\r\n\tComputational fluid dynamics is composed of turbulence and modeling, turbulent heat transfer, fluid-solid interaction, chemical reactions and combustion, the finite volume method for unsteady flows, sports engineering problem and simulations - Aerodynamics, fluid dynamics, biomechanics, blood flow.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-248-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-247-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-321-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1f8fd29e4b72dbfe632f47840b369b11",bookSignature:"Dr. Suvanjan Bhattacharyya",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10695.jpg",keywords:"Free Turbulent Flow, Discretisation Methods, Aerodynamics, Phase Flow, Bluff-Body, Complex Geometries, Drag Force, Flow Separation, Laminar Diffusion Flame, Non-Premixed Combustion, Fluid Dynamics, Biomechanics",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 28th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 25th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 26th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 13th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Suvanjan Bhattacharyya is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering of BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus. His research interest lies in computational fluid dynamics, experimental heat transfer enhancement, solar energy, renewable energy, etc.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"233630",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvanjan",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"suvanjan-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Suvanjan Bhattacharyya",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233630/images/system/233630.png",biography:"Dr. Suvanjan Bhattacharyya is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering of BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, India. Dr. Bhattacharyya completed his post-doctoral research at the Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, University of Pretoria, South Africa. Dr. Bhattacharyya completed his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India and with the collaboration of Duesseldorf University of Applied Sciences, Germany. He received his Master’s degree from the Indian Institute of Engineering, Science and Technology, India (Formerly known as Bengal Engineering and Science University), on Heat-Power Engineering.\nHis research interest lies in computational fluid dynamics in fluid flow and heat transfer, specializing on laminar, turbulent, transition, steady, unsteady separated flows and convective heat transfer, experimental heat transfer enhancement, solar energy and renewable energy. He is the author and co-author of 107 papers in high ranked journals and prestigious conference proceedings. He has bagged the best paper award in a number of international conferences as well. He is also in editorial boards of 15 Journals and reviewers of more than 40 prestigious Journals.",institutionString:"Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"194667",firstName:"Marijana",lastName:"Francetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194667/images/4752_n.jpg",email:"marijana@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8679",title:"Inverse Heat Conduction and Heat Exchangers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a994b17ac471c6d414d63c74a7ab74de",slug:"inverse-heat-conduction-and-heat-exchangers",bookSignature:"Suvanjan Bhattacharya, Mohammad Moghimi Ardekani, Ranjib Biswas and R. C. Mehta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8679.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233630",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvanjan",surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"suvanjan-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Suvanjan Bhattacharyya"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50458",title:"Securing the Home Energy Management Platform",doi:"10.5772/62923",slug:"securing-the-home-energy-management-platform",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
A smart grid is a vision of a more intelligent electrical infrastructure. It is envisioned to provide a more reliable and effective electrical grid in the process of integrating more intermittent renewable energy sources, like wind power and solar power. This will demand for systems that will continuously monitor and manage end‐points of the grid, for example, an end‐point as the residential sector that consumes around 31% of the electricity worldwide [1][1] -. These systems are known as Energy Management Systems (EMSs)[1] -. EMSs aim at utilising the grid capacity more efficiently in terms of instantaneous demand and generation. This includes flattening the peak demand by giving the demand‐side awareness about the time periods it is “smart” to consume energy [2].
\n
Ensuring security and privacy are becoming important issues to address with the deployment of smart meters. Smart meters are devices that record the electric consumption and production and communicates this information automatically to the utility. Research has shown that information from smart meters can reveal personal habits and disclose details about the residents living there. Furthermore, the situation exacerbates if additional meters and actuators are installed on the most consuming devices for Direct Load Control (DLC) in the demand response paradigm. Therefore, security and privacy enhanced system architectures suggest, a Home Energy Management System (HEMS) that runs locally inside the residential home, among other things to resolve privacy issues.
\n
Figure 1.
The considered stack for a HEMS.
\n
This chapter describes security and privacy issues for a HEMS in an SOA. It focuses on the Home Energy Management Platform (HEMP) provider [also in other contexts referred to as the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM)]. A HEMP provider is responsible for the platform, which the software developers and service providers can deploy their software and services on as seen in Figure 1. A HEMP provider creates the platform that facilitates security and privacy in several layers. Following a holistic approach, a threat modelling approach is used that considers the interdependencies between stakeholders of the system before identifying the threats the system faces. A risk assessment is made on the identified threats, and possible mitigation strategies are presented based on a review of the state of the art in hardware security. Based on the threat analysis, recommendations to create a secure HEMS are provided.
\n
\n
\n
2. Background and related work
\n
A preliminary review of the domain is presented before developing a threat model for the HEMP. The review includes a description of general threat modelling approaches together with commonly used diagrams to perform the analysis.
\n
\n
2.1. Threat modelling approaches
\n
Threat modelling is a systematic approach that supports the process of finding the appropriate technical solutions for enforcing security and privacy. It considers the potential threats with the greatest impact and addresses these first.
\n
There are generally three approaches to threat modelling [3]:
Assets‐centric: Assets define things that need protection, or things the attacker wants or something in between those two. The approach focusses on defining the assets of the system and afterwards, analysing the flow of assets within an organisation. The model can then be applied with an attack set like STRIDE [3], which is a mnemonic for Spoofing, Tampering, Repudiation, Information disclosure, Denial of service and Elevation of Privilege.
Attacker‐centric: Envisioned attackers are defined in terms of resources and capabilities. An attacker model identifies a number of scenarios where an attacker can break the system both directly and indirectly. Directly, in terms of exploiting, for example, software vulnerabilities, and indirectly, in terms of exploiting humans that have privileges within the system.
System‐centric3Is often called software-centric, but for the sake of generality we use the term system-centric.: The approach attempts to look at the designed system as a whole. As the system is being designed, the threat model is continuously being developed or updated. The threat model includes finding threats using, for example, STRIDE and attack trees [3].
\n
When comparing the approaches, the system‐centric approach more tightly couples with the development process, whereas the asset‐centric approach and attacker‐centric approach can be considered more “detached” and are typically performed separate from the software development.
\n
\n
2.1.1. Diagrams for threat modelling
\n
The typical diagrams for revealing threats focus on describing the domain or the data flows within the considered system. The goals of these diagrams are to create a common view of the system and to make the communication paths visible. These diagrams provide an abstraction of the system which allows system architects and software developers to create a common view of the system and define the system boundaries.
\n
The Unified Modelling Language (UML) [4] is general‐purpose modelling language that specifies a set of diagrams for modelling systems. It provides a standardised way of modelling systems and provides two fundamental representations of a system: behavioural models and structural models. Behavioural models, such as use case diagrams, can be beneficial to identify stakeholders and describe a proposed functionality. Structural models, such as class diagrams, are useful for describing the domain which includes objects, attributions, operations and relationships.
\n
Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs) have traditionally been used for threat modelling, since the threat problems tend to follow the data flow not the control flow [3]. It is used for describing how data enter and leave the system. The basic elements for modelling the system are shown in Table 1. The system is typically modelled with specific scope, where the external system that provides the system with data is modelled using the external entity element. The system of interest consists of a number of processes and data stores with data flow between them. To define the boundary between trust elements and non‐trusted elements, DFD also includes trust boundaries. Trust boundaries visualise where data flows intersect between the system and a malicious actor.
\n
Table 1.
The basic elements of a DFD.
\n
By modelling the specific system with DFD elements, it is possible to map these elements to the STRIDE threats. For instance, an external entity for the system can generate a spoofing threat, that is, an external entity can pretend to be something or someone else than originally thought of. By enforcing an authentication mechanism, it is possible to mitigate the threat if the external entity was trying to spoof a person or a thing.
\n
\n
\n
\n
2.2. Home energy management software platforms
\n
As depicted in Figure 1, the HEMS consists of a software platform that provides the middleware for interoperable communication between devices and services. In the following, two open source EMSs are presented. Both use the OSGi (Open Service Gateway Initiative) architecture that specifies a modular and service‐based software platform implemented in Java.
\n
\n
2.2.1. OpenHAB
\n
The openHAB project[1] - is an open software framework that focusses on enabling home automation by joining systems and technologies available in the smart home domain. It allows for automation rules and offers a single user interface for all such systems. The openHAB software is capable of running on any device that supports the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). The architecture consists of three main components: the OSGi framework, openHAB Core Components and openHAB Add‐ons. The OSGi framework and the openHAB Core Components represent the internal communication infrastructure and base libraries. The openHAB Add‐ons include a large set of protocol bindings that map between other home automation protocols to an abstract data model. It includes an “item” repository, where an item can be interpreted as an abstraction for a property a device can actuate. The openHAB framework provides mechanisms for securing the communication to the openHAB software platform, but does not have additional security features beside what the OSGi framework can provide.
\n
\n
\n
2.2.2. OGEMA
\n
Open Gateway Energy Management (OGEMA)[1] - is an open software framework for smart grid services. It represents a system that supports building automation control and energy management for residential and industrial environments. The framework rests on a hardware‐independent platform with a common execution environment for all deployable services. OGEMA uses the OSGi Java framework enabling a modular and dynamic software environment. The OGEMA framework consists of the following entities:
OGEMA Services: Common services like resource administration, user interface, web interface and data logging, but also a common data model and access control.
Resources: Data structures according to the data model representing the connected devices.
Applications: Services for, for example, price‐based management and energy analysis.
Communication drivers: Drivers for supporting multiple communication media, for example, ZigBee and EEBus.
\n
The OGEMA architecture embeds three “modes” of security: standard infrastructure, a controlled environment and proof of security [5]. Furthermore, it isolates third‐party applications which can be integrity checked using the public key of the service provider. This is similar to Android\'s permission handling [5]. Since OGEMA framework is restricted to security capability of the OSGi Java framework and the JVM, it is possible for a malicious component to freeze the platform by allocating too much memory or changing shared variables. A possible solution to this issue is the I‐JVM presented in [6].
\n
\n
\n
\n
2.3. Threat analysis of the smart grid domain
\n
Cyber‐Physical Systems (CPSs) and Internet of Things (IoTs) are two research domains that overlap and share similar challenges with the smart grid domain. In [7], they identify four key challenges in designing a secure IoT which include data management, identity management, trust management and privacy. Based on these challenges, they propose hardware‐based mitigation strategies that include Physical Unclonable Function (PUF) for data provenance, integrity and identity management. However, they present a non‐systematic approach where the stakeholders are not clearly identified. In reference [8], they consider threat modelling issues of CPSs. The authors provide a generic model of a CPS and present a case study with a road vehicle. In reference [9], researchers present a survey of security theories, analysis, simulation and application fields but without giving recommendations.
\n
In reference [10], they present a structured method for identifying security threats in smart home scenarios. It is based on a context pattern for the elicitation of domain knowledge for the smart home domain. Using the context pattern for creating DFDs for the smart domain, they identify the entry points and vulnerabilities. This allows them to define the attack paths from entry point to the assets of the system. Their method is sound and structured but lacks possible threat mitigation strategies.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Threat modelling of a home energy management platform
\n
Security experts are encouraging designers to make explicit statements about the security assumptions, when designing and implementing systems. Defining the security assumptions is the first step in order to find the vulnerabilities of a system. With a description of the vulnerabilities, it is possible to assess the risks a given design exposes. Security technologies can then be enforced where the vulnerabilities need to be addressed.
\n
\n
3.1. Methodology
\n
A systematic approach is necessary to discover all the vulnerabilities of a system [10]. Our approach for designing a HEMP is shown in Figure 2, consisting of five steps. The methodology is based on the work presented in references [3, 10, 11], but adapted to our work.
\n
Figure 2.
The methodology for performing the threat modelling.
\n
The following gives a description of the six steps in our method:
Step 1. Define context and objectives—The context represents the identification of the main stakeholders of the system, the general system architecture and the desired objectives. The purpose of this step is to create the scope of interest and focus on the analysis. Part of the context is the review of regulations with the smart grid area and to describe the considered use cases. This includes also defining the dependency between stakeholders. With the definition of the context and objectives, requirements can be elicited.
Step 2. Define DFD—Using the previously defined context, the flow of information is modelled through DFDs. Context elements are mapped to elements that present input/output, processes, data flow and data storage. In the modelling process, the context can be refined, for example, adding additional stakeholders or modifying the system architecture. Furthermore, it supports the process of modelling the domain knowledge to DFD elements. With the process of defining the context and modelling, the DFD represent the high‐level system description.
Step 3. Identify assets and vulnerabilitiesbased on DFD elements—Based on the DFD elements representing the HEMP, the system\'s assets and threats are identified. Assets represent valuable targets for an attacker and are therefore of interest for the attacker. Assets can be both physical and linked to a process. One approach to identify threats for the identified assets is the STRIDE‐per‐element or STRIDE‐per‐interaction approach [3].
Step 4. Risk impact assessment based on attack trees—With explicit threats, the risk impact assessment can be performed using attack trees. The step assesses how noticeable and with what likelihood a threat is. The outcome of this assessment can be either accepted or mitigated using a technical solution. An accepted risk represents a possible attack, but it is typically regarded as unlikely.
Step 5. Selection of mitigation approach—If a threat is unacceptable, a selection of a mitigation solution must be considered. The solution can be based on possible software or hardware technologies that consider an attacker with the same power or more. Mitigation can require a different hardware or software solution. The risk assessment of the threat can help in determining the threat mitigation should be placed in the hardware or software.
\n
\n
\n
3.2. Stakeholders, system architecture and objectives
\n
In Figure 3, the major stakeholders of the HEMS are presented. The residential consumer enables the deployment of HEMSs. Trust to the system, reduction of/control of electricity bills, addressing environmental concerns and better comfort (i.e., provision of technical solutions for better control of own energy use) are the main motivational factors for the residential consumers to adopt a smart grid solution [12]. Smart device vendors build sensors and actuators deployed in homes, for example, Wink,[1] - SmartThings[1] - or Vera[1] - represent an envisioned smart device vendor. Often these vendors can be categorised whether or not they provide a total home automation solution or have upgraded an existing product to be IoT‐enabled. In the envisioned system, the Distribution System Operator (grid operator) is not directly interacting with the HEMS, instead it depends on the smart grid services developed by service providers and deployed by the service market responsible. Services utilise information retrieved from the residential homes and electric grid, to improve electricity usage for both the residential consumers and grid operator. For connecting the services and the smart devices, a communication service provider (CSP) is needed. The software platform providers create the software platform, where services can be executed.
\n
Figure 3.
Overview of the major stakeholders of the HEMS. It is inspired by [32].
\n
The HEMS is considered to be placed in an SOA, where there exist home‐oriented and grid‐oriented services. The services are implemented as web services based on the REpresentational State Transfer (REST) architectural style. The system considers many‐to‐one mapping between the residential consumer and the DSO, that is, the home‐oriented services are executed for each residential consumer, whereas the grid‐oriented services utilise the output for optimising the operation for the DSO.
