Toxicity of common pesticides to bees (LD50 at 48 hours) by contact or oral exposure and their persistence in soil (half-life)
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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7225",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Dam Engineering",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Dams and their auxiliary structures are built to provide water for human consumption, irrigating lands, generating hydroelectric power, and use in industrial processes. They are critical structures for continuing life and providing public safety. Construction of a dam is a complicated task that requires sophisticated modern technology and technical expertise. Scientists need to review and adjust their perspectives on designing embankments and their related structures, and compaction and consolidation of fill material, behavior of concrete materials, geotechnical and seismological studies of the dam site, total risk analysis, safety monitoring and instrumentation, heightening, hydrological studies, soil conservation, and watershed management. This book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the latest information in dam engineering.",isbn:"978-1-78985-480-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-479-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-037-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74153",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"dam-engineering",numberOfPages:106,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a845c7ddd9193f56a6bc91bc22bc503d",bookSignature:"Hasan Tosun",publishedDate:"February 20th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7225.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7527,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:13,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 24th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 14th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 15th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 4th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 2nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"79083",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"hasan-tosun",fullName:"Hasan Tosun",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS3PNQA0/Profile_Picture_1637671691509",biography:"Hasan Tosun is the president of the Turkish Society on Dam Safety and a former researcher (full professor), in the Civil Engineering Department, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Turkey. He, as a director, has governed the Earthquake Research Center for 12 years. He was the vice-rector at Uşak University, Turkey, and dean of the Engineering Faculty there. He specializes in geotechnical issues for earth and rockfill dams. Up to 1997, he worked at the General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works and supervised the geotechnical studies of large dams constructed in Turkey. He has published more than 320 technical papers published in national and international journals and conference proceedings. He has international memberships for CDA in Canada and for USSD and ASSDO in the United States.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Eskişehir Osmangazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"284",title:"Civil Engineering",slug:"technology-civil-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"61949",title:"Practices in Constructing High Rockfill Dams on Thick Overburden Layers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78547",slug:"practices-in-constructing-high-rockfill-dams-on-thick-overburden-layers",totalDownloads:1740,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Rockfill dams are very widely constructed all over the world due to their good adaptability to diverse geological and geographical conditions, and their relatively low cost compared to other dam types. However, natural satisfactory sites are increasingly difficult to find in many countries due to past dam development. In some circumstance, building dams over thick overburden layers is unavoidable. In this chapter, Chinese practices in constructing high earth and rockfill dams over thick overburden layers are reviewed. The geological and geotechnical investigation techniques are briefly summarized, and seepage control systems of some selected cases as well as the connection of the impervious systems of both the dams and their foundation layers are described. Commonly used foundation improvement techniques are also presented, followed by simple descriptions of aspects that require further research and development.",signatures:"Zhongzhi Fu, Shengshui Chen and Enyue Ji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61949",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61949",authors:[{id:"249577",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongzhi",surname:"Fu",slug:"zhongzhi-fu",fullName:"Zhongzhi Fu"},{id:"256310",title:"Prof.",name:"Shengshui",surname:"Chen",slug:"shengshui-chen",fullName:"Shengshui Chen"},{id:"256311",title:"Dr.",name:"Enyue",surname:"Ji",slug:"enyue-ji",fullName:"Enyue Ji"}],corrections:null},{id:"62608",title:"Seismic Crack Investigation in an Earth Dam by Centrifugal Loading Test",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78788",slug:"seismic-crack-investigation-in-an-earth-dam-by-centrifugal-loading-test",totalDownloads:870,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There are many Earth-fill dams in Japan, which are mostly used for irrigation use. Most of these dams in Japan were constructed by experience over 100 years ago. There are so many irrigation dams, which suffered earthquake damage in the past. Due to the damages, the cracks at the crest in the dam-axis direction have been reported in many cases. For the rock-fill dam recently constructed, the crack on the crest in the dam-axis direction has also been found in the case of a large earthquake. The mechanism of such a crack has not been discussed well. In this study, to clarify the mechanism of a crack in the dam-axis direction, a centrifugal loading test was applied to the dam with a 50 G gravity field. As a result, the critical level of strain was observed at the crest of the model, and it was found that the horizontal displacement at the upper part of the dam was excessive. It can be concluded from the study that the seismic cracks in the dam-axis direction occurred due to the excessive tensile stress, which was not considered in the design process.",signatures:"Akira Kobayashi and Akira Murakami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62608",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62608",authors:[{id:"243345",title:"Prof.",name:"Akira",surname:"Kobayashi",slug:"akira-kobayashi",fullName:"Akira Kobayashi"},{id:"254082",title:"Prof.",name:"Akira",surname:"Murakami",slug:"akira-murakami",fullName:"Akira Murakami"}],corrections:null},{id:"65343",title:"Three-Dimensional CFD Simulations of Hydrodynamics for the Lowland Dam Reservoir",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80377",slug:"three-dimensional-cfd-simulations-of-hydrodynamics-for-the-lowland-dam-reservoir",totalDownloads:1006,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter deals with the processes by which a single-phase 3-D CFD model of hydrodynamics in a Sulejow dam reservoir was developed, verified, and tested. A simplified volume of fluid (VOF) model of flow was elaborated to determine the effect of wind on hydrodynamics in the lake. A hexahedral mesh with over 17 million elements and a k-ω SST turbulence model were defined for single-phase simulations in steady-state conditions. The model was verified on the basis of the extensive hydrodynamic measurements. Excellent agreement (average error of less than 10%) between computed and measured velocity profiles was found. The simulation results proved a strong effect of wind on hydrodynamics, especially on the development of the water circulation pattern in the lacustrine zone in the lake.",signatures:"Aleksandra Ziemińska-Stolarska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65343",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65343",authors:[{id:"243867",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",surname:"Ziemińska-Stolarska",slug:"aleksandra-zieminska-stolarska",fullName:"Aleksandra Ziemińska-Stolarska"}],corrections:null},{id:"62062",title:"Large-Scale Modeling of Dam Break Induced Flows",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78648",slug:"large-scale-modeling-of-dam-break-induced-flows",totalDownloads:1137,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, mathematical modeling of the dam break flooding flows has become very interesting and challenging problem for scientists and engineers. In order to analyze possible risks and safety, mapping of flooded areas corresponding to different scenarios and conditions for the destruction of dams and reservoirs is significant. The results of mathematical modeling of large-scale flows in areas with a complex topographic relief were presented in this chapter. The flow was numerically simulated by the volume of fluid (VOF) method-based solver interFoam of OpenFOAM package, which solving the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations (RANS) with the k-ε turbulence model. The mathematical model adequacy is checked by comparing with experimental data. The efficiency of the applied technology is illustrated by the example of modeling the breaking of the dams of the Andijan (Uzbekistan) and