Catalytic reactions by GO and chemically converted GO. (B, N)-doped holy G [(BN)HolG], reduced graphene oxide (rGO), triethylamine modified rGO (rGO-NEt3), rGO functionalized with ─SO3H (rGO-SO3H) and poly(amidoamine)-modified rGO (rGO-PAMAM).
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-388-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-387-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-389-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61ec2bad4fc3f7060fd64b91fa12e82c",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Vicente Vanaclocha",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10574.jpg",keywords:"Prevalence, Incidence, Worldwide Differences, Red Flags, Moyamoya and School Performance, Medical Treatment, Surgical Treatment, Genetic Markers, Immunologic Factors, Recommended Anesthetic Agents, Source of Intraoperative Complications, Post-Operative ICU Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 23rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 21st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 20th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 10th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 9th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Vicente Vanaclocha is a Chief of Neurosurgery at the University Hospital of Navarra and head of Neurosurgery Service of San Jaime Hospital in Torrevieja. He has over 25 years of experience in neuro-oncology and minimally invasive surgery techniques. He is a pioneer in many areas in neurosurgery (treatment of brain tumors, Chiari Malformation, and sacroiliac joint disorders).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"199099",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vicente",middleName:null,surname:"Vanaclocha",slug:"vicente-vanaclocha",fullName:"Vicente Vanaclocha",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199099/images/system/199099.jpeg",biography:"Vicente Vanaclocha is Chief of Neurosurgery. Doctor of Medicine from the University of Valencia, he has over 25 years experience in neuro-oncology, minimally invasive and minimally invasive surgery techniques. Specialist in neurosurgery both nationally and internationally (including the General Medical Register of England and stay at the Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa) has been Chief of Neurosurgery at the University Hospital of Navarra and head of Neurosurgery Service of San Jaime Hospital in Torrevieja. He was also associate professor of neurosurgery at the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Navarra and is a professor of neuroanatomy at the Catholic University of Valencia also serving as an editorial board member of repute.\nCurrently he is Associate Professor at the University of Valencia.",institutionString:"University of Valencia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Valencia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6546",title:"Treatment of Brachial Plexus Injuries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"24a8e7c7430e86f76fb29df39582855a",slug:"treatment-of-brachial-plexus-injuries",bookSignature:"Vicente Vanaclocha and Nieves Sáiz-Sapena",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6546.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199099",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vicente",surname:"Vanaclocha",slug:"vicente-vanaclocha",fullName:"Vicente Vanaclocha"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"René Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"rene-mauricio-barria",fullName:"René Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61622",title:"Carbocatalytic Activity of Graphene Oxide in Organic Synthesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77361",slug:"carbocatalytic-activity-of-graphene-oxide-in-organic-synthesis",body:'\nIn recent years, there has been tremendous focus towards developing greener synthetic methods for the industrial production of fine and commodity chemicals. Towards the development of economical and sustainable routes for large scale synthesis, the ideal protocols are characterized by four parameters: catalytic activity, selectivity, atom-economy and step-selectivity. Among them, development of catalytic systems with high activity and selectivity plays the most important role. A catalyst provides an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy barrier for an organic reaction without being transformed itself [1]. If there are several products and several reaction barriers, a catalyst can drive the reaction selectivity with a particular product. The efficiency of a catalyst lies on the formation of the desired product with high yield and selectivity at relatively milder reaction conditions. Hence, the search for suitable catalytic systems to achieve green and sustainable production of chemicals is growing continuously, that promotes reduction of toxic and hazardous chemicals, stoichiometric amount of promoter, less consumption of energy, fewer side products and less number of steps involved.
\nIn the past, the main objective of catalysis was to enhance the activity and selectivity of a catalyst, the recovery and reusability of a catalyst was rarely a major concern. Traditional homogeneous organocatalysts, transition metal catalysts as well as bio-catalytic systems are highly efficient because the catalytic activity can be defined on a molecular level. These single site catalysts are highly accessible to reactant molecules, readily soluble in reaction medium and often give rise to high catalytic activity and selectivity even under mild conditions [2]. However, often use of expensive metal salts, expensive ligands, expensive and tedious purification steps as well as recovery of the catalyst is the major issue. A variety of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts have been developed, however there is still a vast scope for development of suitable catalysts that not only offers high activity and selectivity, but also provide a greener route. Fabricating single step synthetic methods using heterogeneous catalysts is a challenging goal as it aims at decreasing the energy and time consumption by operation of single step synthesis. This consequently eliminates the need of separation of products from the reaction mixture again and again.
