes towards their roles during disease outbreaks [1, 4]. Scholars have identified that HCWs were somewhat willing to render care to victims during influenza virus epidemics [5, 6, 7]. Other studies have indicated differences in the rate of willingness of health workers to care for patients who are victims of virulent and life threatening epidemics, pandemics, and infectious diseases [8]. The study in [7] provided descriptions of the determinants of HCWs higher willingness to render care during epidemics; These include the type of disease outbreak (for example; it was shown that less virulent outbreaks were related with higher willingness of HCWs to continue to care for patients), also shown by studies that lower threat perceptions of health care workers are related with higher efficacy assertion (meaning higher assertion to being competent to handle the situation). It can be summarized then, that when disease outbreaks are less virulent, the threat perception of the outbreak are lower, while the self-determined ability to handle the situation becomes higher among HCWs. This results in a higher level of willingness by health care workers to continue to care for patients in the event of disease outbreaks. When outbreak of diseases were at its peak, the health care workers in close contact with victims, thereby putting them in a frontline position to salvage the situation, where recorded to express high rate of unwillingness to respond [1, 7]. One of such deadly disease outbreaks that have hit the world in recent past is the Ebola Virus disease that occurred in West Africa from 2014 to 2015. Studies to understand and describing the experiences of nurses and midwives and their willingness to care for patients during the Ebola disease outbreak have identified those factors that influenced midwives to care for patients during the fearsome outbreak [9]. It is important to note that during the Ebola outbreak in Liberia and West Africa as a whole, there was the great need to care for patients who had contracted the Ebola virus, but there was need also to pay attention to other patient populations who needed other health care services. Pregnant women, women in labor for child birth, and women who had just delivered their babies, newborn babies, and children with diverse conditions not related to Ebola were constantly in need of health care services [8].
Coping with the new disease with a recorded high mortality rate within the region, including development of treatment protocols, was a serious concern in the region. The situation was complicated further because the needed resources were not available in countries in the region (one of which was Liberia). These resource constraints included experienced experts in treatment and care for patients with Ebola. This inadequacy was caused by conditions created by the emergence from civil war in which lead to limited availability of health resources and a dysfunctional health care system in [8]. In addition, Ebola virus disease symptoms are not easily differentiated from other endemic diseases like malaria, gastroenteritis, or cholera [10]. The Ebola virus disease manifest symptoms that could be similar to other infectious diseases, meanwhile these symptoms are fatal. This caused high tension and anxiety among the health care workers and their attitude towards every patient who sought care changed in such a way that all patients were treated as suspected cases [11]. In appreciating the complexity of the new epidemic, in a statement about the Ebola outbreak in Liberia made by the World Health Organization (WHO) [12] it was reported that the highest number of deaths ocured in Liberia. This was also recorded as the most devastating outbreak of Ebola since it first emerged in 1976 in the Democratic Republic of Congo. When the epidemic reached its peak between August and September 2014, it was estimated that 300 to 400 new cases every week were reported. The situation in the country was very tragic; the treatment centers were overflowing with patients (which included women in labour, some of which delivered their babies in front of health care facilities). Horrific scenes were recorded were patients died on the hospital premises unattended to and bodies abandoned there for days. Local and International flights were cancelled, and domestic supplies of food, gas, fuel ran low. Public places such as schools, businesses offices, border control, open markets, and most health institutions were closed down. Fear and uncertainty about the future—for families, for communities, and for the country and its economy was the common feeling in the country. The health care workers continued to play their roles in the management of patients, though supplies of personal protective equipment, training and preparation for safety procedures were inadequate. This led to the report of 375 health care workers who became infected and loss of the lives of 189 HCWs [12].
The enigma of the Ebola outbreak was associated to the challenges that were then posed to HCWs within the West African Region by the International Council of Nurses (ICN) [13]. Ebola infections according to the ICN [13] were contracted by health care workers which resulted in the debilitating effects on the health system; that included the closing down of hospitals, the reduction in the health care workforce, and a distrusted health system. It was reported also that health care workers were 21–32 times more likely to be infected with Ebola than were other adults in the general population [13]. In the three countries that were affected; Liberia, Guinea, and Serra Leone, 50% of all health care workers infected were nurses, 12% were physicians and medical students, and 7% were laboratory workers. These numbers of deaths of health care workers reflected the need to improve and strengthen safety policies, supply of adequate protective equipment, and the appropriate preparation and training for all HCWs. The International Council of Nurses recommended to governments to ensure the creation of safe working environments for health care workers as a prerequisite to providing care to Ebola patients. The ICN also recommended that nurses and midwives require proper training and education, prompt provision of protective equipment, and to take up an active, frontline role in the development of policies pertaining to the prevention of infection transmission and patient care [13].