Papan (near the Osh town, Kyrgyzstan) reservoirs.",signatures:"Amanbek Jainakov, Abdikerim Kurbanaliev and Maralbek\nOskonbaev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62062",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62062",authors:[{id:"244307",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdikerim",surname:"Kurbanaliev",slug:"abdikerim-kurbanaliev",fullName:"Abdikerim Kurbanaliev"},{id:"252950",title:"Prof.",name:"Amanbek",surname:"Zhainakov",slug:"amanbek-zhainakov",fullName:"Amanbek Zhainakov"},{id:"252952",title:"Dr.",name:"Maralbek",surname:"Oskonbaev",slug:"maralbek-oskonbaev",fullName:"Maralbek Oskonbaev"}],corrections:null},{id:"64883",title:"Influence of Geological Structure on Dam Behavior and Case Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78742",slug:"influence-of-geological-structure-on-dam-behavior-and-case-studies",totalDownloads:2776,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Complex engineering projects including large dams require extensive reconnaissance. The study of geological relationships is therefore of major importance, with emphasis on the characteristics of the geological structures. Accordingly, geologic structure affects dam site and reservoir behavior in three ways: (1) its impact on the geomechanical properties of rocks; (2) the importance of geologic structures in the identification and assessment of karst hydrogeology; and (3) its role in seismotectonic and seismic risk analysis of dam projects. Site geology and availability of various geologic data obtained from site investigation are key points in dam construction. Geological structure plays an important role in dam site geology and imposes major limitations on dam behavior during and after construction stages. This role has its own effect on major subjects such as: morphotectonics of rivers; geotechnical properties and engineering geology of dam sites; and hydrogeology of dam abutments and reservoir. The variability and complexity of geological structures regarding their tectonic situation result in different scenarios regarding dam’s behavior. This chapter examines the link between geological structure and dam behavior during and after construction period by describing four dam case examples: two earth (Marun and Gotvand) and two concrete (Karun-1 and -3) dams in Iran.",signatures:"Arash Barjasteh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64883",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64883",authors:[{id:"243447",title:"Dr.",name:"Arash",surname:"Barjasteh",slug:"arash-barjasteh",fullName:"Arash Barjasteh"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10632",title:"Theory and Practice of Tunnel Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ba17749f9d0b6a62d584a3c320a1f49",slug:"theory-and-practice-of-tunnel-engineering",bookSignature:"Hasan Tosun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10632.jpg",editedByType:"Edited 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Patil and Prakash Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3547.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"164249",title:"Dr.",name:"Yogesh",middleName:"Bhagwan",surname:"Patil",slug:"yogesh-patil",fullName:"Yogesh Patil"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"163692",title:"Dr.",name:"Ranjith",middleName:null,surname:"Kumavath",fullName:"Ranjith Kumavath",slug:"ranjith-kumavath",email:"rnkumavath@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"167339",title:"Mr.",name:"Pratap",middleName:null,surname:"Devarapalli",fullName:"Pratap Devarapalli",slug:"pratap-devarapalli",email:"pratap66666@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Tasmania",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},book:{id:"3547",title:"Applied Bioremediation",subtitle:"Active and Passive Approaches",fullTitle:"Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches",slug:"applied-bioremediation-active-and-passive-approaches",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2013",bookSignature:"Yogesh B. Patil and Prakash Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3547.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"164249",title:"Dr.",name:"Yogesh",middleName:"Bhagwan",surname:"Patil",slug:"yogesh-patil",fullName:"Yogesh Patil"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11131",leadTitle:null,title:"Drought - Impacts and Management",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tDrought is generally defined as a prolonged period of dry weather caused by a lack of precipitation that results in severe water shortages for some activities, populations, or ecological systems. The deterioration of the balance between precipitation and evaporation and the long duration of this situation can also be considered as drought. Drought types, which are divided into main types such as meteorological, agricultural, hydrological, and socioeconomic, adversely affect many environmental components such as soil processes, vegetation growth, wildlife, water quality, and aquatic ecosystems. While drought has unfavorable impacts on both surface and groundwater resources, hydrological regimes can also be affected by it, changing the chemistry of surface waters and the runoff pathway, which can negatively influence water quality. While drought appears as one of the main consequences of changes in ecosystem and climate, the consumption of water used for domestic, industrial, and agricultural purposes has increased by 15% in the last two decades, and today one out of every three people is faced with the drought and water shortage risk, thus water scarcity and water stress.
\r\n\r\n\tIn this book, studies on the drought that can occur in various forms and severity in almost every region of the world and its causes will be included, and many factors from climate change to temperature increase, from evaporation to transpiration, from precipitation to soil moisture will be examined. The social and economic effects of drought will be revealed. Research on drought forecasting, models, geographic information, and remote sensing systems and indices will also be included. Most importantly, a series of measures for fighting against drought will form the content of the book, which is open for submissions on recommendations from household-specific recycling/reuse practices to approaches in basins and wetlands, to reduce water footprints. Thus, the complex drought phenomenon, which has a significant impact on water resources, agriculture, energy production, human health, and forest fires, will be analyzed in detail.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-544-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-543-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-545-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d418f4c7facb3341e6689ccdf5087c0f",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Murat Eyvaz, Dr. Ahmed Albahnasawi, Dr. Mesut Tekbaş and Dr. Ercan Gürbulak",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11131.jpg",keywords:"Meteorological, Agricultural, Climate Change, Deforestation, Standardized Precipitation Index, Crop Moisture Index, Geographical Information System, Remote Sensing, Biodiversity Loss, Habitat Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, River Basin Management",numberOfDownloads:345,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 17th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Eyvaz is a pioneering researcher in environmental sciences and engineering, he has co-authored numerous journal articles and conference papers and has taken part in many national projects. Dr. Eyvaz is a holder of four registered patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Albahnasawi is a pioneering researcher in civil engineering, environmental sciences, and engineering, he was a doctoral researcher at Gebze Technical University thanks to the full scholarship he earned in 2016.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Tekbas is a pioneering researcher in environmental sciences and engineering, his research interests include waste management, supercritical oxidation processes, and process intensification.