\nIn the area of heterogeneous catalysis, the primary focus is towards development of materials with high surface area as the reactions involve surface initiated pathway. With exceptional nanodimensional properties (high surface to volume ratio), nanoparticles have produced tremendous interest in wide range of research activities including pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, renewable energy and biotransformation. The key objective of nanocatalysis research is to produce catalysts with 100% selectivity with extremely high activity, low energy consumption, and long lifetime. This can be achieved only by precisely controlling the size, shape, spatial distribution, surface composition and electronic structure, and thermal and chemical stability of the individual nanocomponents. In addition, surface atoms which are at the edges or in the corners are more active than those in planes, and their number also increases with decreasing particle size. Thus nanoparticles have shown tremendous applicability at the interface between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis [3, 4, 5]. Homogeneous nanocatalysts are used in the same medium as the reactants. The main concern with homogeneous nanocatalysts is their recovery from the solution for repeated cycles as nanoparticles are extremely difficult to be removed from a solution and the extra steps needed to do so could completely negate the process simplification. If the nanoparticles cannot be recovered, they pose an environmental risk, as well as threatening the profitability of the process. For easy recovery and recyclability, the active nanocatalysts are often immobilized on a solid inert matrix, which is in a different phase to the reactants. The solid catalysts can in most cases simply be filtered out and used for the next cycle of reactions, making the process economical and ecological. Due to the complex physicochemical properties at the nanometer level and possibility of multiple surface initiated reactions at the active site, synthesis-structure-catalysis performance relationships are poorly understood in many catalytic systems. A variety of heterogeneous catalytic systems based on metal nanoparticles, semiconductors, oxides/sulfides, mesoporous materials, metal-organic framework etc. and their combinations have been developed for photochemical and electrochemical catalysis, environmental remediation as well as catalysis for important chemical conversions. Other metal-free nanomaterials such as fullerene, graphite, graphene oxide (GO), carbon nanotube (CNT) and carbon nanodots (CNDs) have also been studied either as effective carbocatalyst or as support for metal/oxide for various catalytic applications.
\nIn heterogeneous catalysis, the modus operandi is through surface mediated reactions. Therefore, availability of large surface area is a prerequisite for high catalytic conversions [6, 7]. Although, unsupported nanoparticles with well-defined surface structure and clean exposed facets are predicted to be highly active for catalysis as shown by several theoretical studies, their applicability in real catalysis is a challenge. Due to high surface energy resulting from the large fraction of atoms present on the surface of NPs, they tend to reduce the surface energy and stabilize themselves through agglomeration and coagulation, resulting in decreased active surface area [7]. This leads to an exponential decrease in the surface area for effective catalysis and the prime objective of using nanoparticles for repeated cycles with high activity is practically lost. For example, in case of Au nanoparticles, size plays a critical role during oxidation reactions, as nanoparticles with the diameter 1–5 nm are highly active, whereas larger nanoparticles becomes inactive. The protection of nanoparticle surface from agglomeration can be achieved by using a surface stabilizing agent or immobilizing the NPs into a solid matrix with high surface areas [8, 9]. Soft organic materials such as polymers, surfactants, dendrimers, and ionic liquids have been used as effective capping agents. These systems often show high catalytic performances [10] e.g. reduction of nitrobenzene, olefin hydrogenation and CO oxidation at low temperatures by Au nanoparticles, C─C coupling or hydrosilylation reactions of olefins by Pd nanoparticles. However, these polymeric supports suffer certain disadvantages such as providing low surface area which limits the interface between the catalyst and the reaction substrate. Moreover, soft nature of the materials and low mechanical stability often leads to separation of the support from the NPs surface after repeated reaction cycles which eventually results in agglomeration of the particles and decrease in catalytic activity. Alternatively, nanoparticles have been immobilized or grafted onto solid supports to improve their stabilization and recycling ability [8]. “Inert” porous solid materials such as zeolites, charcoals, metal-organic frameworks, layered-double hydroxides etc. have been used for immobilization of active metal catalysts. Being inert and hard, these materials are highly stable even under harsh reaction conditions and can be easily recovered from the reaction mixture for further applications. Porous materials also allow control over the nanoparticle growth in the porous matrix, prevents agglomeration and enhances active site exposure [11]. The host support materials stabilizes the nanoparticles, however they have no role in manipulating the activity of the nanoparticles for catalysis. In the last few years, there has been tremendous focus on the development of “active” supports, which along with stabilizing the nanoparticles also contribute towards overall catalytic activity in synergy with the nanoparticles [12, 13]. For example, the charge state of the Au nanoparticles is known to influence their reactivity, in the case of the negatively charged Au nanoparticles, an extra electron from the gold readily transfers to the anti-bonding 2π ∗ orbital of the adsorbed O2, which weakens the O─O bond and activates oxygen molecule for further catalytic reaction. On the other hand, the positive charge accumulated on the gold can promote adsorption of some reactants, such as CO and hydrocarbons. An active support can transfer charges to/from the active catalytic surface, hence influencing the activity of the reaction. For example, Au nanoparticles anchored on rutile TiO2 (110) surface shows high activity for the oxidation of CO to CO2. Along with providing significant exposed catalytic active sites for the reaction, TiO2 also involves in charge transfer process with the Au NPs making the NPs surface highly negative for dioxygen activation leading to oxidation of CO to CO2 [14]. Recently, research works involving GO as a support for immobilizing active metal nanoparticles have gained attention. GO, not only provides a large surface area with high exposure of active catalysts, but also can influence the catalytic activity [15]. Possible surface to metal electron transfer from GO to nanoparticles activating dioxygen molecule over NPs surface for several oxidation reactions has been reported [15]. Hence, choice of a suitable support for NPs stabilization with possible cooperativity might play an important role in controlling the reaction yield and selectivity of products.