The understanding of the high risks associated with giving care to infected patients during virulent outbreaks for midwives, attention should be increased and placed on the safety issues, social processes, and the needed to develop a more realistic policy that will meet the needs of midwives. There is also the need to describe what midwives went through during the epidemic while caring for Ebola and non-Ebola patients, which involved midwives’ decision making about rendering or not rendering care to patients during the Ebola outbreak. This will serve as eye opener for other midwives to appreciate and understand the principles that they would need to internalize and utilize whenever necessary to render care to women and their families who in need of midwifery care during virulent outbreaks.
Some of the disease that have debuted fearsome outbreaks in the recent past are described very briefly in terms of their characteristics, pathology, and treatments. These diseases include Ebola virus disease, Avian influenza, Cholera, Yellow fever, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus, Marburg virus disease, and Zika virus infection. The COVID-19 disease debuted in 2019 and is currently ravaging the world (Table 1).
Disease outbreak | Country | Year |
---|---|---|
COVID-19 | 220 Countries globally | 2019 |
Ebola Virus | Uganda, Serra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, Nigeria | 2010; 2014 |
Avian Influenza | Egypt, Indonesia, China | 2010; 2011; 2013 |
Cholera | Haiti, Democratic Republic of Congo | 2010; 2015 |
Yellow Fever | Senegal, Nigeria | 2011; 2017 |
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus | Middle Eastern Countries; US, Saudi | 2013; 2017 |
Marburg Virus Disease | Uganda | 2014 |
Zika Virus infection | Panama, Honduras, Cape Verde, Paraguay, Mexico, Guatamala | 2015 |
Disease outbreaks occurrence in the past ten years.
According to WHO [10] Ebola viral disease (EVD) can cause fatal complications among humans up to about 90%. Wild animals transmit the virus to humans and then human to human transmission occurs through physical interactions between them. The clinical manifestations of Ebola infection starts to show between 2 to 10 days after a humans contract the virus. People can only transmit the virus during the period that they are. Survival critically depends on the provision of early supportive care which include rehydration and symptomatic treatment because there is currently no standard pharmacologic treatment to destroy the virus [10]. Ebola virus disease or EVD occurred first in 1976 in two concurrent outbreaks in Eastern Africa: one in Nzara, Sudan, and the other in Yambuku, Democratic Republic of Congo [10]. EVD is caused by a virus called Filoviridae, one of the viruses included in the family of hemorrhagic fever viruses that cause uncontrolled bleeding complications accompanied with fevers. The natural host for the Ebola virus are fruit bats [14]. When humans come in close contact with the fluids such as blood, body secretions, other bodily fluids of animals such as chimpanzees, gorillas, fruit bats, monkeys, forest antelope, and porcupines that are infected by the Ebola virus and/or are found ill or dead or in the rain forest, the humans contract the virus [14]. Transmission of Ebola virus among humans occurs when humans come in direct contact with fluiids and body parts of other humans. For example when broken skin or mucous membranes of one human come into contact with the blood, secretions, or body fluids of other ihumans who are infected by the virus, even when they come in contact with materials (such as, bed clothing) contaminated with body fluids of other infected people. Once a person is infected with the virus they remain infectious throughout, as long as they virus remains in them and after death occurs due to the disease [10]. People infected with the Ebola Virus are not infectious until the symptoms begin to show, these symptoms begin to manifest between 2 to 21 days after infection. The Symptoms include headaches, fever that occurs suddenly, sore throat, muscle pain, fatigue, vomiting and diarrhea, skin rashes, clinical signs of renal and hepatic dysfunction, and internal and external bleeding (Symptoms of Ebola virus disease, para.1) [10]. The diagnosis of EVD can be difficult due to the indistinct clinical signs and symptoms compared to other infectious diseases however, laboratory tests can be used to confirm that a person in infected with the Ebola Virus. Examples of the laboratory tests that can be used to confirm EVD include antibody-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, antigen-capture detection tests, serum neutralization test, reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction assay, electron microscopy, and virus isolation by cell culture. EVD has no developed treatment yet. However, there is a range of potential treatments including blood products administration, immune therapies, drug therapies, and vaccines which are currently being developed. Survival depends the provision of early supportive care which include rehydration and symptomatic treatment because there is currently no standard pharmacologic treatment to destroy the virus [10]. The skills and protocols involved in nursing care for patients with EVD are undergoing development. Some scholars have suggest the following as nursing interventions emanating from the experiences of nurses who were directly involved in the care of EVD patients:
The improvements made in the treatment techniques makes it now possible to render adequate care for EVD challenged patients with much better clinical results.