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:"Dr. Gürbulak is a pioneering researcher in environmental sciences and engineering, his research interests include waste management, supercritical oxidation processes, and process intensification.",coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/170083/images/system/170083.png",biography:"Dr. Murat Eyvaz is an associate professor in the Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include applications in water and wastewater treatment facilities, electrochemical treatment processes, filtration systems at the lab, pilot-scale membrane processes (forward osmosis, reverse osmosis, membrane bioreactors), membrane manufacturing methods (polymeric membranes, nanofiber membranes, electrospinning), spectrophotometric analyses (UV, atomic absorption spectrophotometry), and chromatographic analyses (gas chromatography, high-pressure liquid chromatography). He has co-authored many journal articles and conference papers and has taken part in many national projects. He serves as an editor and reviewer for numerous journals. He holds four patents on wastewater treatment systems.",institutionString:"Gebze Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"323629",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Albahnasawi",slug:"ahmed-albahnasawi",fullName:"Ahmed Albahnasawi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323629/images/system/323629.png",biography:"Dr. Ahmed Albahnasawi is a post-doctorate fellow in the Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Turkey. His graduate work focused on the investigation of the treatability of the sequential anoxic-aerobic batch reactors followed by ceramic membrane for textile wastewater treatment. Dr. Albahnasawi has published three journal papers based on his Ph.D. research. He has participated in three international conferences. His research interests include the application and design of a microbial fuel cell integrated with Fenton oxidation for industrial wastewater treatment/solid waste management and monitoring of organic micropollutants by both chromatographic and spectrophotometric analyses.",institutionString:"Gebze Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"189677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Tekbaş",slug:"mesut-tekbas",fullName:"Mesut Tekbaş",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189677/images/system/189677.png",biography:"Dr. Mesut Tekbaş is a researcher/lecturer in the Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Turkey. He received his bachelor’s degree in Environmental Engineering at Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey in 2003. He obtained an MSc and Ph.D. from Gebze Technical University in 2007 and 2019, respectively. His research interests include the application and design of supercritical water oxidation processes for wastewater treatment/solid waste management and electrochemical analyses.",institutionString:"Gebze Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"176699",title:"Dr.",name:"Ercan",middleName:null,surname:"Gürbulak",slug:"ercan-gurbulak",fullName:"Ercan Gürbulak",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176699/images/system/176699.png",biography:"Dr. Ercan Gürbulak is a research associate in the Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Turkey. He received his bachelor’s degree in Environmental Engineering at Marmara University, Turkey in 2005. He obtained an MSc and Ph.D. from Gebze Technical University in 2008 and 2019, respectively. His research interests include the application and design of hydrothermal processes for industrial wastewater treatment/solid waste management and monitoring of organic micropollutants by both chromatographic and spectrophotometric analyses.",institutionString:"Gebze Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"665",title:"Hydrological Disaster",slug:"hydrological-disaster"}],chapters:[{id:"80984",title:"Water Scarcity Management in the Maghreb Region",slug:"water-scarcity-management-in-the-maghreb-region",totalDownloads:49,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82110",title:"Hydrological Drought Index Based on Discharge",slug:"hydrological-drought-index-based-on-discharge",totalDownloads:28,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80924",title:"Review of Hydrological Drought Analysis Status in Ethiopia",slug:"review-of-hydrological-drought-analysis-status-in-ethiopia",totalDownloads:62,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80834",title:"Drought Stress: Manifestation and Mechanisms of Alleviation in Plants",slug:"drought-stress-manifestation-and-mechanisms-of-alleviation-in-plants",totalDownloads:72,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81241",title:"Physiological and Molecular Adaptation of Sugarcane under Drought vis-a-vis Root System Traits",slug:"physiological-and-molecular-adaptation-of-sugarcane-under-drought-vis-a-vis-root-system-traits",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81584",title:"Reducing the Effects of Drought and Degradation of Agricultural Soils, in the Context of Climate Change, through the Application of Regenerative Ecological Technologies",slug:"reducing-the-effects-of-drought-and-degradation-of-agricultural-soils-in-the-context-of-climate-chan",totalDownloads:41,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81203",title:"Climate Change: A Real Danger to Human and Animal Survival",slug:"climate-change-a-real-danger-to-human-and-animal-survival",totalDownloads:42,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81810",title:"Water Shortages: Cause of Water Safety in Sub-Saharan Africa",slug:"water-shortages-cause-of-water-safety-in-sub-saharan-africa",totalDownloads:25,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"79973",title:"Impacts of Drought on Homestead Plant Diversity in Barind Tract of Bangladesh",slug:"impacts-of-drought-on-homestead-plant-diversity-in-barind-tract-of-bangladesh",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429339",firstName:"Jelena",lastName:"Vrdoljak",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429339/images/20012_n.jpg",email:"jelena.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50073",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",doi:"10.5772/62487",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",body:'\nFor centuries, beekeepers have been aware of the environmental conditions that help prosper their honey bee colonies: a diversity of flowers from trees, shrubs, the so-called weeds and even crop plants. A healthy, diverse floral environment has always been the recipe for a healthy, bumper honey production. Perhaps the only problems they faced were the occasional infection by microorganisms, diseases and parasites that could kill the bees and their colonies [1] or the unpredictable vagaries of weather that could affect flower production on particular bad years.
\nIn the past few decades, however, beekeepers have had to cope with a new threat to their business: agrochemical pesticides, which are scattered over large areas of crops, fruit groves, forests and other environments for the control of insect pests, weeds, vermin and plant diseases. There was no doubt, from the beginning, that chemical insecticides could represent a serious threat to bees for the simple reason that bees are insects and, therefore, susceptible to any poison designed to kill insect pests. Consequently, strict toxicity testing was and still is required before such chemicals can be registered for use in crop protection [2, 3], at least in developed countries. Despite these regulations, the number of managed honey bee (
But, what about other pesticides, such as herbicides and fungicides? Could they also affect honey bee productivity? If the target of such chemicals is not the insects, many argued, they are probably safe to the bees. Research conducted in the past few years in countries with a long history of pesticide usage suggests differently. It is now acknowledged that the extensive and prolonged used of herbicides leads to a reduced diversity of flowering plants [6, 7] that inevitably affect the bees’ colonies [8] and their productivity. Moreover, the combination of some fungicides with insecticides has been revealed more deadly to the bees than either chemical alone [9]. Lately, the indiscriminate use of acaricides in apiaries for the control of parasites, such as
In these circumstances, a new management approach is needed for successful beekeeping. Production of honey and wax is no longer dependent on the availability of flowers in the surrounding environment, but rather appears to be intimately linked to the quality of food that the bees collect. It is now clear that pesticide-contaminated flowers affect the health of the honey bee colonies to the extent that their productivity declines [11]. In order to better manage this situation, we must first understand how bees are exposed to pesticides and what are the consequences of such exposure for the health of the individual bees, the colony and their overall productivity.
\nMost insecticides are applied as sprays over the crop canopy, but sprays of herbicides and fungicides are usually applied directly on the soil before the planting of crops. In all these cases, droplets and dust from the applications can fall directly on the bees that fly across the treated fields or nearby because wind can carry the tiny droplets and dust particles hundreds of metres away from the crop [12]. A single droplet of insecticide may be sufficient to kill a bee because the spray solutions contain concentrated doses of these chemicals—this is the most common cause behind the bee incidents reported in the literature [13, 14]. Granular pesticides that are incorporated into soil (e.g., herbicides) have no direct exposure to bees.
\nThe so-called systemic insecticides are usually applied as seed coatings. The treated seeds are introduced into the soil using pneumatic drilling planters, and the friction of the seeds in the machinery produces dust particles that are heavily loaded with the insecticides. These poisonous particles can also cause a great deal of mortality among bees, if they happen to be in the surroundings [15]. Systemic insecticides applied this way are taken up by the crop plants as they grow and their residues are present in all parts of the treated plant, including the flowers, pollen and nectar [16]. Not only the crop plants but also the weeds and bushes that grow in the vicinity are affected [17, 18] because they also take up small amounts of residues that spread through the soil through lateral water flow [19] or are contaminated through dust/spray drift. In addition, some plants can produce guttation drops in the early hours of the morning (e.g. maize, strawberries), and systemic insecticides appear in such drops in elevated concentrations [20] that are capable of killing the bees.