\n
The rationale of the system architecture is that the home‐oriented services will optimise according to demands of individual homes, whereas the grid‐oriented services will support the operation of the electrical grid. Since grid‐oriented services can be highly valuable for the grid responsible (DSO), these will foster the development of the home‐oriented services. A fundamental requirement for the approach is that the services can be used as building blocks for delivering additional services. For a more detailed insight into the system, the reader is referred to references [13, 14].
\n
Figure 4.
Domain model of the system.
\n
The main characteristics of a service‐oriented system are [15]:
Heterogeneous platform and execution environment.
Communication is handled through standards.
Advances the concept of component‐based software by reducing the coupling between services.
Encourage continuous and independent (re)deployment of software.
\n
The domain model is depicted in Figure 4 using a UML class diagram together with the main stakeholders. It is composed of classes (rectangular icons), packages (folder icons) and actors (stick figures). It considers the domain to consist of two major parts: a service market and a residential home. Both parts include a number of elements (represented as classes) that represent the implementation by a stakeholder. At this stage, only elements that are relevant for an identified stakeholder are considered. The relationship between the elements indicates the multiplicity and type of association. Besides the basic UML arrows representing the associations, two other arrows are drawn. The dependency between the stakeholders is modelled with an open arrow to visualise how stakeholder\'s business objectives are associated with other stakeholders. A closed arrow indicates the realisation of the element.
\n\n
In the process of defining hardware recommendations for the HEMP developer, focus is set on the HEMP developer as depicted and highlighted in Figure 3. As seen in Figure 4, the HEMP developer has several dependencies—either directly or indirectly.
\n
To this end, the objective of the HEMP developer for the HEMS is the following:
The HEMP will provide a security and privacy enhanced platform for service developers to deploy on web service on, while being a trustworthy platform for the residential consumers, service providers and the grid responsible.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.3. Requirements
\n
To identify the security threats and vulnerabilities of the HEMP (see Section 3.5), the necessary requirements, which the platform must adhere to, have to be explicitly stated. An explicit set of requirements can guide the process of designing a platform which is resistant to possible attacks. Furthermore, it allows for a risk assessment of third‐party services installed on the device.
\n
Requirements are usually understood as stating what a system is supposed to do—contrary to how it should do it [16]. It characterises the desired functional behaviour and performance, whereas non‐functional requirements aim at fulfilling a desired property. Non‐functional requirements are usually judged by the operator of the system and relate more to the system architecture, whereas functional requirements are testable.
\n
In the following, both the functional and non‐functional requirements for the HEMP will be presented. The requirements are classified according to the direct stakeholders for the HEMP developer. The rationale is that the requirements and dependencies from the stakeholders will have an impact on the threats and thereby on the mitigation strategies that technical solutions can provide. The listed requirements are derived from use cases and requirements specified in references [14, 17–19].
\n
\n
3.3.1. Software platform developer
\n
An essential feature of the HEMS is to provide an environment for executing services relevant for external actors in the smart grid. This includes services with real‐time dependencies or not. These services can be manufactured by different service providers and therefore depend on an isolated execution environment, if a single service should not crash the system. Moreover, software trends dictate a continuous development and maintenance process to follow an agile development life cycle and fix newly discovered vulnerabilities. Thus, doing updates to the services is vital for its sustainability. Finally, a software platform is responsible for delivering the “knobs” of the smart devices for services and external system to interact with in a secure way. The requirements are as follows:
R1. The HEMS shall support execution of real‐time dependent services, like services for controlling a residential battery according to external signals.
R2. The HEMS employ separation mechanisms to securely isolate services.
R3. The HEMS shall be able to upgrade existing services.
R4. The HEMS shall support remote software updates from the software framework developers for managing services.
R5. The HEMS shall provide security measures appropriate for the protection of integrity and confidentiality of services.
\n
These requirements relate to service providers which represent the main stakeholder of the software platform developer.
\n
\n
\n
3.3.2. Smart device vendor
\n
End devices in the smart grids often represent the load of the electrical system. Giving these devices the ability to communicate with other devices facilitates information to be disseminated to all stakeholders. For the smart devices to be part of the smart grid, a communication infrastructure in the Home Area Network (HAN) that incorporates a heterogeneous set of communication protocols is essential [20, 21]. Furthermore, for smart devices to provide a secure communication path, it is necessary to enable end‐to‐end encryption. The smart device vendors’ requirements are as follows:
R1. The HEMS shall support multiple communication protocols for the HAN.
R2. The HEMS shall provide smart device vendors with the ability to extend the set of communication drivers easily.
R3. The HEMS shall facilitate end‐to‐end encryption between smart devices and the services that utilise and control the smart devices.
\n
Besides depending on the physical communication technology implemented on the HEMS, software drivers are also necessary to provide an interface for a service.
\n
\n
\n
3.3.3. Residential consumer
\n
The intelligent automation of the smart grid depends on the residential consumers. They will be an integral part that will ensure reliability of the electrical grid by modifying the way energy is used. A HEMS can support the behavioural change but requires the acceptance of the residential consumer. It is generally believed that a user‐centric approach is vital, where trust to the system remains one of the priorities [12]. The requirements for a residential consumer are:
R1. The HEMS must secure the confidentially and integrity of meter data.
R2. The HEMS should provide residential consumers the ability to install and uninstall services on demand.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.4. Data flow diagram of the home energy management platform
\n
The main purpose of DFDs is to identify the key data flows in the system. Modelling the data flows, contrary to the control flows, reveals how information is exchanged throughout the system. A DFD model explains who takes part in a process for delivering the information, the information needed to complete a process and what information is stored.
\n
Figure 5 provides an overview of the internal data flows on a HEMS and the HEMS interactions with the external entities based on reference [14]. Besides the DFD symbols presented in Table 1, the DFD is annotated with dotted lines indicating the trust boundaries. These are quantified three trust levels from the HEMP provider\'s point of view. Furthermore, it contains dotted arrows between processes, to indicate how a process affects another process\'s runtime. These are useful for expressing hardware‐related issues.
\n
Figure 5.
DFD of the HEMS.
\n
As seen in Figure 5, seven processes are included in the model. This includes two services: third‐party HEM service and a Meter Data Management (MDM) service. The MDM service is explicitly included to show the data flow of meter data and storage of the smart device configurations. The third‐party HEM service presents any high‐level service useful for smart grid operations. The service manager and software framework manager relate to the continuous maintenance of the software on the HEMS. Lastly, there is a system manager and device manager for the physical interaction with the HEMS.
\n
\n
\n
3.5. Threat analysis
\n
A threat model is a depiction of a system\'s attack surface. An attack surface has numerous threats towards a set of assets within the system. The purpose of mitigation techniques is to protect the assets from a possible attacker. The envisioned attacker can be assigned capabilities, such as being able to have physical access to the system or only have access through the network. Other attackers include social engineers which through “social” interaction can gain unauthorised privileges to the system. This could be attackers using phishing emails to exploit vulnerable code in installed software.
\n
The threats for the HEMP provider are a combination of the indirect threats that the software platform provider faces and the external entities that have physical access to the HEMS. In the following, we classify the considered attacker, identify the assets of the HEMS and elicit a subset of vulnerabilities.
\n
\n
3.5.1. Assets of the HEMS
\n
Assets represent valuable targets for an attacker, and therefore naturally represent the system susceptibility for threats. In the following, the key assets are identified with a description of the reason for its inclusion:
Services: These represent both value‐added services for the residential consumer, but also account for the foundation of service market generation. A compromised service can lead to cyber attacks on homely property. Furthermore, it can also lead to violation of the intellectual property for the service provider, thus undermining a service market. The services are dependent on the software platform provider to secure the services, where it assumes the underlying software stack (e.g., virtual machine, Operating System (OS), etc.) will not be compromised. The services can contain a range of sensible information regarding the residential consumer, for example, granular meter data, personal identifiable information, cryptographic key sets and so on.
Service manager: This process is responsible for presenting, installing, updating and uninstalling services on the HEMS. It is in direct contact with the residential consumer and service market provider. An attack on the service market manager can lead to undermining the service ecosystem with services unable to be update if a critical software patch needs to be installed. It depends on the given privileges from the software platform. It contains the audit of installed services and cryptographic keys to allow for a secure connection to the smart market provider.
System manager: This manager administrates the OS stack including middleware software (JVM, Python interpreter), system libraries and kernel (network interface, memory management, I/O interface, etc.), and therefore performs privileged operations. The entire software framework stack depends on its implementation. Therefore, it is assumed that it is configured and maintained reliably.
\n
\n
\n
3.5.2. Identifying vulnerabilities
\n
Vulnerabilities represent an attacker\'s entry points to the system. It is therefore crucial to identify these entry points in order to mitigate possible attacks. Here the vulnerabilities are presented using the STRIDE‐per‐interaction approach between the service and service manager. Other interactions identified in the DFD are omitted for brevity.
\n
\n
3.5.2.1. Services/service manager
\n
T1. Spoofing: The HEMS contacts the service market provider for exploring, installing, updating the services on Smart Market provider. If the attacker is able to insert spoofed IP packets or DNS packets when the service manager sends requests to the original Service Market site, the service manager can be sent to a site with malicious services.
T2. Tampering: An attacker can inject code for replacing integrity check of installed services. This will lead to malicious services being installed, which were not verified by the service market controller.
T3. Repudiation: Someone[1] - rejects installation of a service in order to deny possible payment for energy bill.
T4. Information disclosure: An attacker is able to see the intellectual property of a service.
T5. Denial of service: If an attacker can block any communication with the service manager, the service manager cannot update installed services.
T6. Elevation of privileges: The HEMS supports third‐party services to be installed through the service market provider. If the service market provider is able to install a service that is able to access outside the boundary of its privileges, an attacker can access the meter data, smart device configurations.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.5.3. Attack trees
\n
Attack trees are useful for visualising the escalation of attacks (see Figure 6). The attack tree shows the root cause of an attack and what an attack subsequently after would allow an attacker to do. What would seem to be a minor attack on the system can propagate through the system, leaving assets exposed for an attacker.
\n
In the following, the threats towards the process with the lowest trust boundary is focussed on for brevity; the “Third‐party HEM service” (where the MDM service is a special case). The threats T1, T2, T4, T5 and T6 can be collected from the root threat “Install of malicious service”. The root of the attack tree is set to this threat. It is presented with the problematic state as root. Each edge in the attack tree is labelled with “{noticeable/likelihood}” measure, to indicate if the attack is believed to be noticeable and the likelihood of such an approach (Figure 6).
\n
Figure 6.
Attacks based on threats towards “Third‐party HEM service”.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Mitigation strategies
\n
Often the time spend on judging the level of the risk should be compared to the time for addressing the threat. When addressing the threat, it is possible to mitigate the risk by redesigning of system architecture, implementing a mitigation feature or simply ignoring it. In the following, the chapter will review for hardware security and privacy mechanisms that mitigate the “install of malicious service” attack.
\n
\n
4.1. Security and privacy technologies
\n
The process of developing a secure hardware platform has recently intensified. Previously, computer security primarily focussed on creating secure software architectures and protocols with the assumption that the lower‐layer applications (e.g., the OS) would be secure. However, flaws in an OS implementation can likely lead to additional vulnerability of the application on top of it. Therefore, researchers have proposed systems for running trusted code on an untrusted OS, but there exists still pitfalls, for example, Iago attacks [22]. In the following, the concept of a Trusted Execution Environment (TEE) will be reviewed as well as technologies that use this concept.
\n
\n
4.1.1. Trusted execution environments
\n
In its essence, a TEE is an environment that you can choose to rely upon to perform sensitive tasks. The goal of TEE is to provide an isolated execution environment, secure storage, remote attestation, secure provisioning and a trusted path [23]. In hardware, it usually defines a distinguished part of the hardware architecture which is encrypted and integrity protected. It isolates an area of the processor, memory and peripherals for performing privileged operations. Next to the TEE, a Rich Execution Environment (REE) is considered outside the Trusted Computing Base (TCB), where both an untrusted OS and untrusted third‐party services can be executed. Despite its realisation in AMD Secure Execution Environment, ARM\'s TrustZone technology [24], and Intel\'s SafeGuard Extensions (SGX) [25], it is not widely used by service developers. In the following, we will examine the hardware security technologies for mitigating the identified risk in Section 3.4.
\n
\n
4.1.1.1. ARM TrustZone technology
\n
The security extensions embedded in the specification of ARMv6 and later are called the TrustZone technology [24]. It provides two operational worlds: a normal world and secure world. This allows for different execution privileges for applications. For instance, an application responsible for handling confidential data can be executed in the secure world, without a normal application being aware about; even with vulnerabilities in the normal world\'s OS. The two worlds are executed through two virtual processors with hardware access controls to switch between the two worlds. The hardware access switch defines the active components in the hardware when switched. Traditionally, ARM TrustZone has primarily been used for Digital Rights Management (DRM) or banking applications, but are not restricted to those types of applications.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.1.2. Intel SGX
\n
Intel\'s SGX extension is a set of instructions and mechanisms for managing the memory access to the Intel Architecture processors [25]. The main principle relies upon the concept of a protected memory container, also referred to as an enclave. The enclave can be created through application code, where sensitive data are explicitly marked. When the application is executed, a sensitive part of the application\'s memory space is encapsulated within an enclave. This enclave ensures that the confidentially and integrity of that memory space are sustained even with the presence of privileged malware (i.e., super‐user capabilities). Furthermore, to ensure the integrity of the application inside the enclave, Intel SGX supports CPU‐based attestation and sealing. An audited process monitors the built process of the enclave and assesses the identity of the hardware from where the enclave should be executed. Before the application is executed of the CPU, the identity of the hardware is verified through the sealing identity. It contains a digital signature (known as report) of the enclave\'s initial state. The enclave is then capable of receiving a report of the state, verifying its correctness. To verify that the correct software has been instantiated on the platform to remote system, it can perform an attestation with the SGX‐supported processor (known as quote). This can prove to a remote system that application has been sent to a genuine SGX implementation. The reader is referred to [26] for a thorough description of the Intel SGX technology.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.1.3. TrustLite and TyTAN
\n
TrustLite [27] is a security architecture for resource constrained embedded systems that generally have to be cost effective in terms of development and production costs. The architecture allows for software isolation with execution‐aware memory protection. The memory protection enforces a strict access control on memory by considering the program counter. Furthermore, it includes a secure exception engine that protects tasks from unauthorised exception handling. It has a secure loader that enables update of the security policy as well as prevents memory leakages after resetting the platform. However, TrustLite is static in terms of loading software components and their isolation, since this is required at boot time. TyTAN [28] leverages the TrustLite architecture for providing dynamically loading software components together with an integrated real‐time system.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.1.4. Haven
\n
The objective of Haven security architecture [29] is to protect the confidentiality and integrity of a user\'s unmodified application in the cloud from an untrusted cloud provider. It is assumed that the processor is implemented correctly, but otherwise it is assumed that the adversary can access everything else, including memory and I/O devices. On software level, it is assumed that the adversary has full access to the entire software stack, including the OS, hypervisor, Basic Input/Output System (BIOS), device firmware and so on.