\nCarbon is one of the most abundant elements on earth and is central to life. Hence, catalytic application of carbon is very attractive and both organic and inorganic carbons play a key role in catalysis. A huge amount of organic compounds act as highly efficient homogeneous catalysts, forming a dedicated branch of chemistry “organocatalysis.” Carbon is often the main constituent of the organic ligands surrounding the metallic center in organometallics. In enzymatic catalysis it constitutes the backbone of the active species. In heterogeneous catalysis, carbon materials act as unique catalyst supports by anchoring different active species through its active site and can also act as catalysts by themselves. The physical and chemical properties of carbon materials, such as their tunable porosity and surface chemistry, make them suitable for application in many catalytic processes.
\nAmong the carbon catalysts developed, activated carbon (AC) and carbon black (CB) are the most commonly used carbon supports. The typically large surface area and high porosity of activated carbon catalysts favor the dispersion of the active phase over the support and increase its resistance to sintering at high metal loadings. The pore size distribution can be tuned to suit the requirements of active supports and substrates. The activated carbon shows several advantages owing to their several outstanding properties, such as low cost, resistance to acids and bases, high stability even at elevated temperature, high surface area (>1000 m2/g) and easy removal etc. Moreover, metal salts can be reduced to active metallic forms in these mesoporous materials, making them highly competent as metal supports.
\nThe study of chemical reactions using carbon materials are termed as carbocatalysis. The catalysts are prepared and used in the powder form and hence they are heterogeneous. Carbocatalysis has been known for decades since the first discovery of catalytic activities of carbon materials [16] when Rideal and Wright [17] showed the charcoal catalyzed oxidation of oxalic acid, which was one of the ground breaking discovery of carbocatalysis. Moreover, 45 years earlier also, carbon materials were shown to be effective for the conversion of halogenated hydrocarbon [16].
\nWith the development of fullerenes, the research activities for the growth of nanocarbon materials have gained momentum. Several polytypes of carbon which include fullerenes, nanotubes, graphene, nanodiamonds and amorphous porous carbon and their derivatives represent a rich class of solid carbonaceous materials with environmental acceptability and reusability and all are found to be catalytically active in certain reactions. However, most of these carbon materials are highly hydrophobic without any functional groups on their surface.
\nFullerene black is an efficient catalyst for dehydrogenation, cracking, methylation, and demethylation reactions. C60 and C70 were found to be suitable catalysts for the reduction of nitrobenzene, using hydrogen gas under UV light [18]. Further, several organometallic compounds involving fullerene as a ligand have been developed that showed efficient catalytic activity for several organic transformations.
\nThe 1D and 2D carbon materials such as carbon nanotubes and graphene offered high surface area and continuous efforts are focused on surface functionalization of these materials, both through covalent and non-covalent approach. Oxidation in presence of strong acids and oxidants could introduce oxyfunctionalized groups on the surfaces of these carbon materials, making them hydrophilic and suitable for anchoring several active catalytic groups on their surfaces. The work on the oxidative dehydrogenation reaction by Mestl et al. [19] and Zhang et al. [20] opened a new window in carbocatalysis. Carbon nanotubes, in its oxygenated forms, showed efficient catalysis for oxidative dehydrogenations e.g. conversion of n-butane to 1-butene [20]. In the catalytic hydrogenation of ethylbenzene to styrene, a process of high industrial relevance, CNTs perform better than activated carbon and graphite as catalysts. It was reasoned that the reactant molecules were first adsorbed on the CNT surface via π-interactions next to basic oxygen moieties, which facilitated dehydrogenation with concomitant formation of surface hydroxyl groups [19]. Taking advantage of surface modification techniques, various nanoparticle as well as molecular catalysts could be anchored on carbon nanotubes [21] (Figure 1).
\nVarious forms of carbon nanomaterials.
Graphene and other two-dimensional sp2-hybridized carbon scaffolds are expected to have large impacts in the area of catalysis, mainly because of their unique electronic properties and high surface area in comparison to other carbon materials [22]. Although graphene was known to exist within graphite materials, it was assumed to be thermodynamically unstable in distinct 2D structures at finite temperatures. Geim et al. (2004) [23] mechanically exfoliated single sheets from the π-stack layers in graphite for the first time. The unique electron transfer properties of graphene, such as a half-integer quantum Hall effect, the massless Dirac fermion behavior of its charge carriers, and quantum capacitance, have been extensively studied making them one of the most important materials in optoelectronics utility. The use of graphene-based nanomaterials as catalyst support was hampered by the high price associated with the laborious synthesis and processing (e.g., sublimation of silicon from silicon carbide wafers, chemical vapor deposition, oxidation/reduction protocols etc. However, the process for liquid phase exfoliation through oxidation of graphite in presence of strong oxidizing agents generating the graphene analogue with oxygenated functionalities on their surface (popularly known as Hummer’s method) has brought tremendous excitement in the nanocatalyst research community. These materials termed as “graphene oxide” can be obtained in sufficient quantities from commercially available graphite through reliable, now well-established preparation procedures. Further potential chemical modifications of the graphene surface introduces different newer catalytically active site important for specific catalytic reactions (Figure 2) [23].