\nMost of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of contaminated plants, whether from the crop plants or from the weeds around the fields [21]. It is important to realise that bees forage everywhere they can and search for the most suitable flowers that produce pollen and nectar in abundance. Thus, some crops are more attractive than others; for example, the yellow flowers of canola (rape seed oil), sunflowers and many weeds that grow in and around the crops are more attractive to bees than the flowers of potato plants. Pesticide residues in pollen and nectar are taken by the forager bees to their colonies and remain in the beebread and honey for quite some time [22, 23]. These residues are then fed to the larvae and the queen, which are affected in similar ways as the forager bees.
\nIn addition to food, bees also drink water to keep their body temperature under control [24]. Pesticide residues in soil eventually move into the water and appear in the streams, creeks and ponds of agricultural areas and beyond, which are thus contaminated with a mixture of agrochemicals [25]. Some water contamination is also due to drift from spray applications, particularly from insecticides [26, 27]. Honey bees, bumblebees and wild bees like to drink from puddles, irrigation ditches, ponds and streams, and if these waters are contaminated with pesticide residues, the forager bees ingest them as well [28].
\nApart from the pesticides used in agricultural production, honey bees are also exposed to the acaricides used for the control of
Given the enormous variety of agrochemicals used in crop production, it is not surprising that, to date, residues of 173 different compounds have been found in apiaries [21]. It should be realised that through the various routes of exposure to pesticides in the environment (Figure 1), bees are not threaten by one or two chemicals alone but by cocktails of many agricultural compounds.
\nRoutes of exposure of bees to agricultural pesticides.
Pesticides are toxic chemicals with specific mode of action, meaning they are designed to specifically control a target group of organisms by interfering with particular metabolic pathways. Thus, insecticides and acaricides kill insects and mites by disrupting their neuronal activity, their moulting process or other specific metabolism of these arthropods; herbicides and algicides kill plants and algae by disrupting their photosynthetic capacities or the synthesis of essential organic compounds and fungicides kill fungi by inhibiting the formation of their cell membranes or another metabolism specific of these organisms. There are other kinds as well, like rodenticides that kill small mammals, bird repellents, etc. The term biocide is reserved for broad-spectrum poisons that kill any organism, mainly microbes, but also large animals.
\nThe toxicity of each kind of pesticide, however, is not exclusive to the target group of organisms: other species that share similar metabolism are affected as well, although usually to a lesser degree. The potency of a pesticide to any species is defined by the dose of toxic chemical that is lethal to 50% of individuals of that species (LD50), and such dose varies from species to species. Doses lower than the LD50 are considered ‘sublethal’, but they can also cause mortality on a certain proportion of the species population, i.e., 20 or 30% of individuals may die. In general, sublethal doses cause toxic effects that do not kill the organisms but still affect their normal functioning and health. For example, exposure of bees to sublethal doses of neurotoxic insecticides may cause stress [31], paralysis or abnormal behaviours without killing the bees [32].
\nBy their very nature, insecticides are the most toxic compounds to bees, whereas herbicides are largely innocuous (Table 1). Beekeepers should be wary of any insecticide application in the vicinity of their hives because spray drift could certainly inflict a heavy toll on the bees. Pesticide applicators are aware of this danger and, in many countries, are required to inform beekeepers before they apply insecticides to a crop [33]. Also, while acaricides are less toxic to bees than to the target parasites, excessive amounts of their residues in the combs may have unpleasant consequences for the health of the bees [34].
\nPesticide type | \nChemical name | \nContact* LD50(μg/bee) | \nOral* LD50 (μg/bee) | \nHalf-life† (days) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Acaricides | \nAcrinathrin | \n0.17 | \n0.12 | \n22 | \n
Amitraz | \n50 | \n- | \n1 | \n|
Coumaphos | \n20 | \n4.6 | \n- | \n|
Fenpyroximate | \n11 | \n- | \n49 | \n|
Tau-fluvalinate | \n8.7 | \n45 | \n4 | \n|
Tetradifon | \n1250 | \n- | \n112 | \n|
Fungicides | \nAzoxystrobin | \n200 | \n25 | \n78 | \n
Boscalid | \n200 | \n166 | \n118 | \n|
Captan | \n215 | \n91 | \n4 | \n|
Carbendazim | \n50 | \n- | \n22 | \n|
Chlorothalonil | \n135 | \n63 | \n44 | \n|
Myclobutanil | \n40 | \n34 | \n35 | \n|
Propiconazole | \n50 | \n77 | \n214 | \n|
Quintozene | \n71 | \n- | \n210 | \n|
Tebuconazole | \n200 | \n83 | \n47 | \n|
Herbicides | \nMetolachlor | \n- | \n110 | \n90 | \n
Norflurazon | \n1485 | \n- | \n225 | \n|
Simazine | \n879 | \n- | \n90 | \n|
Insecticides | \nBeta-cyfluthrin | \n0.031 | \n0.050 | \n13 | \n
Bifenthrin | \n0.015 | \n0.20 | \n87 | \n|
Carbofuran | \n0.16 | \n- | \n14 | \n|
Chlorpyrifos | \n0.072 | \n0.24 | \n50 | \n|
Clothianidin | \n0.039 | \n0.004 | \n121 | \n|
Cypermethrin | \n0.034 | \n0.064 | \n69 | \n|
DDT | \n8.8 | \n5.1 | \n6200 | \n|
Diazinon | \n0.38 | \n0.21 | \n18 | \n|
Endosulfan | \n6.4 | \n21 | \n86 | \n|
Fenthion | \n0.22 | \n- | \n22 | \n|
Fipronil | \n0.007 | \n0.001 | \n142 | \n|
Imidacloprid | \n0.061 | \n0.013 | \n174 | \n|
Malathion | \n0.47 | \n9.2 | \n1 | \n|
Mevinphos | \n0.094 | \n- | \n1 | \n|
\n | Pyrethrum | \n0.18 | \n0.057 | \n- | \n
All animals, including bees, are endowed with detoxification mechanisms that transform and eliminate most toxic chemicals. Currently, the majority of organic pesticides are degradable either in the organisms themselves or in the environment. The exception is the organochlorine pesticides (e.g. insecticides like DDT and lindane), which are very persistent and recalcitrant. Because they were applied in large quantities in the past decades, their residues are still present—although at low levels—in the soils of many countries, even if nowadays are banned from use in agriculture. Due to their low solubility in water, organochlorine residues are not taken up by the plants growing in contaminated soils, and so they do not appear in the pollen or nectar of the flowers.