\n
The inventors of Haven solve the confidentiality and integrity problem by using an inverse sandboxing technique also known as a shielded execution. Their solution is called Haven, and it leverages the Intel SGX and Microsoft\'s Drawbridge project [30]. Intel SGX allows application developers to protect their data from unauthorised access or modification by software that have highest privilege levels (e.g., a super‐user).
\n
The deployment process of the Haven application is similar to the deployment of a regular cloud application, with the additional step of verifying that the process was correctly performed (the attestation from the Intel CPU). It is assumed that the cloud provider provides an Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), that delivers the storage, hardware and networking components on a virtualisation platform (e.g., KVM, Xen, etc.).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4.2. Recommendations and conclusion
\n
Recommendations for a HEMP provider are given based on the vulnerabilities discovered from the threat model and the review of hardware security technologies based on TEE. Some of these recommendations reflect the challenges the security community and the hardware manufacturers are facing today, thus implementation details are still unexplored. Therefore, this chapter limits the thoroughness of recommendations to a problem description and possible approaches that need to be adapted for the HEMS. The problem description is linked to the identified requirements and threats, where the approaches are linked to the hardware technology review. The list of recommendations is as follows:
The HEMP should support isolation of services in terms of data and resources: At the service layer envisioned for the HEMS, software frameworks for energy management already provide isolation of services (e.g., OSGi‐based software frameworks). However, as services become mission critical in relation to energy management, the computational resources must also be isolated. Furthermore, as services need different privileges for accessing data, the HEMS should provide a data isolation mechanism. An application isolation mechanism based on the TyTAN security architecture [28] could comply with such demands. Furthermore, it allows the use of real‐time‐dependent intelligent automation services and allows for securely installing additional communication drivers (see R1, R2, R6, R7 R9, R10, R11).
The HEMP could provide an inverse sandboxing mechanism, if the deployment of a service is sensitive for access or modification by highest privileged users: Acting as a platform for intelligent automation services to be deployed on, the service provider might have contractual agreement with the residential consumer about their electricity consumption. For achieving this, the service providers must ensure the integrity and confidentially of the intelligent automation services. This can be achieved, for example, by using the inverse sandboxing mechanism that the Haven [91] security architecture provides (see R5).
The HEMP should place the device authentication process and the update process in a trusted environments and vulnerable data in a secure data storage (e.g., containing private keys) Authentication becomes a larger problem in the smart grid because of the necessity of self-organisation. A possible solution is presented in [31] which is based on TEE (see R3, R4, R7, R8).
\n
Constructing a HEMP, which is both secure and ensures the privacy of considered data assets, is challenging. But in order to do so, an important property for enforcing security is to build it in the system and not onto the system. This chapter contributes with a threat modelling of HEMS based on the requirement and design phases of the Microsoft Security Development Lifecycle. A domain model is constructed using UML, and the requirements are elicited from use cases for HEMS under research. A DFD models an abstract HEMS platform based on a combination of the architecture of OGEMA framework and reference architecture of a mobile platform [32]. Based on a threat analysis of the DFD, an attack tree is constructed with the focus on a malicious service attacker. Given the threats, mitigation strategies are reviewed for giving recommendations for HEMP manufacturers in the future smart grid.
\n
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The research leading to these results has received funding from the EU Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013) under grant agreement no. 317761 (SmartHG).
\n
\n',keywords:"smart grid, IoT, security, privacy, cloud, web service, service‐oriented architecture",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/50458.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/50458.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50458",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50458",totalDownloads:1401,totalViews:330,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 26th 2015",dateReviewed:"March 8th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 13th 2016",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Energy management in households gets increasingly more attention in the struggle to integrate more sustainable energy sources. Especially in the electrical system, smart grid systems are envisioned to be part in the efforts towards a better utilisation of the energy production and distribution infrastructure. The Home Energy Management System (HEMS) is a critical infrastructure component in this endeavour. Its main goal is to enable energy services utilising smart devices in the households based on the interest of the residential consumers and external actors. With the role of being both an essential link in the communication infrastructure for balancing the electrical grid and a surveillance unit in private homes, security and privacy become essential to address. In this chapter, we identify and address potential threats Home Energy Management Platform (HEMP) developers should consider in the progress of designing architecture, selecting hardware and building software. Our approach starts with a general view of the involved stakeholders and the HEMS. Given the system overview, a threat model is constructed from the HEMP developer's point of view. Based on the threats that have been detected, possible mitigation strategies are proposed taking into account the state of the art of technology for securing platforms.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/50458",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/50458",book:{slug:"energy-management-of-distributed-generation-systems"},signatures:"Søren Aagaard Mikkelsen and Rune Hylsberg Jacobsen",authors:[{id:"95664",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rune",middleName:"Hylsberg",surname:"Jacobsen",fullName:"Rune Jacobsen",slug:"rune-jacobsen",email:"rhj@eng.au.dk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"180292",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Søren",middleName:"Aagaard",surname:"Mikkelsen",fullName:"Søren Mikkelsen",slug:"soren-mikkelsen",email:"smik@eng.au.dk",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Background and related work",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Threat modelling approaches",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2. Home energy management software platforms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.1. OpenHAB",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.2. OGEMA",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.3. Threat analysis of the smart grid domain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Threat modelling of a home energy management platform",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.1. Methodology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2. Stakeholders, system architecture and objectives",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.3. Requirements",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.3.1. Software platform developer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.3.2. Smart device vendor",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.3.3. Residential consumer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.4. Data flow diagram of the home energy management platform",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.5. Threat analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.5.1. Assets of the HEMS",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"3.5.2. Identifying vulnerabilities",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_4",title:"3.5.2.1. Services/service manager",level:"4"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"3.5.3. Attack trees",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22",title:"4. Mitigation strategies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"4.1. Security and privacy technologies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"4.1.1. Trusted execution environments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_4",title:"4.1.1.1. ARM TrustZone technology",level:"4"},{id:"sec_23_4",title:"4.1.1.2. Intel SGX",level:"4"},{id:"sec_24_4",title:"4.1.1.3. TrustLite and TyTAN",level:"4"},{id:"sec_25_4",title:"4.1.1.4. Haven",level:"4"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"4.2. Recommendations and conclusion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nT. H. Christensen, A. Ascarza, and W. Throndsen, Country–specific factors for thedevelopment of household smart grid solutions: Comparison of the electricity systems, energypolicies and smart grid R&D and demonstration projects in Spain, Norway and Denmark. København: SBIforlag, 2013.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nP. Palensky and D. Dietrich, “Demand Side Management: Demand Response, Intelligent Energy Systems, and Smart Loads,” Ind. Informatics, IEEE Trans., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 381–388, 2011.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nA. Shostack, Threat modeling: Designing for security. Indianapolis, IN: Wiley, 2014.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nObject Management Group (OMG), “Unified Modeling Language.” [Online]. Available from: http://www.omg.org/spec/UML/ [Accessed: 30‐Jan‐2016].\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nM. Zillgith, F. Institut, S. Energiesysteme, and D. Nestle, “Security Architecture of the OGEMA 2.0 Home Energy Management System System Concept and Security Requirements,” Int. ETG‐Kongress, vol. 9, pp. 1–6, 2013.\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nN. Geoffray, G. Thomas, G. Muller, P. Parrend, S. Frenot, and B. Folliot, “I‐JVM: A Java Virtual Machine for Component Isolation in OSGi,” 2009 IEEE/IFIP International Conference on Dependable Systems & Networks, pp. 544–553, 2009.\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nA. Kanuparthi, R. Karri, and S. Addepalli, “Hardware and Embedded Security in the Context of Internet of Things,” in Proceedings of the 2013 ACM workshop on Security, Privacy & Dependability for Cyber Vehicles ‐ CyCAR ‘13, pp. 61–64, 2013.\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nJ. Zalewski, S. Drager, W. McKeever, and A. J. Kornecki, “Threat Modeling for Security Assessment in Cyberphysical Systems,” Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Cyber Security and Information Intelligence Research Workshop on ‐ CSIIRW ‘13, 2013, p. 1.\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nT. Lu, J. Lin, L. Zhao, Y. Li, and Y. Peng, “A Security Architecture in Cyber‐Physical Systems: Security Theories, Analysis, Simulation and Application Fields,” Int. J. Secur. Its Appl., vol. 9, no. 7, pp. 1–16, 2015.\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nK. Beckers, S. Faßbender, and M. Heisel, A threat analysis methodology for smart home scenarios, vol. 8448, no. 256980. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2014.\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nM. Deng, K. Wuyts, R. Scandariato, B. Preneel, and W. Joosen, “A Privacy Threat Analysis Framework: Supporting the Elicitation and Fulfillment of Privacy Requirements,” Requir. Eng., vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 3–32, 2011.\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nF. Gangale, A. Mengolini, and I. Onyeji, “Consumer Engagement: An Insight from Smart Grid Projects in Europe,” Energy Policy, vol. 60, pp. 621–628, 2013.\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nR. H. Jacobsen and S. A. Mikkelsen, “Infrastructure for Intelligent Automation Services in the Smart Grid,” Wirel. Pers. Commun., vol. 76, no. 2, pp. 125–147, 2014.\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nS. A. Mikkelsen and R. H. Jacobsen, “Consumer‐Centric and Service‐Oriented Architecture for the Envisioned Energy Internet,” in 2015 Euromicro Conference on Digital System Design, 2015, pp. 301–305.\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nMicrosoft – Developer Network, “Chapter 1: Security Fundamentals for Web Services.” [Online]. Available from: https://msdn.microsoft.com/en‐us/library/ff648318.aspx [Accessed: 25‐Jan‐2016].\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nE. S. K. Yu, “Towards Modelling and Reasoning Support for Early‐Phase Requirements Engineering,” in Proceedings of ISRE ‘97: 3rd IEEE International Symposium on Requirements Engineering, 1997, pp. 226–235.\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nHome Gateway Initiative (HGI), “Use Cases and Architecture for a Home Energy Management Service”, 2011 [Online].Available: http://tinyurl.com/hposzxd .\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nEnergy@home, “Use cases V 3.0,” 2015 [Online]. Available: http://tinyurl.com/hfctt9e \n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nU.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Guidelines for smart grid cybersecurity. Gaithersburg, MD, 2014.\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nC. Greer, D. A. Wollman, D. E. Prochaska, P. A. Boynton, J. A. Mazer, C. T. Nguyen, G. J. FitzPatrick, T. L. Nelson, G. H. Koepke, A. R. Hefner Jr, V. Y. Pillitteri, T. L. Brewer, N. T. Golmie, D. H. Su, A. C. Eustis, D. G. Holmberg, and S. T. Bushby, “NIST Framework and Roadmap for Smart Grid Interoperability Standards, Release 3.0,” Nist Spec. Publ., vol. 0, Gaithersburg, pp. 1–90, Oct. 2014\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nM. Pichler, A. Veichtlbauer, and D. Engel, “Evaluation of OSGi-based architectures for customer energy management systems,” 2015 IEEE Int. Conf. Ind. Technol., vol. 0, pp. 2455–2460, Mar. 2015.\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nS. Checkoway and H. Shacham, “Iago attacks,” in Proceedings of the eighteenth international conference on Architectural support for programming languages and operating systems ‐ ASPLOS ‘13, 2013, vol. 41, no. 1, p. 253.\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nA. Vasudevan, E. Owusu, Z. Zhou, J. Newsome, and J. M. McCune, “Trustworthy Execution on Mobile Devices: What Security Properties Can My Mobile Platform Give Me?,” Lect. Notes Comput. Sci. (including Subser. Lect. Notes Artif. Intell. Lect. Notes Bioinformatics), vol. 7344 LNCS, pp. 159–178, 2012.\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nARM Security Technology, “Building a Secure System using TrustZone Technology.” [Online]. Available from: http://infocenter.arm.com/help/topic/com.arm.doc.prd29‐genc‐009492c/PRD29‐GENC‐009492C_trustzone_security_whitepaper.pdf [Accessed: 28‐Jan‐2016].\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nIntel, Software guard extensions programming reference, 2013. [Online]. Available from: https://software.intel.com/sites/default/files/329298‐001.pdf [Accessed: 27‐Jan‐2016].\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nV. Costan and S. Devadas, Intel SGX explained, 2016. [Online]. Available from: http://ia.cr/2016/086.\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nP. Koeberl, S. Schulz, A.–R. Sadeghi, and V. Varadharajan, “TrustLite: A Security Architecture for Tiny Embedded Devices,” Proc. Ninth Eur. Conf. Comput. Syst. – EuroSys ’14, vol. 0, pp. 1–14, 2014.\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nF. Brasser, B. El Mahjoub, A. Sadeghi, C. Wachsmann, and P. Koeberl, “TyTAN: Tiny Trust Anchor for Tiny Devices,” in Proceedings of the 52nd Annual Design Automation Conference on ‐ DAC ‘15, 2015, pp. 1–6.\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nA. Baumann, M. Peinado, and G. Hunt, “Shielding Applications from an Untrusted Cloud with Haven,” ACM Trans. Comput. Syst., vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 1–26, 2015.\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nMicrosoft Research, “Drawbridge.” [Online]. Available from: http://research.microsoft.com/en‐us/projects/drawbridge/ [Accessed: 28‐Jan‐2016].\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nA. J. Paverd and A. P. Martin, “Hardware Security for Device Authentication in the Smart Grid,” Lect. Notes Comput. Sci. (including Subser. Lect. Notes Artif. Intell. Lect. Notes Bioinformatics), vol. 7823 LNCS, pp. 72–84, 2013.\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nN. Asokan, L. Davi, A. Dmitrienko, S. Heuser, K. Kostiainen, E. Reshetova, and A.‐R. Sadeghi, “Mobile Platform Security,” Synth. Lect. Inf. Secur. Privacy, Trust, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 1–108, 2013.\n'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Percentage based on the average electricity consumption from residential domains in Spain, Norway and Denmark."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"EMSs can refer to not only systems that support the operation of the electrical grid on a transmission and distribution level but also systems that automatically control and monitor energy usage in buildings."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"Is often called software-centric, but for the sake of generality we use the term system-centric."},{id:"fn4",explanation:"http://www.openhab.org/"},{id:"fn5",explanation:"http://www.ogema.org/"},{id:"fn6",explanation:"http://www.wink.com/"},{id:"fn7",explanation:"https://www.smartthings.com/"},{id:"fn8",explanation:"http://getvera.com/"},{id:"fn9",explanation:"The term “someone” instead of attacker is used deliberately, since it can represent the user of the system as well."}],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Søren Aagaard Mikkelsen",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Engineering, Aarhus University, Denmark