The safety and protection of health care providers is essential therefore, there should be adequate and timely provision of personal protective gear and equipment.
The management of patients with EVD is multifaceted and entails the utilization of isolation technique and the use of full protective gear. This require intensive training and practice.
There is need to engage in elaborated communication to everyone in and around the treatment facilities which involves detailed and repeated communications. This will distill the fear related to, and the inaccuracies and exaggerated reports by media on matters concerning personal and community risk.
The response to the crisis created by Ebola outbreak require the encouragement of volunteerism among nurses and midwives [15].
Midwifery interventions require touch; which is the main medium that people connect with each other. Touch is an important part of the midwife-patient relationship and may be the unavoidable aspects of the caring relationship between midwives and their patients [16]. Nurses and midwives use touch to promote healing and provide comfort and care to their patients. Touching patients is done in different kind of ways during every interaction; for instance, when measuring vital signs, bathing their patients, changing positions of patients in bed, assisting patients to leave their bed to walk or sit in a chair [16]. When midwives touch their patients, especially during the Ebola outbreak, it speaks volumes in terms of reassures them that the midwife is not afraid to be near them and that they are not alone. Though direct skin-to-skin contact is not wise nor acceptable, it is recommended that when midwives treat EVD patients, despite the layers of protective equipment, they need to seek for avenues to intentionally touch their patients in a deliberate and meaningful way that will provide care, comfort and connection between the midwife and the patient [16].
Curriculum development is crucial and important so that student midwives would be given a robust understanding of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to care for patients in the event of public health emergencies like the Ebola outbreak. For instance, Teachers at Emory’s Nell Hodgson Woodruff School of Nursing worked is collaboration with their colleagues at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to create and deliver a course that they titled, “Introduction to Complex Humanitarian Emergencies for Nurses.” This course utilized presentations and active learning exercises that examined the methods needed to provide and manage public health emergency situations that require prompt care and opportunities for leadership. This could be applied and contextualized to midwifery and nursing schools in West Africa and globally as a continuous education program to update and improve midwifery care during disease outbreaks [17].
The avian influenza viruses are zoonotic influenza viruses are resident in birds and cause Avian influenza commonly called bird flu. These animal influenza viruses are distinct from human seasonal influenza viruses and they do not easily become contagious and transmit from human to human. Occasionally through direct or indirect contact they infect humans and cause diseases that could lead to death. Avian influenza A(H5N1) first outbreak was in 1997 in a poultry in Hong Kong. It became widespread in 2003 from Asia to Europe to Africa. A(H5N1) occurs naturally in wild waterfowl, but it can spread easily to domestic poultry. The disease is transmitted to humans through contact with infected bird feces, nasal secretions, or secretions from the mouth or eyes. Also it is suspected that bird flu could be contacted by consuming improperly cooked poultry or eggs from infected birds, eggs should never be served runny. Bird meat when not properly cooked to an internal temperature of 165°F (73.9°C) could pose a risk. Symptoms of bird flu include cough, diarrhea, respiratory difficulties, fever (over 100.4°F or 38°C), headache, muscle aches, malaise, runny nose, and sore throat. Treatments may vary because different types of avian influenza can cause different symptoms. Most times antiviral medication such as oseltamivir (Tamiflu) or zanamivir (Relenza) can help alleviate the severity of the disease, especially when the medication is taken within 48 hours after symptoms first appear. Further management would be to place those infected in isolation to avoid spreading the virus to others [18].