\nThe persistence of pesticides is evaluated by their half-life (
Systemic insecticides, such as neonicotinoids (e.g. imidacloprid) and fipronil, are more toxic and persistent than the majority of organophosphorus (e.g. malathion), carbamates (e.g. carbofuran) and pyrethroids (e.g. cypermethrin) (Table 1). Given their high solubility in water, their residues also appear in water bodies of agricultural areas and the rivers they drain into [36, 37]. As they are applied consistently as seed dressings, their residues may remain in the soil for years and are taken up by the crop and weeds, ending up in the nectar and pollen of all plants in the treated landscape [16]. This poses a risk to bees, not only because of their high toxicity and availability but also due to their particular mode of action. For example, neonicotinoids show delayed toxicity at low doses, so apart from various sublethal effects they cause [38], they end up killing the bees if they are exposed to the residues for a long period [39]. Both neonicotinoids and fipronil also produce immune suppression on honey bees [40, 41] and, consequently, they predispose bees to
The toxicity of certain insecticides can be enhanced in the presence of ergosterol-inhibiting fungicides (e.g. propiconazole, myclobutanil), which act as synergists. Indeed, this type of compounds inhibits the detoxification system in bees [46, 47], so the insecticide and acaricide residues are not metabolised or eliminated as fast as they should. Furthermore, the toxicity of insecticides and acaricides used for
Sublethal exposure to pesticides, including fungicides and some herbicides, often produce stress in animals, because the organisms try to metabolise and get rid of the toxic chemicals quickly using large amounts of energy. Apart from stress, bees experience other negative effects when exposed to sublethal doses of pesticides. For example, under conditions of chronic exposure, honey bee larvae fed on pollen contaminated with chlorpyrifos produced very few queens [48]. Wild bees (
Finally, the indirect effects caused by herbicides cannot be ignored. Herbicides are not toxic to bees, but they disturb the environment in which bees and other pollinators live. Plant biodiversity, and its associated arthropod communities, have certainly decreased in areas that have been treated with herbicides for many years [55, 56]. The lack of certain plant species, mainly weeds, implies an impoverishment of the natural environment that sustains pollinators, including honey bees. Consequently, bees find more difficult to collect the variety of pollen that is required for a healthy bee diet [57]. Poor bee nutrition due to scarcity of flowers is the indirect result of continuous herbicide applications in crops and forestry areas over many decades.
\nHaving explained above the routes of exposure to pesticides and their various impacts on bees, an evaluation of the actual risks that current pest control products and acaricides used for treating hives pose to honey bees is needed. The main risk derives from the acute toxicity of the chemicals to the bees, which produce their mortality in the short or middle term. Other risks include sublethal effects that may harm the performance of hives and the long-term viability of the colonies, as mentioned above.
\nRisks are typically estimated as probabilities of harm and are based on the acute toxicity and the frequency with which a chemical may affect the bees. Three scenarios can be considered: (1) risks from spraying of pesticides over agricultural fields; (2) risks posed by ingestion of agrochemical residues found in pollen, honey and water, which are collected and ingested by the forager bees and transported to the hive, where they are processed into honey and beebread and fed to the other bees, the larvae and the queen; and (3) risks from exposure to combs treated with acaricide products.
\nFor the first scenario, the only data required are the concentrations of the active ingredients in the spray solutions applied and their acute toxicity, i.e., LD50 values for each chemical, since the probability of a bee being sprayed on can be considered 100% if the bee flies directly through the spray cloud in the field, or if a hive is placed downwind and within the normal range of spray drift by aerial or ground-rig applications, i.e., less than 1 km. This kind of risk is estimated using the typical hazard quotient HQ
where the exposure term can be determined by the concentration of active ingredient in the spray droplets and the volume received by the bees, according to the following expression
In this case, the HQ can be indicative of high risk when its value is 1 or more, since 50% or more bees exposed would die; moderate risk is when HQ values are between 0.1 and 1 and low risk when it is less than 0.1, as fewer than 10% (similar to a natural mortality rate) of bees would be threaten.
\nEstimates of risks are typically done by considering the spray drift [58, 59] and the exposure to the flying bees [60]. For example, to compare the risk posed by different products under the same conditions, the spray drift volume can be fixed, e.g. 500 droplets for a bee crossing the spray cloud in a few minutes, at 5×10−4 μl for a standard droplet would result in 0.25 μl/bee. Table 2 shows a comparison of the risk that commonly applied pesticides would have in such situations.
\nPesticide type | \nChemical name | \nDroplet concentration (μg/ml) | \nLD50 (μg/bee) | \nHQ | \nRisk evaluation | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acaricide | \nAmitraz | \n200 | \n50.0 | \n0.001 | \nLow | \n
\n | Dicofol | \n240 | \n19.0 | \n0.003 | \nLow | \n
\n | Propargite | \n600 | \n62.1 | \n0.002 | \nLow | \n
Fungicide | \nAzoxystrobin | \n75 | \n200.0 | \n<0.001 | \nNegligible | \n
\n | Fludioxonil | \n12.5 | \n50.3 | \n<0.001 | \nNegligible | \n
\n | Mancozeb | \n750 | \n226.2 | \n<0.001 | \nNegligible | \n
\n | Tolclofos-methyl | \n500 | \n100.0 | \n0.001 | \nLow | \n
Insecticide | \nAbamectin | \n18 | \n0.03 | \n0.15 | \nModerate | \n
\n | Acetamiprid | \n225 | \n7.9 | \n0.007 | \nLow | \n
\n | Beta-cyfluthrin | \n25 | \n0.031 | \n0.20 | \nModerate | \n
\n | Bifenthrin | \n100 | \n0.015 | \n1.70 | \nHigh | \n
\n | Carbaryl | \n500 | \n0.84 | \n0.15 | \nModerate | \n
\n | Chlorantraniliprole | \n350 | \n4.0 | \n0.022 | \nLow | \n
\n | Chlorpyrifos | \n300 | \n0.072 | \n1.04 | \nHigh | \n
\n | Difenthiuron | \n500 | \n1.5 | \n0.083 | \nLow | \n
\n | Dimethoate | \n400 | \n0.12 | \n0.85 | \nModerate | \n
\n | Endosulfan | \n350 | \n6.35 | \n0.014 | \nLow | \n
\n | Esfenvalerate | \n50 | \n0.026 | \n0.48 | \nModerate | \n
\n | Fipronil | \n200 | \n0.007 | \n6.8 | \nHigh | \n
\n | Imidacloprid (spray) | \n200 | \n0.061 | \n0.81 | \nModerate | \n
\n | Imidacloprid (dust) | \n24* | \n0.061 | \n0.1 | \nModerate | \n
\n | Indoxacarb | \n150 | \n0.58 | \n0.064 | \nLow | \n
\n | Lambda-cyhalothrin | \n250 | \n0.048 | \n1.3 | \nHigh | \n
\n | Methidathion | \n400 | \n0.27 | \n0.37 | \nModerate | \n
\n | Methomyl | \n225 | \n0.50 | \n0.11 | \nModerate | \n
\n | Pririmicarb | \n500 | \n35.7 | \n0.004 | \nLow | \n
\n | Spirotetramat | \n240 | \n242 | \n<0.001 | \nNegligible | \n
\n | Thiamethoxam (spray) | \n250 | \n0.025 | \n2.5 | \nHigh | \n
\n | Thiamethoxam (dust) | \n36.8* | \n0.025 | \n0.37 | \nModerate | \n
The example in Table 2 reveals that the insecticides fipronil, thiamethoxam, bifenthrin, lambda-cyhalothrin and chlorpyrifos are the most dangerous to bees when sprayed to agricultural crops. The microencapsulated formulation of lambda-cyhalothrin is particularly hazardous because bees can carry the microcapsules containing the concentrated chemical to the hive. In general, dust particles of neonicotinoid-treated seeds and spray droplets of pyrethroids, organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides pose moderate or high risks, whereas other insecticides and acaricides present low risks in comparison. The fungicides shown here, and possibly most others applied as foliar sprays, pose low or negligible risks to bees by direct contact with spray droplets. This evaluation is in agreement with the reported incidents of pesticides on bees in the United Kingdom [63] and Canada [64]. Obviously, the most toxic insecticides are the most dangerous to bees.