Department of Engineering, Aarhus University, Denmark
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"5186",title:"Energy Management of Distributed Generation Systems",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Energy Management of Distributed Generation Systems",slug:"energy-management-of-distributed-generation-systems",publishedDate:"July 13th 2016",bookSignature:"Lucian Mihet-Popa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5186.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"28225",title:"Prof.",name:"Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Mihet-Popa",slug:"lucian-mihet-popa",fullName:"Lucian Mihet-Popa"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"51111",title:"Distributed Control and Management of Renewable Electric Energy Resources for Future Grid Requirements",slug:"distributed-control-and-management-of-renewable-electric-energy-resources-for-future-grid-requiremen",totalDownloads:1382,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Ghassem Mokhtari, Amjad Anvari-Moghaddam and Ghavameddin\nNourbakhsh",authors:[{id:"181038",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghassem",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",fullName:"Ghassem Mokhtari",slug:"ghassem-mokhtari"},{id:"185511",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Anvari-Moghadam",fullName:"Amjad Anvari-Moghadam",slug:"amjad-anvari-moghadam"},{id:"185512",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghavameddin",middleName:null,surname:"Nourbakhsh",fullName:"Ghavameddin Nourbakhsh",slug:"ghavameddin-nourbakhsh"}]},{id:"50993",title:"Coordinated Demand Response and Distributed Generation Management in Residential Smart Microgrids",slug:"coordinated-demand-response-and-distributed-generation-management-in-residential-smart-microgrids",totalDownloads:1102,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Amjad Anvari-Moghaddam, Ghassem Mokhtari and Josep M.\nGuerrero",authors:[{id:"179652",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Anvari-Moghaddam",fullName:"Amjad Anvari-Moghaddam",slug:"amjad-anvari-moghaddam"},{id:"185240",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghassem",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",fullName:"Ghassem Mokhtari",slug:"ghassem-mokhtari"},{id:"185241",title:"Prof.",name:"Josep M.",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero",fullName:"Josep M. Guerrero",slug:"josep-m.-guerrero"}]},{id:"51315",title:"Hierarchical Control for DC Microgrids",slug:"hierarchical-control-for-dc-microgrids",totalDownloads:1927,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ahmed Mohamed",authors:[{id:"179659",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamed",fullName:"Ahmed Mohamed",slug:"ahmed-mohamed"}]},{id:"51301",title:"Development of an Energy Management System Control Algorithm for a Remote Community Microgrid System",slug:"development-of-an-energy-management-system-control-algorithm-for-a-remote-community-microgrid-system",totalDownloads:1486,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Arno Vosloo and Atanda K. Raji",authors:[{id:"179159",title:"Dr.",name:"Atanda",middleName:null,surname:"Raji",fullName:"Atanda Raji",slug:"atanda-raji"},{id:"185222",title:"Mr.",name:"Arno",middleName:null,surname:"Vosloo",fullName:"Arno Vosloo",slug:"arno-vosloo"}]},{id:"51316",title:"Allocation of Distributed Generation for Maximum Reduction of Energy Losses in Distribution Systems",slug:"allocation-of-distributed-generation-for-maximum-reduction-of-energy-losses-in-distribution-systems",totalDownloads:1373,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Juan A. Martinez‐Velasco and Gerardo Guerra",authors:[{id:"180142",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan A.",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez-Velasco",fullName:"Juan A. Martinez-Velasco",slug:"juan-a.-martinez-velasco"},{id:"180501",title:"MSc.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Guerra",fullName:"Gerardo Guerra",slug:"gerardo-guerra"}]},{id:"50881",title:"The Role of Middleware in Distributed Energy Systems Integrated in the Smart Grid",slug:"the-role-of-middleware-in-distributed-energy-systems-integrated-in-the-smart-grid",totalDownloads:1501,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Jesús Rodríguez‐Molina",authors:[{id:"179182",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez-Molina",fullName:"Jesús Rodríguez-Molina",slug:"jesus-rodriguez-molina"}]},{id:"50481",title:"Energy Storage Systems for Energy Management of Renewables in Distributed Generation Systems",slug:"energy-storage-systems-for-energy-management-of-renewables-in-distributed-generation-systems",totalDownloads:2103,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Amjed Hina Fathima and Kaliannan Palanisamy",authors:[{id:"179143",title:"Dr.",name:"Hina",middleName:null,surname:"Fathima",fullName:"Hina Fathima",slug:"hina-fathima"},{id:"185245",title:"Dr.",name:"Kaliannan",middleName:null,surname:"Palanisamy",fullName:"Kaliannan Palanisamy",slug:"kaliannan-palanisamy"}]},{id:"50811",title:"Energy Storage Technology for Decentralised Energy Management: Future Prospects",slug:"energy-storage-technology-for-decentralised-energy-management-future-prospects",totalDownloads:1424,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Bartek A. Glowacki and Emma S Hanley",authors:[{id:"181333",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartlomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Glowacki",fullName:"Bartlomiej Glowacki",slug:"bartlomiej-glowacki"},{id:"185971",title:"Ms.",name:"Emma Sarah",middleName:null,surname:"Hanley",fullName:"Emma Sarah Hanley",slug:"emma-sarah-hanley"}]},{id:"50458",title:"Securing the Home Energy Management Platform",slug:"securing-the-home-energy-management-platform",totalDownloads:1401,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Søren Aagaard Mikkelsen and Rune Hylsberg Jacobsen",authors:[{id:"95664",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rune",middleName:"Hylsberg",surname:"Jacobsen",fullName:"Rune Jacobsen",slug:"rune-jacobsen"},{id:"180292",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Søren",middleName:"Aagaard",surname:"Mikkelsen",fullName:"Søren Mikkelsen",slug:"soren-mikkelsen"}]},{id:"51094",title:"Energy Management and Economic Operation Optimization of Microgrid under Uncertainty",slug:"energy-management-and-economic-operation-optimization-of-microgrid-under-uncertainty",totalDownloads:1565,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Shouxiang Wang, Leijiao Ge, Kai Wang and Shengxia Cai",authors:[{id:"180769",title:"Prof.",name:"Shouxiang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Shouxiang Wang",slug:"shouxiang-wang"},{id:"180927",title:"Dr.",name:"Leijiao",middleName:null,surname:"Ge",fullName:"Leijiao Ge",slug:"leijiao-ge"},{id:"180928",title:"Mr.",name:"Kai",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Kai Wang",slug:"kai-wang"},{id:"185551",title:"Dr.",name:"Shengxia",middleName:null,surname:"Cai",fullName:"Shengxia Cai",slug:"shengxia-cai"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"848",title:"Lithium Ion Batteries",subtitle:"New Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"004acb03be77776b99046c8ce75985e0",slug:"lithium-ion-batteries-new-developments",bookSignature:"Ilias Belharouak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68750",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilias",surname:"Belharouak",slug:"ilias-belharouak",fullName:"Ilias Belharouak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"29286",title:"Synthesis Processes for Li-Ion Battery Electrodes – From Solid State Reaction to Solvothermal Self-Assembly Methods",slug:"synthesis-processes-for-li-ion-battery-electrodes-from-solid-state-reaction-to-solvothermal-self-ass",signatures:"Verónica Palomares and Teófilo Rojo",authors:[{id:"70395",title:"Prof.",name:"Teofilo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojo",fullName:"Teofilo Rojo",slug:"teofilo-rojo"},{id:"74085",title:"Dr.",name:"Verónica",middleName:null,surname:"Palomares",fullName:"Verónica Palomares",slug:"veronica-palomares"}]},{id:"29287",title:"Preparation and Electrochemical Properties of Cathode and Anode Materials for Lithium Ion Battery by Aerosol Process",slug:"preparation-and-electrochemical-properties-of-cathode-and-anode-materials-for-lithium-ion-battery-by",signatures:"Takashi Ogihara",authors:[{id:"6579",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Ogihara",fullName:"Takashi Ogihara",slug:"takashi-ogihara"}]},{id:"29288",title:"Heterogeneous Nanostructured Electrode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries – Recent Trends and Developments",slug:"heterogeneous-nanostructured-electrode-materials-for-lithium-ion-batteries-recent-trends-and-develop",signatures:"Xiangfeng Guan, Guangshe Li, Jing Zheng, Chuang Yu, Xiaomei Chen, Liping Li and Zhengwei Fu",authors:[{id:"67621",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Li",slug:"li"},{id:"74758",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiangfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Guan",fullName:"Xiangfeng Guan",slug:"xiangfeng-guan"},{id:"74761",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangshe",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Guangshe Li",slug:"guangshe-li"}]},{id:"29289",title:"LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 Spinel and Its Derivatives as Cathodes for Li-Ion Batteries",slug:"spinel-lini0-5mn1-5o4-and-its-derivatives-as-cathodes-for-li-ion-batteries",signatures:"Liu Guoqiang",authors:[{id:"65142",title:"Prof.",name:"Guoqiang",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Guoqiang Liu",slug:"guoqiang-liu"}]},{id:"29290",title:"New Developments in Solid Electrolytes for Thin-Film Lithium Batteries",slug:"new-developments-in-solid-electrolytes-for-thin-film-lithium-batteries",signatures:"Inseok Seo and Steve W. Martin",authors:[{id:"76614",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Martin",fullName:"Martin",slug:"martin"},{id:"78506",title:"Dr.",name:"Inseok",middleName:null,surname:"Seo",fullName:"Inseok Seo",slug:"inseok-seo"}]},{id:"29291",title:"Electrolyte and Solid-Electrolyte Interphase Layer in Lithium-Ion Batteries",slug:"electrolyte-and-solid-electrolyte-interphase-layer-in-lithium-ion-batteries",signatures:"Alexandre Chagnes and Jolanta Swiatowska",authors:[{id:"85632",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Chagnes",fullName:"Alexandre Chagnes",slug:"alexandre-chagnes"},{id:"88217",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",middleName:null,surname:"Swiatowska",fullName:"Jolanta Swiatowska",slug:"jolanta-swiatowska"}]},{id:"29292",title:"Redox Shuttle Additives for Lithium-Ion Battery",slug:"redox-shuttle-additives-for-lithium-ion-battery",signatures:"Lu Zhang, Zhengcheng Zhang and Khalil Amine",authors:[{id:"67126",title:"Dr.",name:"Lu",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Lu Zhang",slug:"lu-zhang"},{id:"76603",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhengcheng",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Zhengcheng Zhang",slug:"zhengcheng-zhang"},{id:"121167",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalil",middleName:null,surname:"Amine",fullName:"Khalil Amine",slug:"khalil-amine"}]},{id:"29293",title:"Diagnosis of Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy in Lithium-Ion Batteries",slug:"diagnosis-of-electrochemical-impedance-spectroscopy-in-lithium-ion-batteries",signatures:"Quan-Chao Zhuang, Xiang-Yun Qiu, Shou-Dong Xu, Ying-Huai Qiang and Shi-Gang Sun",authors:[{id:"67703",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhuang",middleName:null,surname:"Quanchao",fullName:"Zhuang Quanchao",slug:"zhuang-quanchao"},{id:"121264",title:"Dr.",name:"Qiu",middleName:null,surname:"Xiangyun",fullName:"Qiu Xiangyun",slug:"qiu-xiangyun"},{id:"121265",title:"Dr.",name:"Xu",middleName:null,surname:"Shoudong",fullName:"Xu Shoudong",slug:"xu-shoudong"},{id:"125957",title:"Prof.",name:"Qiang",middleName:null,surname:"Yinghuai",fullName:"Qiang Yinghuai",slug:"qiang-yinghuai"},{id:"125958",title:"Prof.",name:"Sun",middleName:null,surname:"Shigang",fullName:"Sun Shigang",slug:"sun-shigang"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"74912",title:"Advances in Rice Postharvest Loss Reduction Strategies in Africa through Low Grade Broken Rice Fractions and Husk Value Addition",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94273",slug:"advances-in-rice-postharvest-loss-reduction-strategies-in-africa-through-low-grade-broken-rice-fract",body:'
1. Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important crop in the world in terms of total developing world production (480 x 106 tonnes of rough rice in 2012) and the number of consumers (3.5 billion) dependent on it as their staple food and is cultivated in over 100 countries in every continent (except Antarctica), from 53oN to 40oS and from the sea level to an altitude of 3 kilometres high [1]. In 2019, the total world rice production amounted to approximately 738.75 million metric tons (MMT) from total harvested area of approximately 162.71 million ha, making rice the world’s third most-produced cereal crop after maize (1.12 billion metric tons) and wheat (731.45 MMT) [2]. On the African continent, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), rice has become a staple food crop and constitutes major part of the human diet [3]. Over the last three decades, African countries has experienced a consistent increase in rice production and consumption demand making rice the fastest growing staple food especially among low income earners [4]. In countries such Tanzania, Niger and Nigeria transformational changes in the production practices and shift of consumer preference from other coarse grain such as corn, sorghum and millet towards rice is particularly glaring and fuelling increased local production and consumption demand. Available statistics indicated that Africa produce an estimated 20.5 million tonnes of paddy rice annually [5], and West Africa is the continent’s rice powerhouse, producing about 66% of the total paddy in Africa, mostly by smallholder farmers [4].
The growth in rice production, processing and consumption in many Africa countries has been shown to have direct correlation with growing income, rapid urbanization, population growth, and change in the occupational structure of African families. It is believed that as more and more women and young girls in Africa join the workforce, and more men live and work in urban area, there is a shift toward food that is more convenient and cooks fast such as rice. Although the per capita consumption of rice is declining in many parts of Asia, in Africa, especially the SSA region, the demand for rice is increasing and at a faster rate than in any part of the world [6]. However, rice production in Africa has not kept pace with the increasing demand, resulting in huge volume of rice imported to fill the gap at a significantly high cost to Africa external reserves. Rice farmers in Africa, especially in Nigeria, Niger and Tanzania, have responded to the increasing demand for rice, as reflected in upward trends in total production in recent years [7]. But, when compared with population increases, the rice production trends are much less impressive and many of the countries are becoming increasingly dependent on rice imports, fuelled by growing production-to-consumption gaps [8].
Geographically, according to International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Africa has the highest reserves of untapped natural resources for food production globally, especially water and land (130 million ha of inland valley) which are essential for rice production [5]. In spite of these sizeable land and favourable agro-ecological conditions, the Food and Agriculture Organization [7] and The World Bank, [9] states that significant number of population are undernourished while poverty and unemployment levels in country such as Nigeria is significantly high (69%). Added to the high level of unemployment, food insecurity and under nutrition, there is huge food losses and waste along the entire food value chain. It has therefore become imperative to make concerted efforts to reduce losses especially postharvest losses to improve food and nutrition security in Africa [10]. Huge volume of rice produced in Africa for instant like in most developing countries does not reach the table of the final consumers due to significant post-harvest losses in terms of physical grain loss (PGL) and grain quality loss (GQL) [11].