Cholera is an acute form of diarrhoeal disease, if not treated it can kill within hours. Several studies have identified approximately that every year there are 1.3 million to 4.0 million cases of cholera, and 21 000 to 143 000 deaths worldwide due to cholera. Most cases presents no or mild symptoms. Treatment with oral rehydration solution would be effective in such cases. More severe cases will require quick and immediate treatment with intravenous fluids and antibiotics. Control measures involve the provision of safe water and sanitation, safe oral cholera vaccines, improvements in water and sanitation [19].
Yellow fever is caused by a virus found in parts of Africa and South America. The virus is spread to people by the bite of a mosquito. Symptoms of the illness ranges from fever with aches and pains to severe liver disease with bleeding and yellow colored skin (known as jaundice). Yellow fever presents first set of symptoms which include sudden onset of fever, chills, severe headache, back pain, general body aches, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and weakness. Most persons improve after the initial presentation. After a brief remission ranging from hours to a day, about 15% of infection cases progress to develop sever symptoms which include high fever, jaundice, bleeding, and eventually shock and failure of multiple organs. Treatment is symptomatic and includes provision of rest, fluids, and use of pain relievers and medication to reduce fever to relieve symptoms of aching and fever. Yellow fever patients should be hospitalized for supportive care and close observation, they should be provided with material to protect them from more mosquito bites (by encouraging that they stay indoors and stay under a mosquito net). This should be adhered to for up to 5 days after the symptoms like fever begins. This will allow the yellow fever virus in their bloodstream to be unavailable to uninfected mosquitoes, thereby putting a halt to the further transmission of the virus and containing the risks posed to other people around the patients. There is no medicine to treat the infection yet. Prevention is advisory which include use insect repellent, wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants outdoors, and get vaccinated. The incubation period (time from infection until illness) when people get infected is typically 3–6 days [20].
This is a respiratory disease caused by a group of viruses known as coronaviruses discovered first in the Middle East region, specifically Saudi Arabia in 2012. These coronaviruses constitute a large family of viruses that can cause different kinds of diseases such as the common cold and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). The clinical manifestations of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) include cough, fever, and shortness of breath. Other symptoms include pneumonia, and some gastrointestinal complications such as diarrhea. There are cases when infected people go on asymptomatic, meaning that they do not present any clinical signs nor symptoms, but they test positive for MERS-CoV after a laboratory test is conducted. In order to track down these asymptomatic cases rigorous contact tracing of a laboratory-confirmed case should be done. It is reported that so far about 35% of confirmed MERS-CoV infected patients have died. Transmission is mainly through human-to-human infections especially in health care settings; when providing unprotected care to a patient. Health care associated outbreaks have debuted in several countries, with the largest outbreaks seen in Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and the Republic of Korea. Scientific evidence have suggested that dromedary camels are a major reservoir host for MERS-CoV and have transmitted MERS infection to humans [21].
Marburg virus disease (MVD) was formerly known as Marburg hemorrhagic fever. This is a severe fatal illness in humans transmitted to humans by
Zika virus infectious disease is caused by a virus transmitted mainly by
COVID-19 disease also known as Coronavirus disease is an infectious disease caused by a newly discovered virus called coronavirus. It is spread by droplet transmission from one human to another who are in close physical interaction. The COVID-19 virus is spread primarily through droplets of saliva or discharge from the nose when an infected person coughs or sneezes. It’s important that people practice respiratory etiquette (for example, by coughing into a flexed elbow). People who get infected with the COVID-19 virus experience mild to moderate respiratory illness and recover without requiring special treatment. Special populations of humans are affected differently; ie older people, and those with underlying medical problems like diabetes, chronic respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, and cancer are more likely to develop serious physiological responses. Prevention of transmission is best achieved by slowing down transmission by ensuring that the population is informed about the COVID-19 virus, the disease it causes and how it spreads. Other protective measures include washing hands or using an alcohol based rub frequently using facial mask, and not touching the face. The most common symptoms include fever, dry cough, tiredness. There are less common symptoms such as aches and pains, sore throat, diarrhoea, conjunctivitis, headache, loss of taste or smell and a rash on skin, or discoloration of fingers or toes. More serious symptoms also showcase such; difficulty breathing or shortness of breath, chest pain or pressure, loss of speech or movement. It takes an average of 5–6 days from when an individual is infected with the virus for symptoms to show, however it can take up to 14 days. Treatment mostly is by symptoms An approved drug, remdesivir (Veklury) is used to treat COVID-19. Any treatments that are used for COVID-19 should be taken under the care of a healthcare provider [25].