\nPossibilities of covalent functionalization of GO (reprinted with permission from Ref. [23]. American Chemical Society).
Oxidation of graphite leads to the decoration of the graphene surface with oxygen functionalities that increases the inter-layer separation, thus helping in exfoliation into single or a few layer two-dimensional surfaces. During this process, several sites are induced those are important from catalytic or surface modification point of view. The extensive π-conjugated domains provide interactions between aromatic compounds with the graphene surfaces and greatly facilitate the adsorption/activation of aromatic compounds on graphene based carbon [23]. There are at least five different oxygen functional groups decorated over the graphene surface. These include carboxyl (─COOH), hydroxyl (─OH), carbonyl (─C═O), epoxy (─C─O─C─ and ketone (─C═O) groups. These oxygenated groups provide four different categories of catalytic activity to the carbon material: (1) their acidic properties promote acid-catalyzed reactions; (2) their intermediate form reacts with oxidants to catalyze oxidation reaction; (3) their nucleophilic nature promote coupling reactions; and (4) their perfect π-conjugated structure with significant defects/holes can also promote several catalytic reactions. Further, reduction of graphene oxides can be performed using common reducing agents such as hydrogen, metal ion borohydride and hydrazine. Moreover, the graphene oxide surfaces can be reduced by heating at elevated temperature. Various heteroatoms such as N, B, P, Se, S, F, and Cl [24] can be incorporated into the lattice of graphene sheets. Several organic reactions can also incorporate acidic functional groups such as ─SO3H groups onto graphene sheets [25].
\nGO and their chemically converted forms have shown broad spectrum of catalytic activity ranging from oxidation reactions and thermal decomposition reactions. Bielawski et al., first demonstrated catalytic activity of graphene oxide for liquid phase organic transformations [26]. Since then, a variety of organic transformations have been explored taking advantage of the functional groups present on the graphitic surface. Table 1 summarizes a variety of reported reactions catalyzed by GO and chemically converted GO.
\nCatalyst | \nReactions | \nActive sites | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|
\n | Oxidation reactions (promoted by molecular O2) | \n\n | \n |
(BN)HolG | \nAerobic oxidation of amines | \nDoped N and B are active sites | \n[28] | \n
GO | \nAerobic oxidation of benzylic alcohols | \nOxygen functional groups | \n[29] | \n
\n | Oxidation reactions (promoted by other oxidants) | \n\n | \n |
rGO | \nOxidation of pollutants (H2O2) | \nElectron rich oxygen groups | \n[30] | \n
\n | Reduction reactions | \n\n | \n |
B, N or O doped G ribbon edges | \nH2 dissociative adsorption chemisorption on G ribbon edge | \nBeneficial B doping | \n[31] | \n
\n | Acid reactions | \n\n | \n |
rGO-SO3H | \nDehydration of xylose to furfural | \n─SO3H are active sites | \n[32] | \n
\n | Base reactions | \n\n | \n |
rGO-NEt3 | \nHydrolysis of ethyl acetate | \nAmino groups are active sites | \n[33] | \n
rGO-PAMAM | \nKnoevenagel condensation | \nBasic sites of the catalyst | \n[34] | \n
\n | Thermal decomposition reaction | \n\n | \n |
rGO | \nThermal dehydrogenation and rehydrogenation of LiBH4 | \n\n | [35] | \n
Catalytic reactions by GO and chemically converted GO. (B, N)-doped holy G [(BN)HolG], reduced graphene oxide (rGO), triethylamine modified rGO (rGO-NEt3), rGO functionalized with ─SO3H (rGO-SO3H) and poly(amidoamine)-modified rGO (rGO-PAMAM).