Research for development (R4D) in Africa have developed technologies and innovations and made recommendations for increasing rice productivity through the use of high yielding varieties, expansion of area under cultivation and reducing postharvest losses through good production practices and adoption of improved technologies [10, 11]. However, in most African countries, where tropical weather and poorly developed infrastructure contribute to the problem of food loss, wastage can regularly be as high as 40–50% and has been one of the key encumbrances to farmers’ income and sustainable food security in this region [12, 13]. Postharvest losses have therefore contributed significantly to African’s inability to attain self-sufficiency in local food production and also a huge drain to local production and food security, as colossal quantities of food, including rice are lost, year after year [13]. Globally, Gustavsson et al., [14] noted that about 1.3 billion tons of food are wasted or lost annually, while in the local context such as Nigeria, the country’s agricultural productivity has been generally low, mostly due to post harvest losses of farm produce (20% for grains such as rice and over 40% for fruits and vegetables), and attributed these to poor post-harvest handling, inadequate agro-processing development among other critical factors.
The adoption of good agronomic practices, favourable government policies and shift in consumer preference from other staple coarse grains toward rice have fuelled increased production and yield per hectare of rice across Africa. However, postharvest losses that have been relatively small in absolute terms have increased proportionally with increased yield per ha. Therefore, integrated management of postharvest operations such as threshing, cleaning, drying, parboiling, milling, grading and branding and storage have now been adopted in many rice producing clusters to reduce losses at each stage of the chain [13].
Ndindeng et al, [11] observed that resolving the critical issues along the rice value chain in many SSA countries is also impeded by the lack of a simple, adoptable and well- defined practical methodology on how to estimate PGL and GQL after harvest. This makes it impossible to have credible data during the various operations along the rice value-chain. Secondly, there is also wide quality gap between imported milled rice and domestically processed rice. The locally processed rice in Africa including Nigeria tend to be of poor quality due to high level of impurities (stones, weed seeds, sand and insect residues), high level of broken fractions, variability in grain size and colour and off-flavour perceived when cooked. However, many cost effective and efficient postharvest handling machines and practices developed and recommended by R4D organizations are not available for farmers, probably due to poor extension and funding challenges. In postharvest operation such as parboiling, the use of rudimentary technologies has resulted in high losses estimated at 15–20% with high energy and water demand which contributes to the final cost of the final product and environmentally unsustainable practices because of dependent of wood fuel [10]. They recommended the valorisation of rice processing by products to enhance income for the rice value chain actors and also improve food security and sustainable environment.
Broken rice fractions, bran and husk are major by-products of rice processing operations. They account for about 25–50% by weight of milled rice depending on variety and technology of milling. In many rice producing communities in Africa, rice processing by-products such as husk and bran are generally dispose and dumped as hips of wastes in many rice processing sites with little or no environmentally friendly ways of disposal. This has resulted in dusk related health challenges for people living nearby and methane emission during its natural decomposition [15]. But research in many parts of the world including Africa has indicated that rice husk if properly harnessed can serve as good raw materials for fuel [16, 17] and low grade broken fractions could be used for the production of other value added products [10] that may increase farmer’s income, safe guide the environment and improve food and nutrition security. Broken rice fractions can be converted to high quality flour and used for the production of value added products that can enhance nutrition and food security and livelihood of smallholder farmers and profitability of small-scale food processing industries [18]. It can also employ huge number of youths and women and serve as sources of employment and reduce restiveness.
This chapter will cover selected innovative techniques and technology advancement made especially by the Africa-Wide Taskforce on Rice Processing and Value Addition and its partners in developing strategies for minimizing postharvest loss in Africa through the development of technologies for utilization of broken rice fractions and rice husk to reduce rice postharvest losses in Africa. Major challenges mitigating the adoption of this technologies and possible opportunities in the rice postharvest value chain that can attract investment for the improvement of rice production and reduction in rice postharvest losses are also outlined. This synthesis we believe will help in providing future direction for research and support for sustainable rice postharvest system in Africa.
2. Understanding the rice postharvest value-chain in Africa
Rice postharvest value chain is a set of unit operations in which well matured harvested paddy rice pass through from the point of harvest to consumption. Efficient and sustainable rice postharvest value chain therefore, aimed at minimizing losses and maximizes quality of the harvested grains until it reaches the consumer [10]. At each level of the value chain, several actors are involved and different values of losses are recorded. In Africa, especially in West Africa, several actors using diverse kinds of equipment and techniques are involved in primary, secondary and tertiary postharvest operations of the rice value chain (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Unit operations at different levels of rice postharvest system in Africa.
Losses particularly along the value chain [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18] has been highlighted as a major source of lost in revenue and productivity among value chain actors as both quantitative and qualitative losses occur during any of the stages [19]. This is an indication that critical attention need to be given to the postharvest value chain to reduce loss in productivity and make rice production a sustainable venture. Technically, when paddy is harvested, it passes through the first routes (A), before storage, but may also be traded directly by farmers to middle men or collected together by farmers’ cooperative groups where this exists before marketing at a favourable period. Currently in Africa, especially SSA, little or no value addition is carried out at the primary postharvest level. At the second level (B), some levels of value addition are made where the paddy is either milled after parboiling or directly after winnowing to produce white rice which is traded as milled rice and used for the preparation of traditional whole kernel rice-based foods [20]. At this point where appropriate technologies are used, grain quality is improved which translate into improved economic value and competitiveness of milled rice.
Over the last few years, in Nigeria and other African countries, several large scale integrated mills have been installed which combined parboiling and milling operations and coupled with grading and packaging system. In these mills, parboiling and drying energy are generated by combusting the husks, while milling uses electricity from national grid or private generators. Recently, a third level have been added to the chain, where low grade broken fractions, a by-product of rice milling is converted to rice flour and used for the production of diverse rice-based products (C) or other by-products such as husk are used for energy for artisanal rice parboiling and household cooking [16, 17, 21]. The tertiary postharvest level is built on broken rice, bran and husk utilization where low quality rice is converted into flour and used for the production of flour-based products, while bran is used in combination of legumes for the production of animal feeds and sold to animal husbandry firms and husk for energy sources. It is important to note that rice postharvest operations in SSA consist mainly of manual operations resulting in high crop losses and contamination.
3. Postharvest losses situation in Africa
Postharvest losses in food production including rice not only have effects on social and economic scales, but also represent a waste of resources used in production such as land, water, energy and other inputs. Report by Africa Postharvest Loss Information System [22] indicated that losses occurs hugely at all levels of the rice postharvest operations. Harvesting operations including harvesting, threshing, winnowing and drying resulted in an average of 11.2% loss due to grain spillage and poor threshing where grains are left on panicles. Transportation resulted in 2.3% (to farm and market) and storage 3.4% indicating an approximately 15.91% average postharvest loss across the continent. Report by Sallah, [23] on the postharvest losses of rice and its implication on livelihood and food security in Africa taking a case of Cameroon and The Gambia indicated that losses at threshing operation were 19 and 17%, drying 9.3 and 7.0%, storage 4.2 and 6.0%, milling 1.3 and 1.0% and transportation 1.33 and 0.8% respectively for Cameroon and The Gambia. This results in reduced income and employability of the people in the study area. Loss was aggravated by lack of or poor processing equipment, poor storage facilities, poor knowledge and skills on postharvest reduction strategies.
It has been estimated in Nigeria by Oguntade et al., [24] that rice post-harvest losses may be as high as 20 to 40%, implying conservatively between 10 and 40% of rice that grown in the country never reaches the market or consumers table or are traded at a discounted price due to loss of quality resulting from poor postharvest management. The high postharvest losses slowdown the marginal increase in rice production recorded over the last few years in many African countries and also threatened food and nutrition security. Because of the adoption of improved technology in rice production in developed countries, postharvest losses occur primarily at the consumer level, with minimal losses at the field or after harvesting or at the other stages of the value chain [10, 25]. In contrast, postharvest losses in Africa occur mainly during harvesting through to market stages, with slightest share of losses occurring at the consumption level [25, 26].
According to Oguntade et al. [24], huge losses totalling about 11.39% is recorded during rice postharvest level in Nigeria, with harvesting accounting for 4.43%, threshing and cleaning (4.97%), transporting paddy from field to homes (0.34%), paddy drying and storage (1.53%) and transporting of paddy to local markets (0.12%). At secondary postharvest levels (Figure 1), rice parboiling process, an essential pre-treatment given to paddy rice before milling accounted for 5.19% paddy loss, while milling at the village level and milled rice transportation, marketing and storage results in 4.40% and 7.54% losses respectively. Danbaba et al., [10] correlated the data with rice production statistics of 17.5 MMT of paddy produced in Nigeria in 2016 [27], considering postharvest losses of 11.39% paddy from harvest to market and 135 Naira per Kg market price of paddy (as at November, 2018), Nigeria losses about 1.99 MMT of paddy representing 269.09 billion naira annually. These losses are huge and unsustainable if added up to the estimated 123 billion naira losses during the parboiling and milling processes. Situations from the three African countries classically indicates the unfavourable postharvest loss situation on the continent which calls for urgent action and intervention.
4. Constraints and need for innovative loss reduction strategies
The continues increase in rice consumption together with minimal increase in domestic production coupled with high postharvest losses, high rice import cost and glaring impacts of climate change and conflicts in Africa, research and development organizations are working together under a coordinated strategy lead by Africa Rice Centre (AfricaRice) to provide innovative approach for improving productivity and food and nutrition security through postharvest loss reduction. The rapid advances in small and intermediate technology development, formulation and production of new value added products from low grade broken rice fractions and other rice processing by-products demonstrated the ability to improve food and nutrition security in Africa through novel postharvest loss reduction strategies [10, 16, 21, 28]. Until recently, rice research for development has focused on yield improvement without much emphasis on postharvest practices especially as it relates to loss reduction, quality improvement and marketability. But Nguyen and Ferrero [29] opined that in near future, the possibility of expanding rice production area will remain limited in SSA due to high cost of developing new land suitable for rice production combined with water scarcity for rice production and urban and industrial expansion, implying that loss at any point of the value chain need to minimized to save food and nutrition security in SSA.
In 2008, the SSA countries were faced with significant hike in food price [30]. Milled rice in the international market grow by almost 400% and combined with about 40% rice deficit in SSA, it become highly vulnerable to global rice prize shock and probably was the major cause of ‘food riot’ in 2008 in countries such as Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cote d’Ivoire, Mauritania and Senegal [31, 32]. The riot of 2007–2008 [32] triggered renewed focus and investments in rice production together with postharvest operations in many African countries. Nigeria, Ghana, Togo, Cote d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Senegal and Burkina Faso developed a national strategic plan to attain rice self-sufficiency in medium and long time by increasing public and private sector investment into rice sub-sector of their economy, but quality and postharvest losses are least emphasised [33]. In 2011, AfricaRice lead a consortium of research organizations in major rice producing countries of Africa to implement and innovative postharvest loss reduction model ‘enhancing food security in Africa through the improvement of rice postharvest handling, marketing and development of new rice-based products’. The project emphases the utilization of flour from low grade broken rice fractions to prepare value added food products such as snacks, biscuits, and porridges. This innovative uses of rice can catalyse rural enterprises and raise income, especially for women farmers and processors in Africa [33]. The project also developed innovative technology to utilize rice husk for energy as a strategy to add value to rice husks which are hitherto stockpiled and dumped near mills where they rot and produces methane (a potential greenhouse gas) or burned in the open fields, thus causing pollution.
By improving harvest and postharvest system of rice value chain in Africa, small holder farmer’s income will be enhanced through time saving on processing, reduction in qualitative and quantitative postharvest losses which will translate to higher income and better quality of locally milled rice which may compete favourably with imported brands and fetch better price, thereby enhancing the incomes of various actors along the value chain. New rice products containing high nutrients will improve nutrition security and provide employment for women and youths and the overall industrial development of rural communities. The utilization of rice husks for energy will certainly reduce deforestation which is currently threatening significant number of countries of Africa, especially the Sahel region.
5. Innovative strategies for rice postharvest loss reduction in Africa
Innovative production is a concept that describes an on-going re-engineering process with the major aims of evolving products and production engineering from prevalent trends based on advances in research for development [34]. Innovative rice postharvest loss reduction trends in Africa is being re-engineered by evolving new value added products based on prevalent research trends. Since production innovation strengthens the productivity and resource use efficiency of production system, recent trends in Africa in the field of rice postharvest system development is the innovative approach to the utilization of rice processing by-products as a strategy to strengthen the productivity of rice and resource use efficiency. The following sections describes the innovative strategies currently used in Africa to reduce postharvest through efficient postharvest system management.
5.1 Utilization of broken rice fractions for rice flour production
Fissuring cause by poor postharvest handling of paddy results in broken kernels upon milling, and consequently lost in quality and economic values of milled rice [35]. However, recent increase in the use of rice flour has promoted interest in broken rice fractions utilization as raw materials in many foods especially snacks, porridges and others [36]. Rice flour has been used traditionally for the production of traditional stiff dough (tuwo) in Nigeria and many West African countries [20]. Its application in the production of high quality flour that could be used in baking has been hampered by lack of improved rice flour production process that produces flour of particles sizes that could be considered suitable as baking flour and improved functionality [21].
Chiang and Yeh [37] proposed wet milling of rice kernels to produce flour of desirable functionality. As a strategy to valorised broken rice fractions resulting from poor milling processes and rice of low grain quality characteristics, broken rice fractions are processed through wet milling process to produce high quality rice flour that has appreciably acceptable baking quality [21]. The innovative technique which is being commercialized in Africa, involves repeated wet grinding of soaked broken rice fractions and sieving through a fine cloth mesh until virtually all the slurries are made to pass through the sieve. The filtrate is allowed to stand for 3–4 hours depending on the variety and water temperature and decanted to obtain smooth sediment at the bottom. The solid sediment is broken into pieces and dried in an oven before pulverizing and sieving (200 μm) to obtain rice flour (Figure 2). The United States Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) state that for a product of milling of grains to be considered as flour, not less than 98% of the particles of the milling process must pass through a sieve having opening not larger than 212 μm [38]. Flour of this particle size characteristics has been demonstrated to impact positively on the end-use application [21, 38, 39, 40] studied the physicochemical and functional properties of flours from some common Nigerian rice varieties and concluded that these properties are promising for their application in food systems.
Figure 2.
Flow chart for the production of high quality rice flour from broken rice fractions. Danbaba et al. [21].
Production of flour from broken rice fraction has been shown to improve the economic value of broken rice kernels by 38% and significant consumer preference for snacks and other baked products. This has significantly reduced qualitative losses incurred during rice processing and improved income of smallholder food processors. The high quality rice flour is also blended with legume based flour (Figure 3) to improve protein content and quality to enhance nutrition and product specifications [21] which is an innovative production system.
Figure 3.
High quality rice flour from broken rice fractions (left), branded rice flour (centre) and rice flour blended with cowpea flour for the production of high protein baked products [21].