Before elaborating on the principles that will guide midwifery care during virulent outbreaks. Let us appreciate the experiences of midwives during the 2-14-2015 Ebola virus disease outbreak in Liberia, West Africa. It is from this backdrop that the principles of midwifery care during virulent outbreaks are proposed. A study described the experiences of midwives during the EVD outbreak in Liberia; the midwives were living and working in fear and terror; their lives and those of their families were endangered [9]. The key concern of the midwives were concern for their family’s safety, psychological, emotional, and social support. The midwives mostly felt obligated by virtue of their profession to continue caring for patients during the Ebola outbreak [9]. The midwives experienced stigmatization by the public during the outbreak due to fear of many that the midwives stood a greater risk to transmit the disease to their families and the public in general. However after engaging in the education of their families and patients, together with institutional influences, and government efforts eased the effect of stigmatization [9]. There is need for governments to improve their efforts to develop policies, provide safe working conditions, and fund training and educational programs in Ebola care [26].
Midwives experienced changes in the dynamics of the midwife-patient relationship and working in teams during the period of the outbreak. The training and education of the midwives, also the provision of protective equipment assisted the midwives to regain their confidence and self-efficacy. The midwives found ways to touch all patients despite the high risk involved, while using the personal protective equipment provided. They conducted midwifery procedures fully, improved the relationship between themselves and their patients. The spiritual dimension of health care was identified in a study as crucial to enhancing midwives’ well-being [9]. Other authors have also reported that faith-based health care institutions and services are the vehicle used to drive spiritual health care [27]. The decision process involved in the midwives’ choices either to render care or not to render care for patients were made on the basis of emotional connections between them and other midwives and nurses, their families, and society. The decision process also was based on their value system, including professionalism and spirituality. The findings of the Kollie, Winslow, Porthier, and Geade study indicated the spiritual resources of midwives had influence on their decision to work. The study identified a conceptual map which described the work decision process to include that the midwives were in a state of fear and terror. Their situation was associated with emotional and psychological dimensions of the fear and terror condition [9]. Several factors were shown to influence their decision to work; key among them the family. Midwives made decisions to either work or not during the Ebola outbreak based on family responsibilities and demands. The midwives decided to work as a result of their sense of professionalism and their realization that the needed to depend on God for safety. There were institutional influences and also government roles which was shown to have both positive and negative influences on whether the midwives decided to work or not. The midwives decision to work was influenced by stigmatization issues which caused sadness and frustration. Stigmatization however did not stand out as a reason for the midwives to decide to stop working during the Ebola outbreak. Those midwives who continued to work during the outbreak encountered changes in the relationship between the patients and themselves as well as, midwives. Further description of the factors that influenced the midwives to continue to render care to their patients during the fearsome and dreadful 2014–2015 Ebola virus disease outbreak [9] are as follows:
The midwives felt afraid and terrorized by the possibility of contracting the disease through interaction with patients and colleagues, and transmitting it to family members.
The fear for their family’s safety made the situation difficult for the midwives. In order to alleviate their fears and prevent the possible transmission of the virus to their family members, midwives bathed upon their return home and before they began to interact with members of their family. This phenomenon created what was described as physical distancing between their spouses and children, this was very difficult for them to endure, especially when they considered great risk the situation posed to their family. The results of the study identified that the midwives considered the physical distancing as the responsible thing to do; to ensure their family’s safety irrespective of their desire for affection and closeness from their family members. The primary reason for a midwife to stop working during the outbreak was identified as family. The discouragement from family members or the sense of family responsibility was identified as the key factor that influenced those who did not work or stopped after a period of working.
The midwives were passionate for their profession, love for people, and sympathy or empathy for sick people. Financial benefits were not the motivation. The Midwives’ logic for continuing to work was that their refusal to work would eventually lead to genocide, that neither they nor their relatives would be spared; that would be the retribution. The situation provided the opportunity for the midwife to gain additional clinical experience, competence, and confidence.