\nFor the second scenario, ingestion of contaminated food, data on the concentration and frequency of residues in each media are essential, as well as information on the dietary intake of pollen, honey and water by each caste of bees, that is, foragers, nurses, larvae and queen. Oral exposure to contaminated food is considered the typical exposure of bees in the hive. The risk expression in this case would take the form
where the residue dose of a given pesticide can be estimated for different bees as the product of the concentration of residues in pollen, honey or water by the total intake of a particular caste of bee [21]. In turn, total intakes are estimated from daily intakes and the life span of bees, which vary from 5–6.5 days for larvae, 8–10 days for brood attendants and nurses, to 30 or more days for foragers [65]. The food intake by queens is hard to estimate, as they are fed royal jelly (a particular combination of pollen and honey), can live several years and vary their intake—which is unknown—throughout the reproductive and winter seasons. For the toxicity, oral LD50s are used in this case. The risk estimated by expression (3) can be interpreted as the probability that a given pesticide residue has of causing 50% mortality among the bees that ingest the contaminated pollen or nectar.
\nIn recent years, a number of studies have reported the residue levels of agricultural pesticides found in pollen [66, 67] and nectar of flowers [68, 69], in water bodies of agricultural areas [28], as well as in beehive matrices, such as beebread, honey and wax [70, 71]. Based on these reports, we estimated the average and maximum residues for each pesticide as well as their frequency of appearance in those matrices. This information allowed us to calculate the risks that bees encounter when feeding on such contaminated food or drinking sources. A summary of results for the compounds that pose the highest risks by oral exposure of combined food and drink is shown in Table 3.
\nChemical name | \nResidues (μg/kg) | \nLarvae | \nNurses | \nForagers | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Pollen | \nHoney | \nWater* | \nRisk (%) | \nT50 (days) | \nRisk (%) | \nT50 (days) | \nRisk (%) | \nT50 (days) | \n
Thiamethoxam | \n28.9 | \n6.4 | \n4.1 | \n2.77 | \n23 | \n4.80 | \n27 | \n276 | \n7 | \n
Gamma-HCH ( lindane) | \n7.6 | \n176.5 | \n- | \n0.62 | \n9 | \n0.01 | \n979 | \n200 | \n3 | \n
Clothianidin | \n9.4 | \n1.9 | \n2.6 | \n1.02 | \n54 | \n1.91 | \n58 | \n39.5 | \n13 | \n
Imidacloprid (total) | \n19.7 | \n6.0 | \n0.9 | \n1.19 | \n68 | \n1.57 | \n103 | \n25.4 | \n25 | \n
Cypermethrin | \n13.9 | \n18.1 | \n- | \n0.13 | \n119 | \n0.04 | \n711 | \n4.00 | \n44 | \n
Coumaphos (total) | \n128.3 | \n105.5 | \n- | \n0.11 | \n1444 | \n0.06 | \n5524 | \n2.62 | \n545 | \n
Dinotefuran | \n45.3 | \n13.7 | \n- | \n0.10 | \n49 | \n0.13 | \n74 | \n1.50 | \n20 | \n
Quinalphos | \n- | \n9.6 | \n- | \n<0.01 | \n253 | \n- | \n- | \n1.29 | \n91 | \n
Methiocarb | \n1.4 | \n15.0 | \n- | \n<0.01 | \n1080 | \n<0.01 | \n>5000 | \n1.08 | \n391 | \n
Chlorpyrifos | \n32.6 | \n3.9 | \n- | \n0.04 | \n1605 | \n0.13 | \n1118 | \n0.86 | \n764 | \n
Carbaryl | \n58.9 | \n23.4 | \n- | \n0.41 | \n202 | \n0.42 | \n392 | \n0.54 | \n80 | \n
Beta-cyfluthrin | \n2.2 | \n9.0 | \n- | \n0.10 | \n190 | \n0.01 | \n3497 | \n0.43 | \n69 | \n
Dimethoate | \n2.3 | \n4.8 | \n- | \n0.01 | \n1198 | \n<0.01 | \n>5000 | \n0.40 | \n440 | \n
DDT (total) | \n31.2 | \n44.2 | \n- | \n<0.01 | \n3871 | \n<0.01 | \n>5000 | \n0.29 | \n1432 | \n
Pirimiphos ethyl | \n- | \n19.0 | \n- | \n<0.01 | \n401 | \n- | \n- | \n0.21 | \n144 | \n
Diazinon | \n8.5 | \n17.0 | \n- | \n0.04 | \n426 | \n0.01 | \n3869 | \n0.19 | \n156 | \n
Malathion | \n17.1 | \n98.0 | \n- | \n<0.01 | \n3218 | \n<0.01 | \n>5000 | \n0.15 | \n1167 | \n
Pirimicarb | \n- | \n38.0 | \n- | \n<0.01 | \n3500 | \n- | \n- | \n0.10 | \n1261 | \n
Phosmet | \n339.3 | \n- | \n- | \n0.07 | \n991 | \n0.79 | \n168 | \n- | \n- | \n
Fipronil (total) | \n1.6 | \n- | \n- | \n0.02 | \n596 | \n0.27 | \n101 | \n- | \n- | \n
Acrinathrin (total) | \n146.8 | \n- | \n- | \n0.01 | \n719 | \n0.17 | \n122 | \n- | \n- | \n
Average pesticide residue levels in food and water (ppb) and their risk by oral exposure to worker honey bees and larvae. The time to reach the oral lethal dose (T50, days) is also shown for a comparison
*From the survey by Samson-Robert et al. [28].
Despite the high risk of some chemicals, namely neonicotinoids, most insecticide residues in pollen and honey present a moderate risk to bees (1 to 5%), especially those of pyrethroid and organophosphorus compounds. Overall, 21 of the 113 pesticide residues in food for which toxicity data are available pose some kind of risk to honey bees, but only 8% of the chemicals are of concern. Residues in water are more variable from place to place: the data shown in Table 3 are from one survey in Canada where only neonicotinoids, fungicides and herbicides were found—the risks posed by the latter two groups were negligible nonetheless, so they are not shown in the table.