Further, the two-dimensional surface of graphene based materials can be used to anchor other active catalysts as well as biocatalysts. For example, the catalytic activity of several enzymes including cytochromes, peroxidases, myoglobins, and hemoglobins supported on graphene surface enhances several folds compared to the unsupported enzymes towards the oxidation reaction of pyrogallol [27]. The importance of oxygen functional groups on GO surface has been exploited towards several C─H activation and C─C coupling reactions. The carbocatalytic activity of graphene oxide has successfully been exploited by Ma et al. for the C─H bond arylation of benzene enabling biaryl construction. The oxygen functional groups in these graphene oxide sheets and presence of KOtBu were demonstrated to be essential for the observed catalytic activity. Several model reactions and DFT calculations confirmed that the negatively charged oxygen atoms promote the overall transformation by stabilizing and activating K+ ions, which in turns facilitates the activation of the C─I bond. The π basal plane also greatly facilitates the overall reaction as the aromatic coupling partners are easily adsorbed on the 2d surface [36]. Transition-metal-catalyzed alkylation reactions of arenes have turn out to be a central transformation in organic synthesis. Szostak et al. developed the first general strategy for alkylation of arenes with styrenes and alcohols catalyzed by carbon-based materials, exploiting the unique surface property of graphene oxide to produce valuable diarylalkanes with excellent yields and regioselectivity. Remarkably, this protocol represents the first general application of graphene oxide to promote direct C─C bond formation utilizing oxygenated functional groups present on GO surface [37]. Recently, our research group have demonstrated the dual carbocatalytic activity of graphene oxide for the C─N coupling reaction towards the formation of α-ketoamides through a cross-dehydrogenative coupling pathway [38]. The presence of polar functional groups (e.g., carboxyl, hydroxyl, ketonic, and epoxides) on graphene oxide surface induce acidic as well as oxidizing properties to the material. This dual catalytic property of the material is explored towards the generation of α-ketoamides where surface acidity favors the initial formation of hemiaminal intermediate followed by oxidation leading to the desired final product. Several control experiments as well as thermal treatment showed that it is the oxygen functional groups, especially carboxylic acid group that is only responsible for the observed catalytic activity. The protocol could also be extended towards the synthesis of biologically important α-ketoamides. On the other hand graphene surface can also be used as support for immobilization of several metal/metal oxide nanoparticles and used for several electrocatalysis, photocatalysis and organic transformations [39, 40]. For example, Pd nanoparticle immobilized on graphene oxide gave remarkable turnover frequencies (TOF > 39,000 h−1) in Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reactions. Microwave assisted reduction of well-dispersed GO and palladium salt to form Pd/rGO [41] demonstrated outstanding catalytic activity for the Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reaction (TOF up to 108,000 h−1) under ligand-free conditions, which was attributed to the high concentration of well dispersed Pd-NPs.
\nThe carbon based nanomaterials have already demonstrated their enormous potential either as catalysts or heterogeneous catalyst supports. Graphene oxide with oxygenated functional groups on their surface could act as active sites for various acid catalyzed and oxidative catalytic reactions. Recent advancement of these graphene based materials shows that the modification of graphene surface by different methods leads to generation of holes which acts as traps for reactive oxygen species for many challenging organic reactions [42]. Hence tremendous possibilities of these carbonaceous nanomaterials remain to explore in various fields including chemical synthesis, energy storage, fuel-cells, environmental remediation and organism degradation. Carbon nanodots are the recent inclusion to the nanocarbon family. The excellent photoluminescence properties of carbon nanodots have directed their application in different fields including sensing, optoelectronics, bio imaging, nanomedicine, etc. Although they are widely explored in sensing as well as bio-medical application, their inherent photocatalytic capability towards organic synthesis has not been explored much. So, the development of carbon nanodots towards organic synthesis may result in an important alternative to the traditional transition metal based catalysts. There are still huge scope towards (i) high performance carbon catalyst specific for desired products, (ii) development of chiral carbon nanomaterials for enantioselective synthesis, (iii) affordable methods for large scale synthesis, industrial scalability and economic viability, (iv) detailed elucidation of catalytic mechanism that can bring further improvements in catalytic activity and (v) stability of the catalyst to maintain excellent catalytic activity during recycling. Overall, development of carbon related catalysts with broader applications is imminent towards green and sustainable chemistry.
\nIn this chapter, we have reviewed the inherent carbocatalytic activity of graphene oxide towards different organic transformations. The π-π* network as well as oxygenated functional groups present over the GO surface both contributed towards the enhanced catalytic activity. The presence of π-π* network on graphene surface helped the substrate molecules getting adsorbed over the catalyst surface and the oxygenated functional groups catalyzed the reaction. The oxygenated functional groups acted as the active site for several acid catalyzed as well as oxidation reactions. Further, the presence of various oxygenated functionalities on the surface of graphene oxide could be used for anchoring other active catalysts such as metal and metal oxide nanoparticles. The reducing capability of these nanocarbons could also be envisaged for reduction of metal ions to nanoparticles.
\nConsider a monkey named Sue who is given a word processor with
If Sue is handed such a machine and pounds away, randomly, it is clear that most of what she types will be complete gibberish. A stray segment of sense such as “dog eat HAy” or even “Ronnie ReAGan our 40th PresiD
The purpose of this chapter is to show that if Sue types infinitely, the above works (and any others that one may choose to add to the list) will each be typed, not once, not twice, but infinitely often with a probability of 1. This dramatic fact is a simple consequence of the Borel-Cantelli lemma and will come as no surprise to anyone who has taken a serious graduate-level course in Probability. The proof of this result, however, is quite accessible to anyone who has but a rudimentary understanding of the concept of independence.