The midwives depended on God for safety. This was the primary resource for safety, despite the availability of protective equipment. They believed that the surety of protection was only possible through dependence on God.
People in society realized that the midwives were at risk of contracting infection and could in turn spread the virus to the public. This led to the stigmatization of the midwives and resulted in feelings of fear, frustration, and sadness.
When hospitals closed because of fear, unpreparedness, and possible high risk of transmission to staff, the midwives felt the opportunity to continue serving was closed.
The government came through with their responsibility to provide Personal protective equipment. The government failed to deliver on its promise to compensate the workers with hazard allowance.
The principles that guide midwifery care during virulent outbreaks will be discussed generally for all virulent disease outbreaks. These general principles will offer basic safety and educational guidelines that cut across all virulent outbreaks. During virulent outbreaks health workers are usually at high risk for contracting the infections. This poses a great risk to their patients, family members, and themselves. Rendering maternal antenatal, intrapartum, and postnatal care and immediate newborn care would be challenging during these outbreaks. The struggles involved in containing the outbreaks involves the dilemma of seeking for balance between obligation, heroic midwifery interventions, and the sense of professional calling. The solution would be to guide midwifery practice with fundamental principles to serve as frameworks for contextual evidence based midwifery interventions during deadly disease outbreaks.
These principles are discussed under domains of midwifery care; antenatal, intrapartum, postnatal, and immediate newborn care. General safety and education issues will also be explained.
The care for pregnant women and their growing fetus is needful to ensure the desired outcome of a healthy pregnancy and fetus. The management of pregnancy during antenatal care during virulent outbreaks should be guided by the following principles:
Initial mandatory sensitivity screening test for all virulent infections such as Cholera, COVID-19, Ebola virus infection, and so on should conducted to rule out cases of infective patients. This involves the history taking and temperature screening for all women.
Health education should no longer be conducted in physical group classes, the option of virtual group classes, or sharing of screen casts of health education classes could be explored. This is because more recent virulent outbreaks have been of diseases that are easily transmitted via air and fluid droplets (COVID-19 and Ebola). Moreover, the transmission of such recent outbreaks have been aided by interpersonal physical contact. Social distancing has been prescribed by the WHO recently [25]. Individual appointments for educational activities should be conducted. Where the condition permits educational activities could adopt other forms including phone conversations, use of the internet through the hospital website or email services to the clients, and distribution of video clips on salient health topics to mothers.
Physical assessment procedures such as general head-to-toe examination, abdominal examination, and laboratory tests should be conducted under strict protective conditions. The use of the basic personal protective gears, and continuous sterilization of the examination rooms should be practiced. Blood and body fluid samples should be handled with great care.
The examination of fetal wellbeing should be conducted under protective conditions.
As soon as labour is established, the woman is advised to report to the hospital. The midwife is responsible to assess, plan, and implement care to address physical, emotional, and support needs of the woman in labour. In the first stage of labour the assessment procedures should include history taking, general examination, abdominal examination, vaginal examination, and fetal assessment. At admission history is taken first on behavioral patterns that might have put the mother at risk of contracting a virulent infection. Other history on details from previous births and babies, characteristics of uterine contractions (frequency, duration, and perception of strength), ruptured membrane/color and amount of amniotic fluid, vaginal discharge, fetal movement, medical history can follow.
Support from the relatives of the woman in labor should be encouraged so as to boost the woman’s confidence and help her in decision making. However it is advised that all relatives stay out of the delivery room to reduce the risk of transmitting diseases or infections.
Procedures should be conducted under a clean field. Personal protective gears should be worn by the midwife always. All materials used should be clean. Mother can be encouraged to take a bath and clean the perineal area. Mothers and relatives should be required to wear protective masks at all times. This is predicated on the novel COVID-19 infections. Regular hand-washing and hand- sanitization should be ensured for mothers and relatives to prevent transmission of all types of diseases and virulent infections.
Vaginal examination should be conducted under aseptic measures. A full explanation of the procedure is given to the woman and her consent obtained. Take note of discharges or bleeding from the vaginal orifice, note the amount, excessive amount may indicate suspicion of symptoms of hemorrhagic fevers (EVD).