\nApart from oral exposure, bee larvae may also be in contact with residues deposited on the walls of the comb cells, in particular, the acaricides used for controlling
Pesticide | \nResidues in wax (μg/kg) | \nRisk by contact (%) | \nT50 (days) | \n
---|---|---|---|
Acrinathrin (total) | \n139.0 | \n0.03 | \n247 | \n
Amitraz (total) | \n585.5 | \n<0.01 | \n>5000 | \n
Bromopropylate | \n16.4 | \n<0.01 | \n>5000 | \n
Carbofuran (total) | \n19.4 | \n<0.01 | \n1649 | \n
Chlorfenvinphos | \n1156 | \n0.14 | \n709 | \n
Coumaphos (total) | \n1352 | \n0.02 | \n3003 | \n
Dicofol | \n6.8 | \n<0.01 | \n>5000 | \n
Pyridaben | \n5.4 | \n<0.01 | \n1957 | \n
Spirodiclofen | \n28.5 | \n<0.01 | \n>5000 | \n
Tau-fluvalinate | \n3144 | \n0.15 | \n551 | \n
Tau-fluvalinate+amitraz | \n3730 | \n21.25 | \n11 | \n
Tau-fluvalinate+coumaphos | \n4496 | \n122.6 | \n11 | \n
Tetradifon | \n7.9 | \n<0.01 | \n>5000 | \n
Average acaricide residue levels in comb wax (ppb) and their risk to larvae of honey bees. The time to reach the lethal dose (T50, days) is also shown for a comparison
As it can be seen, the risks of acaricides to bee larvae are below 1% for all individual chemicals, but increases dramatically for synergistic mixtures, such as tau-fluvalinate with amitraz or coumaphos. Except for the latter mixtures, the overall risk to bee larvae of the individual products is very low or negligible compared to that of the same compounds by oral ingestion of contaminated food and water (Table 3).
\nAnother way of estimating risks, particularly for oral exposures, is by calculating the time that would take for a bee to reach the LD50 of a given pesticide, based on the daily intake of contaminated food and water. This estimate is made using the expression
where T50 is the time to reach the median lethal dose (LD50), also termed median time to death. As it can be expected, there is a good correlation between the T50 values estimated using equation (4) and the risk values calculated using equation (3)—see Tables 3 and 4.
\nNeonicotinoid insecticides, however, can cause delayed mortality due to their agonistic mode of action [39]. This particularity means that their acute oral LD50s, which are usually estimated for exposures of 48 hours, are insufficient to estimate accurate risks of these insecticides, because the actual dose that causes the death of the bees decreases as the time of exposure increases [72]. Consequently, the mathematical function that relates the median time to death (T50) with the median lethal dose (LD50) is used to estimate the risk, as follows
where
The above tables help determine the pesticides that pose the greatest danger to bees, whether by exposure to spray droplets or dust, oral ingestion of contaminated food and water or contact with chemicals used for mite control in the hives. It is clear that the majority (92%) of pesticides registered for agricultural production do not pose significant or measurable risks to honey bees, but this is only when considering the exposure to individual compounds.
\nRecent developments, however, indicate that combination of certain chemicals, in particular insecticides and acaricides with fungicides or mixtures of acaricides, is more toxic to bees than the individual compounds on their own. The additive and synergistic effects of those mixtures have already been mentioned above, and estimation of the risks they pose needs to be calculated using the same approaches but modifying the toxicity of the insecticide or acaricide by a synergistic factor [21]. These factors are calculated experimentally for several combinations of fungicides with insecticides and/or acaricides [73], and some examples are shown in Table 5.
\nInsecticide or acaricide | \nFungicide | \nSynergistic factor | \nRisk to larvae (%) | \nRisk to nurses (%) | \nRisk to foragers (%) | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | \n | \n | Wax | \nFood | \nFood | \nFood | \n
Acetamiprid | \nPropiconazole | \n104.7 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n
Acetamiprid | \nFenbuconazole | \n4.5 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n
Coumaphos | \nFenpyroximate | \n20.0 | \n<0.01 | \n0.77 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n
Cyhalothrin | \nPropiconazole | \n16.2 | \n2.16 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n
Cyhalothrin | \nMyclobutanil | \n10.9 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n
Cyhalothrin | \nPenconazole | \n4.4 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n
Tau-fluvalinate | \nMyclobutanil | \n50.0 | \n<0.01 | \n0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n<0.01 | \n
Thiacloprid | \nPropiconazole | \n559.4 | \n0.89 | \n0.08 | \n0.30 | \n<0.01 | \n
The synergistic effect of some fungicides with insecticides or acaricides and their risks to honey bees
Although the increases in risk are obvious, only the interaction of the pyrethroid insecticide cyhalothrin with propiconazole points to a moderate concern for bee larvae; even the risk of thiacloprid appears to be low under these circumstances. However, the risk of certain acaricide mixtures, such as tau-fluvalinate with amitraz or coumaphos, used in
The various risks estimated above give us some clues about the type of exposure most dangerous to the different castes of bees in the hives. Spray drift is the main cause of incidents involving mortality of forager worker bees [63, 74], whereas ingestion of contaminated pollen, nectar and water is at the root of the CCD malady that affects many apiaries of the world [45], affecting mainly the nurse workers and the queen in particular [49, 51]. In addition, the acaricides used in
Beekeepers should be aware of the landscape environment on which their managed bees forage, bearing in mind that a large proportion of the land in developed and developing countries is used for agricultural production where pesticides of all kinds are used on a regular basis. Since usage of these plant protection products cannot be stopped, as they are necessary for agricultural production, a rational approach must look at minimising the risks of such agrochemicals to bees.
\nChemical companies are obliged by law to state on the labels whether their products are dangerous to bees or not. If so, they must specify the risks they pose and the specific actions to take, such as “DO NOT spray any plants in flower while they [the bees] are foraging.” However, label warnings are ineffective unless there is proper communication among the applicators, farmers and beekeepers. It is the responsibility of the former to ensure that beekeepers are informed of any spraying operations, so that hives are moved to a safe location during the spraying season. Moving hives usually takes more than 24 hours, so farmers must notify their neighbouring beekeepers with sufficient time in advance. Only thus damage by drift to the hives can be avoided.
\nBees are generally active between sunrise and an hour or two before sunset, and most honey bees forage within a 2–4 km radius of their hive, although may travel as far as 7 km or more in search of pollen and nectar when their local sources are scarce [75]. Therefore, pesticide risk to bees can be reduced by spraying the crops in the evening, when bees are not foraging.