The reader is invited, while reading this chapter, to let his/her imagination run wild, and concoct a plethora of similar examples. A somewhat mundane objection may be raised immediately: how can Sue (or anyone else for that matter) type indefinitely? We shall not dwell on this nonmathematical problem, but will remark instead (and prove a little later) that Sue’s never-ending assignment is mathematically equivalent to the task of randomly selecting a number from the interval
We would like to mention that our problem is related to the famous “Problem of a printed line,” a popular account of which can be found in George Gamow’s classic book [1]. The solution presented there, however, is entirely deterministic and of a finite character: the automatic printing press considered by Gamow does not print indefinitely, and the probabilities of various outcomes are not calculated.
Consider any sequence
and
It follows that
To better understand this somewhat complicated set, we first let
The set
In a similar fashion, we observe that the set
is a collection of those points
as must
If
A useful dual relation between these two sets is
and
where
A few examples should help familiarize the reader with the above notions: the second and the third are taken from [2]:
Example 1. If
Example 2. If
Example 3. if
and
In what follows, the set
If
If
This restriction ensures that sets such as
Definition: The sequence of events
Stated informally, this means that the occurrence (or nonoccurrence) of any finite subcollection
The events
The Borel-Cantelli lemma is a two-pronged theorem, which asserts that the probability of occurrence of an infinite number of the independent events
Theorem 2.1.(The Borel-Cantelli lemma, [3, 4]).
If
If
The following lemma can be proved using elementary properties of probability measures:
Lemma 2.2.If
Proof of Theorem 2.1
For any
On letting
proving part (a).
We shall prove that
where the last inequality follows from the fact that
which proves that
proving the result.
As seen by the dates on Refs. [3, 4], the Borel-Cantelli lemmas are classical, and now part of virtually all graduate level books on Probability such as [2]. Since then, for over 100 years, the literature on the lemmas has focused on weakening the independence requirement in the second lemma, or looking at more complicated probability models that yield the same conclusions. See for example [5, 6, 7]. What distinguishes this work from these and others is that we provide a very down-to-earth application that forces the reader to come to terms with the notions of independence and infinity, as opposed to the finite samples one has in statistical situations. It is a paper that we feel can cause amusement, astonishment, false disbelief, and, ultimately, understanding. With this backdrop, we are now in a position to start establishing the claim made at the beginning of this chapter:
Corollary 2.3.If Sue types indefinitely, by successively and independently choosing one of the
Proof. Let
Lemma 2.4.If
Proof: Boole’s inequality states that
Thus
Corollary 2.5.If Sue types indefinitely, then every piece of writing (of any finite length whatsoever; published, unpublished, or yet to be written by yet unborn individuals; meaningful or gibberish) will be typed by her, infinitely often each, with a probability of 1.
Proof. Denote the works by
Example 4. (Statistical tests of hypotheses) If a fair coin is tossed infinitely often, a sequence of
Now, if a coin (of unknown origin) were tossed a million times, and a head appeared each time, the “null” statistical hypothesis
would be summarily rejected at most conventional (5, 1, 0.00001%) levels of significance. The point to note, however, is that such “extreme” and “erratic” behavior will be exhibited on an infinite number of occasions by any fair coin (and by all coins with
Similarly, if a fair coin is tossed infinitely often, an
In the above discussion, we often concluded that a particular event (e.g., Hamlet is typed infinitely often) occurred with probability 1. One fundamental question that we did not address, however, was the following: just what probability model describes infinite coin tossing or simian typewriting? Put another way, what are the sample spaces associated with these two experiments? And what exactly is the probability of an event defined to be? We realize then, in retrospect, that we had put the cart before the horse; various events were shown to have probability 1, by assuming the existence of a logically consistent probability (measure) on a sample space that had not been fully described. This practice is fairly standard in the teaching of probability; for example, sequences
We shall start by noting that three tosses of a fair coin lead to the eight-point sample space
It seems reasonable to assign probability 1/8 to each of these eight points; thus the probability
Our analysis is thus complete, and can easily be extended to any finite number of coin tosses. The situation gets rapidly more complicated if the coin is tossed endlessly. This experiment cannot be conceived, carried out, or justified “in practice,” and our neat conclusions would be rendered meaningless if we were unable to mathematically model our procedure. Happily, however, this is not the case. We simply let
A typical element of
The next step is crucial. We identify each element of
A problem arises immediately: Numbers of the form
It is possible to show, in a somewhat non-rigorous fashion (i.e., without using much measure theory), or rigorously, by introducing Lebesgue measure, that infinite coin tossing is mathematically equivalent to choosing a number randomly from the interval [0,1]. It can be shown, in a completely analogous way, that infinite random typewriting is equivalent to the single random choice of a number in [0,1]. We need of course, to consider the
Example 5. (Random Numbers) Let the random variable
where
This result may be compared with a mundane fact of “reality”: If a person, computer, pointer, or random number generator were asked to choose
We would like to next state a thrilling result, called Borel’s law of normal numbers [3]: A number in [0,1] is said to be normal, if its decimal representation has, asymptotically, an equal frequency of the digits 0 through 9:
for each
which is somewhat surprising, since it is awfully hard to think of a single number that is normal (the number 0.012345678910111213…, obtained by writing each integer successively, is known to be normal; the proof is not trivial).