5.2 Development of ready-to-eat (RTE) high protein extruded snacks and porridges from broken rice fractions
Recent changes in social life of many population across the world and the development of middle class worker in developing countries of Africa has resulted in high population of people who are inclined to eat ‘ready-to-eat’ food, because of its convenience, easy to consume, low to moderate price with minimal need for further processing. Extruded snacks are example of such products and their consumption is growing by day. Extrusion cooking technology is a continuous mixing, cooking and shaping process carried out at high temperatures over short times [41]. It is a very versatile, low-cost and highly energy efficient technology for snack or expanded foods production. Extrusion of cereal-based flours or other starchy raw materials is widely used in the food industry in developed countries to produce snack foods [42]. Little of extrusion cooking is being practiced in Africa especially as it relates to value added rice processing, but recent advances in rice postharvest science has introduce the use of low grade broken rice fractions as raw material for the production of extruded snack foods [10, 43].
However, when starchy raw materials such as rice are subjected to extrusion cooking, there is a chemical and structural transformation such as starch gelatinization, protein denaturation, complex formation between amylose, lipids and/or proteins, and degradation of pigments and vitamins [44]. Under the Africa-Wide Taskforce on Rice Processing and Value Addition of Africa Rice Centre and its national partners, low grade broken rice fractions from different milling operations have been tested and validated for the production of snacks that are high in protein and acceptable to consumers [21, 43]. Through process modelling and optimization, optimum moisture content, barrel temperature and level of legume flour for extrusion have been established for the blends of broken rice fractions with cowpea, bambara groundnut and soybean, keeping other extrusion parameters within range [21, 28, 43]. This optimized process conditions produces extruded snacks with smooth outer-surface (Figure 4) and uniform air spaces with regular shape, this according Ryu et al., [45] are features of good quality extrudates.
Figure 4.
Photographic images (longitudinal section) of the physical state of rice-cowpea blend extruded snacks.
Because extrusion cooking process allows for the production of low-fat snacks and induces the formation of resistant starch, which makes no caloric contribution and behaves physiologically like dietary fibre [46], rice-based extruded snacks in Africa have received satisfactory acceptability among consumers that are concerned with nutritional quality of food they eat. As a result, therefore, the application of extrusion cooking is increasingly becoming popular for snack production in Africa using raw materials such as rice [28, 43], sorghum [47], and millet [48] containing protein, starch and dietary fibre in an effort to create novel food products such as snacks with a more adequate nutritional value. This new product is expected to improve rice postharvest system through qualitative loss reduction and improve overall food and nutrition security of the populace.
In some instance, it has been demonstrated that when crushed and pulverized, extruded broken rice fractions could be used as porridge or weaning foods. Danbaba et al [21, 28] introduced extruded ready-to-eat rice porridge (Figure 5) as part of valorisation of low quality broken rice fractions after blending with appropriate amount of legume flour. Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) and micronutrient deficiency is a severe problem facing developing countries and particularly children under the age of 5 years. This has resulted in more than 50% of childhood death in developing countries including Africa [49, 50]. Blending cereals with legumes in the production of complementary foods has been shown to improve childhood nutrition and significantly reduce mortality [21, 28, 43]. Several authors including Stojceska et al., [51]; Obradović et al., [52]; Panak Balentić et al., [53, 54] have also shown in other parts of the world that it is possible to enrich extruded cereal-based snacks with nutritionally valuable ingredients such as protein from ingredients like legumes. The utilization and application of extrusion cooking in Africa provides an alternative for producing high protein-energy weaning porridges from the blends of low grade broken rice and legumes. This process according to Pathania, et al., [55] credible alternative from the traditional practices for the manufacturing of re-constitutable foods for blended flours (Figure 5). Extrusion cooking therefore is expected to impact positively on the rice postharvest system in Africa in the years to come.
Figure 5.
Production of extruded high protein-energy weaning porridge from blends of broken rice and cowpea.
5.3 Development of third-generation snacks
The increased demand by more consumers for gluten-free products has over the few decades necessitated the quest for suitable alternative raw materials to wheat for the production of third-generation snacks, and the use of rice flour is gaining greater interest because of its favourable attributes of negligible gluten content, good expansion during extrusion and bland taste [56]. Third-generation snacks (3G), also called semi or half products, during production undergo cooking after extrusion and are dried to a stable moisture content (approximately 12%) and then expanded by frying in hot oil, puffing in hot air or microwaving and infrared heating as new variants [57]. In developed world or where extrusion cooking technology has gained popularity, 3G snacks are common. After expansion products are spiced with various types of spices and then packaged and sold as ready-to-eat (RTE) snacks [57]. The products can also be flavoured before expansion and sold as pellets, for preparation at home [58]. In Nigeria, under a strategy to improve postharvest quality of rice, especially poor quality rice varieties having poor parboiling characteristics, kernels are converted to high quality flour of specific particle size and used innovatively for the production of 3G snacks (Figure 6) that are current popular among snack producers in many African countries [21].
Figure 6.
Some rice-based 3G snacks produced from low grade broken rice flour.
Cold forming extrusion (40–70°C, 60–90 bar) of pre-gelatinized rice flour blended legume flour is used for the production of rice-based 3G snacks. Adjusting extrusion temperature, residence time and initial ingredient moisture facilitate complete gelatinization of starch component of the ingredients before frying [57, 59, 60]. Extruded snacks from rice will significantly take some market share as more and more countries in Africa are increasingly improving their rice production and more consumers are becoming more interested in non-gluten baked snacks. Badau et al. [61] state that the addition of 30% cowpea to rice flour for the production of traditional Nigeria snack (Garabia) significantly improves protein content, metabolizable energy and vitamin B2, while consumer rating based on 9-point hedonic scales was above 6.0 indicating that with the addition of cowpea, the snacks are well-liked by consumers.
6. Utilization of rice husk for energy
In 2014, it was estimated that Sub-Saharan Africa produces about 22.1 million tonnes of paddy, which represent about 4.6% of the total global production [5]. Structurally, paddy consists of about 72% kernel, 5–8% bran and 20–22% husk [62]. Therefore, when 22.1 million tonnes of paddy are subjected to milling, it produces about 4.8 million tonnes of husk [11]. With the increased production of paddy in Africa over the last 2 decades, the annual production of rice husk has also proportionally increased. The utilization of rice husk for economic purposes hitherto in Africa especially SSA is very low even though by-products such as rice husk is suitable raw material for energy generation and bran is a nutritive ingredient for food formulation [11, 63]. The high amount of silica in rice husk even when mixed with bran as obtained from village mills (Engelberg type mill) is not suitable for animal feeding purposes. In SSA, significant proportion of rice husk produced is disposed of by burning in open fields or abandoned around rice milling facilities [11]. These practices have resulted in the pollution of air, land and water through the generation of greenhouses gases and particles in water and air [64]. This situation calls for urgent and innovative technique to economically utilize the husk and improve rice postharvest handling for sustainable environment.
Rice husk, a by-product of rice milling is about 20% by weight of paddy and chemically contains about 20% SiO2. Gasification technique for rice husk as energy for rice parboiling and household cooking has been recently developed and is being commercialized across the continent of Africa [65]. Five different rice husk top-lit updraft (TLUD) gasifier household cooking stoves for use in rice processing clusters of Africa has been evaluated under a study to select technically feasible rice husk stove for rural and semi urban household cooking and artisanal rice processing in Africa. Ndindeng, et al. [65] study demonstrated that fan-assisted cook stoves especially PO150 recorded better thermal and emission indices and are safer to use than the natural draft gasifiers stove and is therefore recommended for household cooking in rice processing communities of Africa.
Gasification is the process of converting biomass such as rice husk into a combustible gas through thermo-chemical reaction of oxygen in the air and carbon available in the biomass during combustion. In other to gasify rice husk therefore, about 4.7 kg of air per kg of rice is needed [66, 67] and has resulted in the development of several models of fan-assisted rice husk gasifier [65]. The energy obtained are environmentally friendly and the technology easy to use by rural households. Using biomass such as rice husk in Africa for energy generation offers several advantages, including the mitigation of gaseous emissions such as CO2, SOx, and NOX [68]. This is probably due to low amount of sulphur and nitrogen present in agricultural residues as well as minimal chlorine content [69]. But the question arises as to whether some components of emitted gasses by the stove during burning can contaminate the food being processed and exert toxic effects on consumers. Germaine et al. [70] evaluated in vivo toxicity of rice husk used as fuel for household cooking and indicated significantly non toxicity of water boiled with rice husk gasifier. The results obtained by Germaine et al. [70] suggested that rice husk used as fuel in household cooking using a fan-assisted rice husk stove is not toxic at 0.5, 1.0 and 2 ml/100100 g body weight and did not produce any evident symptoms in the acute and sub-chronic oral toxicity studies. Even though no evident symptom of toxicity was observed, Quispe et al., [69] suggested that the use of agricultural residues such as rice husk for energy purpose require the performance of integral assessment considering all stage of its life cycle and comparing same with the use of fossil fuels as a means of identifying the conditions and scenarios for a lower environmental impact. Ndindeng, et al., [65], McKendry, et al., [71, 72] illustrated the following as the main advantages of the innovative rice husk gasification cooking stove introduced in Africa:
Newly introduced rice husk stove had better performance metrics than that of existing brands in the region.
Rice husk mixed with palm kernel shell or other biomass significantly increase burning time but not flame temperature.
Data from end-user evaluation were in conformation with stove performance metrics determined instrumentally.
If the rice husks are completely burned, the amount of CO2 produced is equal to the amount taken from the environment during the growing stage, making it husk gasification and environmentally sustainable practice.
Another advantage is the diversification of energy supply avoiding non-renewable resources depletion which is challenging African forest and farming lands.
7. Conclusion
Significant improvement has been made in Africa in terms of rice production mainly as a results of the development of new improved varieties, expansion of area under rice cultivation and huge public and private sector investments. This increased production has resulted in increased by-products such as broken rice fractions and husk. Poor utilization of the broken fractions resulted in reduction of productivity of rice and the husks have become of huge environmental and health changes. The high postharvest losses recorded in Africa has become of great concern to research and development experts, and new innovative methodologies were developed to use broken rice fractions for the production of high quality rice flour that could be used to produce high nutrients and consumer acceptable value added products that improve income and food security of smallholder rice value chain actors. The utilization of rice husk for energy generation has also become a fast moving technology where fan-assisted cooking stoves are developed and provide efficient alternative to fossil fuel. Both qualitative and quantitative postharvest losses in rice are being aggressively managed as a strategy to improve food and nutrition security, environmental sustainability and overall productivity of rice production system. Stakeholder including policy-makers, environmental experts, among others, should as a matter of urgency priority consider the use of biomass as sources of energy for home cooking to reduce over dependence on forest woods and popularize the fan-assisted cooking stove among rural dwellers especially among populations in the Sahel region of Africa where desert is moving fast. Utilization of broken rice fraction as raw materials for flour, snacks, porridges and other foods should be encouraged as means of improving food and nutrition security as well as the socioeconomic development of rural areas.
Conflict of interest
Authors declare no conflict of interests.