In the second stage of labor as long as the mother and baby are well, and there is good progress in labour, then the outcome will be good. The management of the second stage of labour consist of positioning, delivery of the head, and delivery of the shoulders and the rest of the body.
The management of the third stage of labour involves two main protocols: the use of uterotonics for the prevention of postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) during the third stage of labour is recommended for all births. Oxytocin (10 IU, IV/IM) is the recommended uterotonic drug for the prevention of PPH. In the situation where excessive bleeding does not respond to interventions and other physiologic indicators for bleeding are ruled out, caution should be applied to suspected EVD symptoms.
The second protocol is controlled cord traction (CCT) is recommended for vaginal births to achieve a small reduction in blood loss and a small reduction in the duration of the third stage of labour.
The continuous screening and preventive measures for virulent diseases and infections continues in addition to typical postnatal care protocols; postnatal visitation appointment, infant feeding, reproductive and contraceptive plan, pregnancy complications follow-up care, postpartum complications detection and management, and mental health care. During postnatal care visitations the following should be observed by the midwives, mothers, and their relatives to prevent transmission of virulent infections; regular hand-washing or hand-sanitization, temperature checks, use of protective nose masks, social distancing, and barrier midwifery care (which involves the use of gloves, googles, boots, and masks).
This could be summarized to include wiping, drying, warming (ideally skin-to-skin contact) and wrapping. Providing skin-to-skin contact is indicated only for mothers and babies who test negative to any virulent infection. Evaluating breathing and resuscitation if necessary as usual in the management of the newborn infant. Use a sterile method to cut the cord and evaluate bleeding from the cord area as suggestive of possible EVD symptoms. The management of the newborn infant also include initiating exclusive breastfeeding in the first hour for infants whose mothers have been confirmed negative to virulent infection screening.
The safety and education of midwives, health care workers, mothers and their relatives should be assured by conducting several general safety and education activities. Some of these activites include;
initial screening for all virulent infections to serve as baseline data for all health care workers and midwifery clients of the health care facility
daily temperature screening for all health care workers and midwifery clients of the health care facility
compulsory regular hand-washing or hand-sanitization for all health workers and midwifery clients (immediately after every activity in the health care facility)
use of nose mask by all midwifery clients at all times in the health care facility
use of protective gears such as googles, nose masks, gloves, boots, at all times in the health care facility
use of basic personal protective gears by all midwives and health care workers during procedures
Posting of easy-to-read information posters about all virulent diseases that have caused outbreaks recently in all spaces and locations within the health care facility
Preparation and distribution of educational materials about virulent infections and diseases such as screen casts, fliers, SMS to all registered midwifery clients of the health care facility
The unique clinical skills which emerged from the perspective of the midwives working during the Ebola outbreak in Liberia [9] could be incorporated in the training of students midwives. This includes the training of hand washing techniques, and wearing and use of both basic and enhanced personal protective gears. There is need for nursing and midwifery professional boards and regulatory bodies to continue to assure continuous education on virulent infections preventive care and safety measures for midwives. Curricula in the schools of midwifery should include preventive care and safety measures. This could involve the training on the management of midwife-patient relationships, empowering midwife-midwife relationships, the proper use of the both basic and enhanced personal protective equipment and protective measures, and adjustment techniques. The training for virulent infections preventive care and safety measures should also involve ethical considerations and mental or psychological indications. Community health education on recent virulent disease outbreaks could be conducted by midwives to help communities understand the diseases and improve behavior towards health care workers. The role that faith plays in the decisions made by midwives should also be recognized when developing and implementing curricula.
Virulent disease outbreaks result in dreadful risks for contracting contagious diseases or infections to health workers including midwives. This poses a great risk to their patients, family members, and themselves. The struggles involved in containing the outbreaks involves the dilemma of seeking for balance between obligation, heroic midwifery interventions, and the sense of professional calling. Rendering maternal antenatal, intrapartum, and postnatal care and immediate newborn care would be challenging during these outbreaks. The solution would be to guide midwifery practice with fundamental principles to serve as frameworks for contextual evidence based midwifery interventions during deadly disease outbreaks.
The author declares on conflict of interest.
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"