The Borel-Cantelli lemma yields several consequences that may, at first glance, seem to contradict Borel’s normal number law:
Almost all the numbers in [0,1] (i.e., all except some with zero Lebesgue measure) have decimal expansions that contain infinitely many chains of length 1000, say, that contain no numbers except 2,3, and 4. The nice part is, of course, that almost all of these numbers are normal as well, and so on.
The moral of the Borel-Cantelli lemma should, by now, be quite clear: “The realization of a truly random infinite procedure will, with probability one, contain infinitely many segments that exhibit extreme ‘non-randomness’, of all sizes, patterns and intensities.” The Borel-Cantelli lemma is, after all, a limit theorem of probability, and a quote from the classic treatise of Gnedenko and Kolmogorov [9] might be in order as well: “In reality, however, the epistemological value of the theory of probability is revealed only by limit theorems. Moreover, without limit theorems, it is impossible to understand the real content of the primary concept of all our sciences—the concept of probability.”
The main results of this chapter, accessible to a second-year undergraduate, are Corollaries 2.3 and 2.5. They follow from the Borel-Cantelli lemmas and Boole’s inequality, respectively. Corollary 2.3 states that in an infinite sequence of keystrokes, any fixed-length “work” appears infinitely often with probability 1. Most undergraduates that the author has taught have great difficulty believing this fact, since most statistical tests, for example, are based on finite samples. Corollary 2.5 goes one step further, proving that every finite-length piece of work, even those yet unwritten, will each appear infinitely often with probability 1. The undergraduate reader will undoubtedly appreciate the “power of infinity” on reading this chapter, while graduate students will enjoy a nonpractical yet deep application of the Borel-Cantelli lemmas.
Example 4 makes a contrast between the finite situation and the infinite one. An important practical problem in this regard would be to use Poisson approximations as in [10] to find the approximate probability that a specific work occurs
Book - collection of Works distributed in a book format, whose selection, coordination, preparation, and arrangement has been performed and published by IntechOpen, and in which the Work is included in its entirety in an unmodified form along with one or more other contributions, each constituting separate and independent sections, but together assembled into a collective whole.
",metaTitle:"Attribution Policy",metaDescription:"DEFINITION OF TERMS",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/attribution-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Work - a book Chapter (as well as Conference Papers), including any and all content, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of, or accompanying, the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\\n\\nAttribution – appropriate credit for the used Work or book.
\\n\\nCreative Commons licenses – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.
\\n\\nWith the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.
\\n\\nIn case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.
\\n\\nA Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nIn instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
\\n\\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nIndividual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
\\n\\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nIn the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.
\\n\\nIntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
\\n\\nAll these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
\\n\\nParts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
\\n\\nAll the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Work - a book Chapter (as well as Conference Papers), including any and all content, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of, or accompanying, the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nAttribution – appropriate credit for the used Work or book.
\n\nCreative Commons licenses – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.
\n\nWith the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\nIn case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:
\n\nAll rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.
\n\nA Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nIn instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
\n\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nIndividual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
\n\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nIn the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.
\n\nIntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
\n\nAll these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
\n\nParts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
\n\nAll the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5698},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5172},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1689},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10244},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:888},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15650}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117315},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"535"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:62},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:0},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5141},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8063",title:"Food Security in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cbf3d662b104d19db2efc9d59249efc",slug:"food-security-in-africa",bookSignature:"Barakat Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10118",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c68b09d2d2634fc719ae3b9a64a27839",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1267",title:"Computer Simulation",slug:"automation-computer-simulation",parent:{title:"Automation",slug:"automation"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1,numberOfWosCitations:43,numberOfCrossrefCitations:26,numberOfDimensionsCitations:48,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"automation-computer-simulation",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"3607",title:"Automation and Robotics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"automation_and_robotics",bookSignature:"Juan Manuel Ramos Arreguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3607.