\n',keywords:"rice, Africa, postharvest losses, broken rice value addition, husk gasification, innovation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74912.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74912.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74912",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74912",totalDownloads:33,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 1st 2020",dateReviewed:"September 30th 2020",datePrePublished:"January 25th 2021",datePublished:"March 3rd 2021",dateFinished:"January 23rd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Paddy production in African is increasing at a significantly impressive rate due to increased public and private sector investment, the introduction of high yielding varieties and improved production practices. But about 40% or more of this quantity does not reach the table of consumers largely due to post-harvest losses. These losses are subdivided into physical grain loss (PGL) and grain quality loss (GQL). Efforts towards reducing these losses through valorisation of low quality rice and processing by-products has received attention over the last few years. Innovative development and out scaling of simple, cost effective, adoptable and well-defined practical technology to convert low grade milled rice to nutrient dense value-added products that could be used for family meals or weaning purposes and utilization of rice husk for energy is the new way to go. This paper reviews major advance made especially by the Africa-Wide Taskforce on rice processing and value addition and its partners in developing strategies for minimizing postharvest loss in Africa through the development of technologies for utilization of broken rice fractions and rice husk to reduce postharvest losses. Major challenges mitigating the adoption of this technologies and possible opportunities in the rice postharvest value chain that can attract investment for the improvement of rice production and reduction in rice postharvest losses are also outlined. This synthesis we believe will help in providing future direction for research and support for sustainable rice postharvest system in Africa.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74912",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74912",signatures:"Danbaba Nahemiah, Iro Nkama, Idakwo Paul Yahaya, Mamudu Halidu Badau and Aliyu Umar",book:{id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",publishedDate:"March 3rd 2021",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"322662",title:"Dr.",name:"Danbaba",middleName:null,surname:"Nahemiah",fullName:"Danbaba Nahemiah",slug:"danbaba-nahemiah",email:"dnahemiah@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"333682",title:"Dr.",name:"Iro",middleName:null,surname:"Nkama",fullName:"Iro Nkama",slug:"iro-nkama",email:"ironkamas@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"333684",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul Yahaya",middleName:null,surname:"Idakwo",fullName:"Paul Yahaya Idakwo",slug:"paul-yahaya-idakwo",email:"paulidakwo@unimaid.edu.ng",position:null,institution:null},{id:"333685",title:"Dr.",name:"Mamudu",middleName:null,surname:"Halidu Badau",fullName:"Mamudu Halidu Badau",slug:"mamudu-halidu-badau",email:"badau@unimaid.edu.ng",position:null,institution:null},{id:"333686",title:"Dr.",name:"Aliyu",middleName:null,surname:"Umar",fullName:"Aliyu Umar",slug:"aliyu-umar",email:"aliyuu91@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Understanding the rice postharvest value-chain in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Postharvest losses situation in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Constraints and need for innovative loss reduction strategies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Innovative strategies for rice postharvest loss reduction in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Utilization of broken rice fractions for rice flour production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 Development of ready-to-eat (RTE) high protein extruded snacks and porridges from broken rice fractions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3 Development of third-generation snacks",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"6. Utilization of rice husk for energy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Juliano B.O. (2016) Rice: Overview. In: Wrigley, C., Corke, H., and Seetharaman, K., Faubion, J., (eds.) Encyclopaedia of Food Grains, Volume. 1, pp. 125-129. Oxford: Academic Press'},{id:"B2",body:'Shahbandeh, M (2020). Total global supply of rice 2000/2001-2018/2019. www.statista.com access on 2nd June, 2020'},{id:"B3",body:'Oteng, J. W and Sant’Anna, R. (1999). Rice production in Africa: current situation and issues. International rice commission newsletter, 48'},{id:"B4",body:'GIZ. Competitive African Rice Initiative (CARI) Overview – Rice in Africa. German Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development: Deutsche Gesellschart Fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit, GmbH; 2018 https://www.cari-project.org'},{id:"B5",body:'International Rice Research Institute. (IRRI) (2015). World rice statistics online query facility. http://ricestat.irri.org:8080/wrs2/entrypoint.htm. Assessed 16 April 2020'},{id:"B6",body:'Mohanty, S. (2013). Trends in Global Rice Consumption. Rice Today, 12, 44-45. https://www.irri.org'},{id:"B7",body:'Food and Agricultural Organization IFAO. FAOSTAT Database. In: Food and Agriculture Organization. Italy: Rome; 2014 http://faostat.fao.org'},{id:"B8",body:'Nasrin, S., Lodin, J. B., Jirström, M., Holmquist, B., Agnes Djurfeldt, A. A., and Djurfeldt, G. (2015). Drivers of rice production: evidence from five Sub-Saharan African countries. Agriculture and Food Security, 4:12. http://www.doi.org.10.1186/s40066-015-0032-6'},{id:"B9",body:'The World Bank (2017). Nigeria Bi-Annual Economic Update: Fragile Recovery. The World Bank, Washington DC, 49. https://doi.org/10.1596/26658'},{id:"B10",body:'Danbaba, N., Idakwo, P.Y., Kassum, A.L., Bristone, C., Bakare, S.O., Aliyu, U., Kolo, I.N., Abo, M.E., Mohammed, A., Abdulkadir, A.N., Nkama, I., Badau, M.H., Kabaraini, M.A., Shehu, H., Abosede, A.O. and Danbaba, M.K. (2019a) Rice Postharvest Technology in Nigeria: An Overview of Current Status, Constraints and Potentials for Sustainable Development. Open Access Library Journal, 6: e5509. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1105509'},{id:"B11",body:'Ndindeng, S. A., Manful, J., Futakuchi, K., Moreira, J., Graham-Acquaah, S., Houssou, P., Mapiemfu, D. L., Johnson, P. T., Jarju, O. M., Coulibaly, S. S., Danbaba, N., Sarr, F., Jean G. Nemlin J. G., and Candia, A (2015a). Proceedings of The First International Congress on Postharvest Loss Prevention, Developing Measurement Approaches and Intervention Strategies for Smallholders, ADM Institute for the Prevention of Postharvest Loss, Rome, Italy, October 4-7'},{id:"B12",body:'SPORE (2011). Post-harvest management. Adding value to crops. The magazine for agricultural and rural development in ACP countries. N° 152. http://spore.cta.int'},{id:"B13",body:'Coker, A.A and Ninalowo, S.O. (2016). Effect of post-harvest losses on rice farmers’ income in Sub-Saharan Africa: a case of Niger State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Science and Food Technology, 2 (3): 27-34'},{id:"B14",body:'Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U, Van Otterdijk R, Meybeck A. (2011). Global Food Losses and Food Waste: Extent Causes and Prevention. United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization. Rome, Italy'},{id:"B15",body:'Contreras, L. M., Schelle, H., Sebrango, C. R and Pereda, I. (2012). Methane potential and biodegradability of rice straw, rice husk and rice residues from drying process. Water Science and Technology, 65(6):1142-1149'},{id:"B16",body:'Ndindeng, S.A., Mbassi, J.E.G., Mbacham, W.F., Manful, J., Graham-Acquaah, S., Moriera, J., Dossou, J., and Futakuchi, K (2015b). Quality optimization in briquettes made from rice milling by-products. Energy for Sustainable Development, 29: 24-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2015.09.003'},{id:"B17",body:'Ndindeng, S.A., Marco W., Sidi, S., Koichi, F. (2019). Evaluation of fan-assisted rice husk fuelled gasifier cooking stoves for application in Sub-Saharan Africa. Renewable Energy, 925-937'},{id:"B18",body:'Prasad, K., Singh, Y and Anil, A. (2012). Effects of grinding methods on the characteristics of Pusa 1121 rice flour. Journal of Tropical Agriculture and Food Science, 40(2): 193-201'},{id:"B19",body:'Babatunde, R., Omoniwa, A., and Aliyu J. (2019). Postharvest losses along the rice value chain in Kwara State, Nigeria: An assessment of magnitude and determinants. Cercetari Agronomice in Molldova, LII (2)178: 141-150. http://doi.org/10.2478/cerce-2019-0014'},{id:"B20",body:'Danbaba, N., Alabi, M.O., Nkama, I. and Abo, M.E (2004). Utilization of Rice and Rice by-Products in Nigeria. In: Abo, M.E. and Abdullahi, A.S., Eds., Nigerian Rice Memorabilia, Project Synergy Limited, Abuja, Nigeria, 343-349'},{id:"B21",body:'Danbaba, N., Idinoba, P., Nwelene, F., Umekwue, J. and Maji, A.T. (2017). Entrepreneurship in Rice-Based Food Products for Women and Youths in Nigeria. An Africa Rice Centre/National Cereals Research Institute Training Manual on Rice Product Diversification for Entrepreneurial Development, 32 pp'},{id:"B22",body:'APHLIS. Losses at different postharvest stages of rice in sub-Saharan Africa. APHLIS: Africa Postharvest Loss Information System; 2011 www.aphlis.net'},{id:"B23",body:'Sallah A (2017). Postharvest losses of rice and its implication on livelihood and food security in Africa: the case of Cameroon and The Gambia. MSc. thesis submitted to the Department of Development Studies of the Pan African Institute for Development – West Africa (PAID-WA), Buea. www.paidafrica.org'},{id:"B24",body:'Oguntade, A.E., Thyimann, D. and Deimling, S. (2014). Postharvest Losses of Rice in Nigeria and Their Ecological Foot Print. Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development. Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internatinale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), German Food Partnership/Competitive African Rice Initiative (CARI), 51'},{id:"B25",body:'Aulakh, J., Regmi, A., Fulton, J. and Alexander, C. (2013) Estimating Post-Harvest Food Losses: Developing a Consistent Global Estimation Framework. The Agricultural and Applied Economics Association 2013 AAEA and CAES Joint Annual Report'},{id:"B26",body:'Olukunle, O.T. (2017). Determinants of postharvest grain Losses in Nigeria. International Journal of Current Research, 9, 63533-63540'},{id:"B27",body:'GEMS4 (2017). Mapping of rice production clusters in Nigeria. A project report on growth and employment in states by the United Kingdom Department of International Development (DFID) in Nigeria, 66'},{id:"B28",body:'Danbaba N., Nkama I., Badau, M.H and Idakwo, P. Y (2019b). Statistical modelling and optimization of processing conditions of twin-screw extruded rice-legume instant breakfast gruel. Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, 14(4): 693-712. www.azojete.com.ng'},{id:"B29",body:'Nguyen, N. V and Ferrero, A. (2006). Meeting the challenges of global rice production. Paddy Water Environ, 4: 1-9. http://dx.doi.10.1007/s10333-005-003-5'},{id:"B30",body:'Smith T. G (2013). Food price spikes and social unrest in Africa. Climate Change and Political Stability (CCAPS) Research brief No. 11, www.file.ethz.ch'},{id:"B31",body:'Sneyd LQ , Legwegoh A, Fraser ED. Food riots: media perspectives on the causes of food protest in Africa. Food Security. In: Springer Science + Business Media Dordrecht and International Society for Plant Pathology. 2013 http://doi.10.1007/s12571-013-0272-x'},{id:"B32",body:'Berazneva J and Lee D. R. (2013). Explaining the African food riots of 2007-2008: An empirical analysis, Food Policy, 39: 28-39. http://dx.doi.10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.12.007'},{id:"B33",body:'Savitri Mohapatra (2014). Adding value to Africas rice. Rice Today, www.ricetoday.irri.org/adding-value-to-africas-rice/'},{id:"B34",body:'Romero D, Larsson L, Ronnback AO, Stahre J. Strategies for production innovation. In: A conference paper. 2017 http://doi.10.1007/978-3-319-66923-6_1'},{id:"B35",body:'Owusu, R. K., Sugri, I., Dogbe, W., Adogoba, D. S. and Kugbe, J. (2020). Cracking and breaking response in four rice varieties as influenced by fertilization regime and storage duration, African Journal of Agricultural Research, 16(7): 1044-1049, http://doi.10.5897/AJAR2020.14762'},{id:"B36",body:'Mukhopadhyay S and Siebenmorgen, T. J (2017). Physical and functional characteristics of broken rice kernels caused by moisture-adsoprtion fissuring. Cereal Chemistry, 94(3): http://doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM-08-16-0214-R'},{id:"B37",body:'Chiang, P. Y and Yeh, A. I. (2002). Effect of soaking on wet-milling of rice. Journal of Cereal Science, 35:85-94. http://doi.10.1006/jcrs.2001.0419'},{id:"B38",body:'CFR (2013). CFR 137.105: Requirements for specific standardized cereal flours and related products. Washington, D.C: Code of Federal Regulations; 2013'},{id:"B39",body:'Chinma, C.E., Azeez, S.O., Olaitan, O.H., Danbaba, N., Anuonye, J.C and Oloyede, O.O (2018a). physicochemical properties of flours from five Nigerian rice cultivars. Nigerian Food Journal, 36(1):135-140'},{id:"B40",body:'Chinma, C.E., Azeez, S.O., Ezekiel, M.Y., Adetutu, M.A., Ocheme, O.B and Danbaba N. (2018b). Functional properties of flours from five Nigerian rice cultivars. Nigerian Food Journal, 36(1): 141-149'},{id:"B41",body:'Kebede, L., Worku, S., Bultosa, G. and Yetneberek, S. (2010). Effect of extrusion operating conditions on the physical and sensory properties of tef (Eragrostis tef [Zucc.] Trotter) flour extrudates, EJAST 1(1): 27-39'},{id:"B42",body:'Hernandez-Dianz, J. R., Quintero-Ramos, A., Barnard, J and Balandran-Quintana, R. R. (2007). Functional properties of extrudates prepared with blends of wheat flour/pinto bean meal with added wheat bran. Food Science and Technology International, 13(4): 301-308, http://doi.10.1177/1082013207082463'},{id:"B43",body:'Danbaba N., Nkama I., Badau, M.H and Idakwo, P. Y (2019c). Influence of extrusion conditions on nutritional composition of rice-bamabara groundnut complementary foods. Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, 14(4): 559-582. www.azojete.com.ng'},{id:"B44",body:'Ding, Q . B., Ainsworth, P., Plunkett, A., Tucker, G. and Marson, H. (2006). The effect of extrusion conditions on the functional and physical properties of wheat-based expanded snacks. Journal of Food Engineering, 73: 142-148'},{id:"B45",body:'Ryu, G. H.; Neumann, P. E. and Walker, C. E. (1993). Effects of some baking ingredients on physical and structural properties of wheat flour extrudates. Cereal Chemistry, 70(3): 291-297'},{id:"B46",body:'Larrea, M. A., Chang, Y. K. and Martinez-Bustos, F. C. (2005). Some functional properties of extruded orange pulp and its effect on the quality of cookies. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 38(3): 213-220. http://dx.doi.10.1016/j.lwt.2004.05.014'},{id:"B47",body:'Jiddere, L and Filli, K. B. (2016). Physicochemical properties of Sorghum malt and Bambara Groundnut Based extrudates. Journal of Food Science and Technology Nepal, 9 (55-65)'},{id:"B48",body:'Filli, K. B., Nkama, I., Jideani, V. A and Abubakar, U.M (2013). Application of response surface methodology for the study of composition of extruded millet-cowpea mixtures for the manufacture of fura: A Nigerian food. African Journal of Food Science, 5(17): 884-896. http://www.doi.10.5897/AJFS11.169'},{id:"B49",body:'Thaoge, M. L., Adams, M. R., Sibara, M. M., Watson T. G., Taylor, J. R., and Goyvaerts, G. E. (2003). Production of improved infant porridges from peal millet using a lactic acid fermentation step and addition of sorghum malt to reduce viscosity of porridge with high protein, energy and solids (30%). World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 19, 305-310'},{id:"B50",body:'Akande O. A., Nakimbugwe, D. and Mukisa, I. M (2017). Optimization of extrusion conditions for the production of instant grain amaranth-based porridge flour. Food Science and Nutrition, 2017; 5:1205-1214. http://www.doi.10.1002/fsn3.513'},{id:"B51",body:'Stojceska, V., Ainsworth, P., Plunkett, A. and Ibanoglu, S. (2009). The effect of extrusion cooking using different water feed rate on the quality of ready-to-eat snacks from food by-products. Food Chemistry, 114(1): 226-232. http://doi.10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.09.043'},{id:"B52",body:'Obradovic, V., Babic J., Subaric, D., Ackar, D. and Jozinovic, A. (2014). Improvement of nutritional and functional properties of extruded food products. Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 53(3): 189-206'},{id:"B53",body:'Panak Balentić, J., Ačkar, D., Jozinović, A., Babić, J., Miličević, B., Jokić, S., Pajin, B., and Šubarić, D (2017). Application of supercritical carbon dioxide extrusion in food processing technology, Hemijska industrija 71(00):24-24. http://doi.10.2298/HEMIND150629024P'},{id:"B54",body:'Panak Balenti, J., Ackar, D., Jokic, C., Jozinovic, A., Babic, J., Borislav Milicevic, B., Šubaric, D and Pavlovic N. (2018). Cocoa Shell: A By-Product with Great Potential for Wide Application. Molecules, 23(6):1404. http://doi.10.3390/molecules23061404'},{id:"B55",body:'Pathania, S., Singh, B. and Sharma, S. (2013). Development of lowcost multipurpose instant mix by extrusion process using response surface methodology. International Journal of Scientific Research, 2(6): 317-320'},{id:"B56",body:'Brunatti, A. C. S., Garcia, E. L., Mischan, M. M. and Leonel, M (2018). Gluten-free puffed snacks of rice and cassava. Australian Journal of Crop Science, 12(2): 185-192. http://doi.10.21475/ajcs.18.12.02.pne477'},{id:"B57",body:'Panak Balentic, J., Babic J., Jozinovic, A., Ackar, D., Milicevic, B., Muhamedbegovic, B. and Subaric, D. (2018). Production of third generation snacks. Croatian Journal of Food Science and Technology, 10(1): 98-105. http://doi.10.17508/CJFST.2018.10.1.04'},{id:"B58",body:'Sevatson, E., and Huber, G. R. (2000). Extruders in Food Industry. In: Extruders in Food Applications, Riaz, M. N. (ed.), Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press, pp. 193-204'},{id:"B59",body:'Schaaf, H.-J. (1992): Method of making expanded foodstuffs. Germany. US 5153017 A http://www.google.com/patents/US5153017 Accessed July 26, 2017'},{id:"B60",body:'Huber, G. (2001): Snack foods from cooking extruders. In: Snack Foods Processing, Lusas, E. W., Rooney, L. W. (eds.), Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press, pp. 356-359'},{id:"B61",body:'Badau, M. H., Ngozi, C and Danbaba, N. (2013). Quality of Garabia (A Nigerian Traditional Snack) From Four Varieties of rice as affected by the addition of cowpea. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology 5(3): 249-254'},{id:"B62",body:'Juliano, B.O and Tuano, A. P. P. (2019). Gross structure and composition of rice grain. In Rice: Elsevier and AACC International, 31-53 p, http://doi.10.1016/B978-0-12-811508-4.00002-2'},{id:"B63",body:'Belewu, M. A and Akinladenu, H. A. (1998). A note on the apparent digestibility of rice husk and hatchery by-product meal based diets fed to West African dwarf goats, Journal of Applied Animal Research, 13(1-2): 197-200, https://doi.org/10.1080/09712119.1998.9706687'},{id:"B64",body:'Thi Mai, T. P., Kurisu, K. and Hanaki, K (2011). Greenhouse gas emission potential of rice husk for An Giang Province, Vietnam. Biomass and Bioenergy, 35(8): 3656-3666. http://dx.doi.1016/j.biombioe.2011.05.023'},{id:"B65",body:'Ndindeng, S.A., Marco W., Sidi, S., Koichi, F. (2019). Evaluation of fan-assisted rice husk fuelled gasifier cooking stoves for application in Sub-Saharan Africa. Renewable Energy, 925-937. http://doi.10.1016/j.renene.2019.02.132'},{id:"B66",body:'Kaupp, A. (1984). Gasification of rice hull. Theory and practice. 303'},{id:"B67",body:'Jameel, H., Kashweni, D., Carter, S., and Treasure T. (2010). Thermochemical conversion of biomass to power and fuels. In: Biomass to Renewable Energy Process. Cheng. J. (ed), CRS Press, Florida, 447-487. http://doi.org/10.1201/9781315152868'},{id:"B68",body:'Saidur, R., Atabani, A. E., Demirbas, A., Hossain, M. S., and Makhilef, S. (2011). A review on biomass as fuel for boilers. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review, 15(5): 2262-2289'},{id:"B69",body:'Quispe, I., Navia R and Kahhat R. (2017). Energy potentials from rice husk through direct combustion and fast pyrolysis: A review. Waste Management, 59: 200-210, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.10.001'},{id:"B70",body:'Germaine, M.J.E., Ndindeng, S.A., Loh, A.M.B., Theophile, D and Wilfred, M.F (2020). Evaluation of in vivo toxicity of rice husk used as fuel for cooking in households. African Journal of Biochemistry Research, 14(2): 46-56. http://doi.org/10.5897/AJBR20.1078'},{id:"B71",body:'McKendry P., (2002a). Energy production from biomass (Part 1). Overview of biomass, Bioresources Technology, 83: 37-46. http://doi.10.1016/S0960-8524(10)00118-3'},{id:"B72",body:'McKendry P., (2002b). Energy production from biomass (Part 2). Conversion te chnologies, Bioresources Technology, 83: 47-54. http://doi.10.1016/S0960-8524(01)00119-5'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Danbaba Nahemiah",address:"dnahemiah@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Rice Research Program, National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi, Nigeria