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6112",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan-Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos-Arreguin",slug:"juan-manuel-ramos-arreguin",fullName:"Juan-Manuel Ramos-Arreguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"5827",doi:"10.5772/6116",title:"Nonlinear Adaptive Tracking-Control Synthesis for General Linearly Parametrized Systems",slug:"nonlinear_adaptive_tracking-control_synthesis_for_general_linearly_parametrized_systems",totalDownloads:1922,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"automation_and_robotics",title:"Automation and Robotics",fullTitle:"Automation and Robotics"},signatures:"Zenon Zwierzewicz",authors:null},{id:"5820",doi:"10.5772/6108",title:"Derivation and Calculation of the Dynamics of Elastic Parallel Manipulators",slug:"derivation_and_calculation_of_the_dynamics_of_elastic_parallel_manipulators",totalDownloads:2829,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"automation_and_robotics",title:"Automation and Robotics",fullTitle:"Automation and Robotics"},signatures:"Krzysztof Stachera and Walter Schumacher",authors:null},{id:"5823",doi:"10.5772/6111",title:"Automatization of Decision Processes in Conflict Situations: Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",slug:"automatization_of_decision_processes_in_conflict_situations__modelling__simulation_and_optimization",totalDownloads:2089,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"automation_and_robotics",title:"Automation and Robotics",fullTitle:"Automation and Robotics"},signatures:"Zbigniew Tarapata",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"5827",title:"Nonlinear Adaptive Tracking-Control Synthesis for General Linearly Parametrized Systems",slug:"nonlinear_adaptive_tracking-control_synthesis_for_general_linearly_parametrized_systems",totalDownloads:1922,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"automation_and_robotics",title:"Automation and Robotics",fullTitle:"Automation and Robotics"},signatures:"Zenon Zwierzewicz",authors:null},{id:"5808",title:"Vision Guided Robot Gripping Systems",slug:"vision_guided_robot_gripping_systems",totalDownloads:3549,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"automation_and_robotics",title:"Automation and Robotics",fullTitle:"Automation and Robotics"},signatures:"Zdzislaw Kowalczuk and Daniel Wesierski",authors:null},{id:"5824",title:"Fuzzy Knowledge Representation Using Probability Measures of Fuzzy Events",slug:"fuzzy_knowledge_representation___using_probability_measures_of_fuzzy_events",totalDownloads:2368,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"automation_and_robotics",title:"Automation and Robotics",fullTitle:"Automation and Robotics"},signatures:"Anna Walaszek-Babiszewska",authors:null},{id:"5821",title:"Orthonormal Basis and Radial Basis Functions in Modeling and Identification of Nonlinear Block-Oriented Systems",slug:"orthonormal_basis_and_radial_basis_functions__in_modeling_and_identification_of_nonlinear__block-ori",totalDownloads:2470,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"automation_and_robotics",title:"Automation and Robotics",fullTitle:"Automation and Robotics"},signatures:"Rafal Stanislawski and Krzysztof J. Latawiec",authors:null},{id:"5806",title:"Tracking Control for Multiple Trailer Systems by Adaptive Algorithmic Control",slug:"tracking_control_for_multiple_trailer_systems_by_adaptive_algorithmic_control",totalDownloads:2746,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"automation_and_robotics",title:"Automation and Robotics",fullTitle:"Automation and Robotics"},signatures:"Tomoaki Kobayashi, Toru Yoshida, Junichi Maenishi, Joe Imae and Guisheng Zhai",authors:null},{id:"5816",title:"Pneumatic Fuzzy Controller Simulation vs Practical Results for Flexible Manipulator",slug:"pneumatic_fuzzy_controller_simulation_vs_practical_results_for_flexible_manipulator",totalDownloads:3743,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"automation_and_robotics",title:"Automation and Robotics",fullTitle:"Automation and Robotics"},signatures:"Juan Manuel Ramos-Arreguin, Jesus Carlos Pedraza-Ortega, Efren Gorrostieta-Hurtado, Rene de Jesus Romero-Troncoso, Jose Emilio Vargas-Soto and Francisco Hernandez-Hernandez",authors:null},{id:"5817",title:"Nonlinear Control Strategies for Bioprocesses: Sliding Mode Control versus Vibrational Control",slug:"nonlinear_control_strategies_for_bioprocesses__sliding_mode_control_versus_vibrational_control",totalDownloads:2516,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"automation_and_robotics",title:"Automation and Robotics",fullTitle:"Automation and Robotics"},signatures:"Dan Selisteanu, Emil Petre, Dorin Popescu and Eugen Bobasu",authors:null},{id:"5818",title:"Sliding Mode Observers for Rotational Robotics Structures",slug:"sliding_mode_observers_for_rotational_robotics_structures",totalDownloads:4267,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"automation_and_robotics",title:"Automation and Robotics",fullTitle:"Automation and Robotics"},signatures:"Dorin Sendrescu, Dan Selisteanu, Emil Petre and Cosmin Ionete",authors:null},{id:"5825",title:"Multiple Multi-Objective Servo Design - Evolutionary Approach",slug:"multiple_multi-objective_servo_design_-_evolutionary_approach_",totalDownloads:2209,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"automation_and_robotics",title:"Automation and Robotics",fullTitle:"Automation and Robotics"},signatures:"Piotr Wozniak",authors:null},{id:"5809",title:"Closed-Loop Feedback Systems in Automation and Robotics, Adaptive and Partial Stabilization",slug:"closed-loop_feedback_systems_in_automation_and_robotics____adaptive_and_partial_stabilization__",totalDownloads:3110,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"automation_and_robotics",title:"Automation and Robotics",fullTitle:"Automation and Robotics"},signatures:"G. R. Rokni Lamooki",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"automation-computer-simulation",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/140504/feng-jin",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"140504",slug:"feng-jin"},fullPath:"/profiles/140504/feng-jin",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()