Rice Research Program, National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi, Nigeria
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",publishedDate:"March 3rd 2021",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"140404",title:"Mr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Asandulesei",email:"arheoinvest@gmail.com",fullName:"Andrei Asandulesei",slug:"andrei-asandulesei",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Use of Terrestrial 3D Laser Scanner in Cartographing and Monitoring Relief Dynamics and Habitation Space from Various Historical Periods",slug:"use-of-terrestrial-3d-laser-scanner-in-cartographing-and-monitoring-relief-dynamics-and-habitation-s",abstract:null,signatures:"Gheorghe Romanescu, Vasile Cotiugă and Andrei Asăndulesei",authors:[{id:"140400",title:"Dr.",name:"Gheorghe",surname:"Romanescu",fullName:"Gheorghe Romanescu",slug:"gheorghe-romanescu",email:"romanescugheorghe@gmail.com"},{id:"140403",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasile",surname:"Cotiuga",fullName:"Vasile Cotiuga",slug:"vasile-cotiuga",email:"vasicot@uaic.ro"},{id:"140404",title:"Mr.",name:"Andrei",surname:"Asandulesei",fullName:"Andrei Asandulesei",slug:"andrei-asandulesei",email:"arheoinvest@gmail.com"}],book:{title:"Cartography",slug:"cartography-a-tool-for-spatial-analysis",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"101356",title:"Prof.",name:"Vít",surname:"Voženílek",slug:"vit-vozenilek",fullName:"Vít Voženílek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Palacký University, Olomouc",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Czech Republic"}}},{id:"112797",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefano",surname:"Cremonini",slug:"stefano-cremonini",fullName:"Stefano Cremonini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Bologna",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"138442",title:"BSc.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"García",slug:"ricardo-garcia",fullName:"Ricardo García",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"138669",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Pablo",surname:"De Castro",slug:"juan-pablo-de-castro",fullName:"Juan Pablo De Castro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"138670",title:"Dr.",name:"María Jesús",surname:"Verdú",slug:"maria-jesus-verdu",fullName:"María Jesús Verdú",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"138671",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Verdú",slug:"elena-verdu",fullName:"Elena Verdú",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"138672",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luisa",surname:"Regueras",slug:"maria-luisa-regueras",fullName:"María Luisa Regueras",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"146426",title:"PhD.",name:"Axente",surname:"Stoica",slug:"axente-stoica",fullName:"Axente Stoica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"150992",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriele",surname:"Bitelli",slug:"gabriele-bitelli",fullName:"Gabriele Bitelli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/150992/images/4005_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor of Geomatics at Bologna University, Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering (DICAM). \nCoordinator of the \\Building and Urban Systems Engineering\\ Master, Engineering and Architecture School, University of Bologna.\nCoordinator of Italian Association of Professors in Surveying and Cartography (AUTeC).\nCoordinator of the Ph.D. Course in “Geomatics and Transportation Engineering”.\nMember of the ICA (International Cartographic Association) Commission “Digital Approaches to Cartographic Heritage” (2011-2015).\nPrincipal Investigator in different national and international projects (FP7, Central Europe), responsible for a number of surveying projects in Italy and in different countries, he is author of about 250 national and international publications.\nHis main research interests are related to integration of geomatic techniques to environmental change detection and Cultural Heritage, 3D modelling and GIS, digital approaches to cartographic heritage, ground deformation monitoring, risk and disaster mitigation by remote sensing and terrestrial techniques.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Bologna",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"150993",title:"Ms.",name:"Giorgia",surname:"Gatta",slug:"giorgia-gatta",fullName:"Giorgia Gatta",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/150993/images/2087_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Bologna",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"WIS-cost",title:"What Does It Cost?",intro:"
Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
",metaTitle:"What Does It Cost?",metaDescription:"Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
European Commission
\\n\\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\\n\\t
Wellcome Trust
\\n\\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\\n\\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\\n\\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\n\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\n\n
\n\t
European Commission
\n\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\n\t
Wellcome Trust
\n\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\n\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\n\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
\n\t
Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK)
\n\t
Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)
\n\t
Chinese Academy of Sciences
\n\t
Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)
\n\t
German Research Foundation (DFG)
\n\t
Max Planck Institute
\n\t
Austrian Science Fund (FWF)
\n\t
Australian Research Council (ARC)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5775},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5238},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10409},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15805}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118374},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"10"},books:[{type:"book",id:"8969",title:"Deserts and Desertification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4df95c7f295de7f6003e635d9a309fe9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Yajuan Zhu, Dr. Qinghong Luo and Dr. Yuguo Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8969.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"180427",title:"Dr.",name:"Yajuan",surname:"Zhu",slug:"yajuan-zhu",fullName:"Yajuan Zhu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10754",title:"Global Warming and Climate Change",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8994a915a306910a01cbe2027aa2139b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Stuart Arthur Harris",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10754.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"12539",title:"Dr.",name:"Stuart",surname:"Harris",slug:"stuart-harris",fullName:"Stuart Harris"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10756",title:"Urban Agglomeration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"65f2a1fef9c804c29b18ef3ac4a35066",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10756.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10761",title:"Glaciology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bd112c839a9b8037f1302ca6c0d55a2a",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10761.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10762",title:"Cosmology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f28a2213571fb878839bcbacb9827a1d",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10762.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10851",title:"Volcanology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6cfc09f959efecf9ba95654b1bb4b987",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Angelo Paone and Prof. Sung-Hyo Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo Paone"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10949",title:"Clay and Clay Minerals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"44d08b9e490617fcbf7786c381c85fbc",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10949.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10950",title:"Landslides",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8fcc0f63c22c087239f07a8e06ec2549",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10950.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10952",title:"Soil Science - Emerging Technologies, Global Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3dbedd2099c57a24eaab114be4ba2b48",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Michael Thomas Aide and Dr. Indi Braden",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10952.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"185895",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Aide",slug:"michael-aide",fullName:"Michael Aide"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10954",title:"Dark Matter - Recent Observations and Theoretical Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b0fbd6ee0096e4c16e9513bf01273ab3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Michael L. Smith",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10954.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"59479",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael L.",surname:"Smith",slug:"michael-l.-smith",fullName:"Michael L. Smith"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:10},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5247},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"528",title:"Communication System",slug:"communications-and-security-communication-system",parent:{title:"Communications and Security",slug:"communications-and-security"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:2,numberOfWosCitations:53,numberOfCrossrefCitations:33,numberOfDimensionsCitations:68,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"communications-and-security-communication-system",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"3671",title:"Satellite Communications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"satellite-communications",bookSignature:"Nazzareno Diodato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51018",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazzareno",middleName:null,surname:"Diodato",slug:"nazzareno-diodato",fullName:"Nazzareno Diodato"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3650",title:"Radio Communications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"radio-communications",bookSignature:"Alessandro Bazzi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3650.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4379",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",middleName:null,surname:"Bazzi",slug:"alessandro-bazzi",fullName:"Alessandro Bazzi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"11687",doi:"10.5772/9980",title:"Antenna System for Land Mobile Satellite Communications",slug:"antenna-system-for-land-mobile-satellite-communications",totalDownloads:7763,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"satellite-communications",title:"Satellite Communications",fullTitle:"Satellite Communications"},signatures:"Basari Basari, Kazuyuki Saito, Masaharu Takahashi and Koichi Ito",authors:null},{id:"11697",doi:"10.5772/9987",title:"Characterisation and Channel Modelling for Mobile Satellite Communication Systems",slug:"characterisation-and-channel-modelling-for-mobile-satellite-communication-systems",totalDownloads:6676,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"satellite-communications",title:"Satellite Communications",fullTitle:"Satellite Communications"},signatures:"Asad Mehmood and Abbas Mohammed",authors:null},{id:"11709",doi:"10.5772/9997",title:"Interference in Cellular Satellite Systems",slug:"interference-studies-in-cellular-satellite-systems",totalDownloads:2932,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"satellite-communications",title:"Satellite Communications",fullTitle:"Satellite Communications"},signatures:"Ozlem Kilic and Amir I. Zaghloul",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"10765",title:"Bidirectional Cooperative Relaying",slug:"bidirectional-cooperative-relaying",totalDownloads:2337,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"radio-communications",title:"Radio Communications",fullTitle:"Radio Communications"},signatures:"Prabhat Kumar Upadhyay and Shankar Prakriya",authors:null},{id:"10779",title:"Radio-Communications Architectures",slug:"radio-communications-architectures",totalDownloads:3657,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"radio-communications",title:"Radio Communications",fullTitle:"Radio Communications"},signatures:"Antoine Diet, Martine Villegas, Genevieve Baudoin and Fabien Robert",authors:null},{id:"11710",title:"Beyong Life-Cycle Utilization of Geostationary Communication Satellites in End-of-Life",slug:"multi-life-cycles-utilization-of-retired-satellites",totalDownloads:3094,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"satellite-communications",title:"Satellite Communications",fullTitle:"Satellite Communications"},signatures:"Shi Hu-Li, Han Yan-Ben, Ma Li-Hua, Pei Jun, Yin Zhi-Qiang and Ji Hai-Fu",authors:null},{id:"10778",title:"Measuring Network Security",slug:"measuring-network-security",totalDownloads:2495,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"radio-communications",title:"Radio Communications",fullTitle:"Radio Communications"},signatures:"Emmanouil Serrelis and Nikolaos Alexandris",authors:null},{id:"11705",title:"Earth to Space Link",slug:"earth-to-space-link",totalDownloads:1892,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"satellite-communications",title:"Satellite Communications",fullTitle:"Satellite Communications"},signatures:"Mandeep Jit Singh, Mardina Abdullah, Baharudin Yatim, Mahamod Ismail and Wayan Suparta",authors:null},{id:"10772",title:"Cooperative MIMO Systems in Wireless Sensor Networks",slug:"cooperative-mimo-systems-in-wireless-sensor-networks",totalDownloads:2887,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"radio-communications",title:"Radio Communications",fullTitle:"Radio Communications"},signatures:"M. Riduan Ahmad, Eryk Dutkiewicz, Xiaojing Huang and M. Kadim Suaidi",authors:null},{id:"10780",title:"Location in Ad Hoc Networks",slug:"location-in-ad-hoc-networks",totalDownloads:1569,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"radio-communications",title:"Radio Communications",fullTitle:"Radio Communications"},signatures:"Israel Martin-Escalona, Marc Ciurana and Francisco Barcelo-Arroyo",authors:null},{id:"10791",title:"A Testing Process for Interoperability and Conformance of Secure Web Services",slug:"a-testing-process-for-interoperability-and-conformance-of-secure-web-services",totalDownloads:2298,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"radio-communications",title:"Radio Communications",fullTitle:"Radio Communications"},signatures:"Spyridon Papastergiou and Despina Polemi",authors:null},{id:"11700",title:"Design and Simulation of a DVB-S2-like Adaptive Air interface Designed for Low Bit Rate Emergency Communications Satellite Link in Ku/Ka/Q/V Bands",slug:"design-and-simulation-of-a-dvb-s2-like-adaptive-air-interface-designed-for-low-bit-rate-emergency-co",totalDownloads:3785,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"satellite-communications",title:"Satellite Communications",fullTitle:"Satellite Communications"},signatures:"Ponia Pech, Marie Robert, Alban Duverdier and Michel Bousquet",authors:null},{id:"10788",title:"Planar Antenna Array Hybrid Beamforming for SDMA in Millimeter Wave WPAN",slug:"planar-antenna-array-hybrid-beamforming-for-sdma-in-millimeter-wave-wpan",totalDownloads:3033,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"radio-communications",title:"Radio Communications",fullTitle:"Radio Communications"},signatures:"Sau-HsuanWu, Lin-Kai Chiu, Ko-Yen Lin and Ming-Chen Chiang",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"communications-and-security-communication-system",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/140404/andrei-asandulesei",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"140404",slug:"andrei-asandulesei"},fullPath:"/profiles/140404/andrei-asandulesei",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()