\nDespite all precautions, if an area in which the crop or weeds were in flower has been sprayed inadvertently, the farmer should notify the affected beekeepers in order for them to take appropriate action. This should ensure the managed bees are kept out of that sprayed area for a while. As well as the cropping areas, damage may occur when pesticides drift over the neighbouring vegetation that is foraged by bees, including hedges, road-side weeds and trees, such as fruit trees, eucalypts, etc. For example, coolibah trees (
In summary, awareness of the problems that pesticides have for bees should prompt appropriate actions by all parties involved in order to minimise the chemical impacts on bees and the productivity of the apiarist industry. Such actions must aim, first of all at managing the use of agrochemicals in ways that do not harm other producers of the land. In addition, farmers should minimize the contamination of the surrounding landscapes, including water bodies, with pesticides, because not only honey bees but a large array of pollinator species (e.g. butterflies, bumblebees, hoverflies, etc.) may also be affected.
\nTourism has been considered a means to revitalise rural areas. It is a strategic choice because rather than a complete transformation of the rural setting and its livelihoods, it requires smaller changes to the already existing activities. Tourism can thus become a complementary activity, both in terms of resource allocation and additional income. At the same time, rural tourism initiatives require innovation and stakeholder collaboration. In the measure that these conditions are attained an impact on the quality of local people can be achieved [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. Tourism routes in rural areas are examples of the tourism activity that can meet such conditions.
Tourism routes are a way to diversify the offer of a place that includes movement and an itinerary. Through the configuration and structuring of resources and services, they can constitute an experience that takes into account the motivations interests expectations and perceptions of visitors. For the local population, routes can mean the diversification of their livelihoods, particularly when they are structured in a way that seeks to maximise the potential benefits for the local community [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
This manuscript offers a methodological approach that, by means of three phases, seeks to identify the configuration of a route with the best potential for success. The three phases are presented as follows: 1) the identification and classification of resources; 2) the qualitative evaluation of the resources; and 3) the use of a route evaluation index to determine their suitability. The result of each phase is the starting point of the next one. Finally, the possible configurations of a route are evaluated based on the characteristics of the resources, their location, and the structure of the route. It is proposed that this methodology can be especially useful for those areas with incipient tourism activity but natural and cultural resources that attract interest and can be improved on their weaknesses.
The rural space is a setting for a range of recreational and tourist activities. This requires rigorous planning and management, participation of the local population, respect for the environment, and the generation of economic, social and cultural benefits for the population. The tourist activities that take place in this setting should be in line with the activities of the local community. Contact with the local population and involvement in their daily activities are desirable elements [1, 2, 3, 5, 6].
Rural tourism is a diversification strategy for many rural communities because of its perceived benefits. Some benefits are additional income, employment opportunities, and promotion of rural and cultural heritage. It also highlights the role that women and young ones play in the business, usually a family business in which women play a leading role. The commercialisation of cultural heritage is considered a benefit of rural tourism. Through it significance is given to the communal culture, including its history, traditions, and gastronomy. Ultimately, because of its natural setting, rural tourism encourages the promotion of environmental heritage [7, 8].
Tourism routes are experiences that can be particularly relevant for rural tourism. Direct contact with the producer adds value to the local products and give a personal touch. Through routes the tourism offer is expanded with new products, activities, and destinations [9].
Ward-Perkins, et al. [10] define tourism routes as “an itinerary known and determined...that bring together resources into a single experience”. Tourism routes expand the offer of a destination. Creation of activities and services necessary for visitor satisfaction are essential for attracting new markets. Tourism routes are a way of taking advantage of local resources without causing drastic changes to the surroundings. The design of a tourism route generates income and local development through the implementation of new services and activities [11].
Briedenhann and Wickens [12] state that tourism routes must meet some specific characteristics in order to be viable. They require at least one established theme, a central location for lodging, food and beverages, complementary activities, and access routes that allow the visit. These elements must meet the needs of both tourists and residents. Barrera [13] adds to these elements transportation, marketing, and, if possible, the denomination of origin of a product. For Sosa Sosa [14] routes designed around food can add value to traditional cuisine. Most importantly, routes should be structured with consideration for the motivations, priorities and interests of visitors [10].
In rural tourism, the tourism route presents the basic product but offered in an organised and elaborate way. It includes attractions, activities, facilities and tourist services. At the same time, it is susceptible to commercialisation, either in full or in part [15, 16]. Elements to consider when designing a route are location, area, access roads, internal traffic flow, description of resources, weather, and complementary activities, like natural and cultural attractions.
The methodology used in this study considers the identification of resources and attractions of the municipality of Tenancingo, State of Mexico [17, 18]. It consists of three phases: 1) the identification and classification of resources [19, 20]; 2) the qualitative evaluation of the resources [20, 21]; and 3) the use of a route evaluation index to determine the suitability of their location and structure [22].
In this phase, data were collected in an evaluation form. The following criteria were considered: name of the resource; availability (public or private), accessibility (from “good” to “cannot be accessed”), type of resource and recognition (local to international), description (how it is made, materials), interest of the visit (its importance for the community and visitor), activities, temporality (if it is available all year round), and travel time from the downtown area. Upon completion of the identification, the potential for tourism activities was determined.
The categorisation of resources was carried out through the use of category tables, types, sub-types and information for each resource [20]. Data was obtained through visits to the resource for their identification and/or verification in situ. This allowed the evaluation of accessibility and tourist facilities. The obtained information was of sufficient quality for further qualitative evaluation.
The qualitative evaluation consisted of ranking each of the resources according to established criteria. The criteria were particularity, publications, state of conservation, flow of tourists and potential demand [20]. Following this methodology, each criterion was assigned a value based on the characteristics. The summed values gave an overall value for the resource. The ranking allows a greater understanding of the site and its characteristics to attract visitors.
Next, the methodology proposed by Zamorano Casal [21] was followed, which used three matrices. These matrices are functionality, aesthetic interpretation, and integration. These were used to plan, categorise, and rank resources.
The functionality matrix takes different aspects into consideration: mobility, travel time, the width of the path, type of surface, signage, comfort, and safety. This matrix is focused on accessibility and travel safety to the destination or site. It highlights the alternative opportunities to visit the resource and how enjoyable the trip is for the visitor.
The aesthetic interpretation matrix focuses on factors and elements regarding the provided service. It helps to identify interpretative opportunities per resource, considering the scenery and the overall environment.
The integration matrix unites all the isolated elements of the categories of tourism, the recreational activities of each resource, which results in a comprehensive experience. Complementary ideas can be presented for the resources, aimed at improving the overall experience of the route.
During this phase several different configurations of the route were designed. Their evaluation was conducted taking into account the physical and abstract resources, to which values were assigned. For monuments a value of 30 points was assigned, a value of 20 to gastronomic resources and a value of 10 to agricultural products. Based on the evaluation of the different route designs the most preferable configuration was determined. The evaluation was done following the formula by González Ávila [22]:
Where:
IERAC = Agri-Cultural Route Evaluation Index
Rx = Hierarchy (x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6…..n)
Wx = Importance of the resource (x = 1, 2, 3, 4,..n)
TR = Total of evaluated resources (Rx = 1,2, 3...n).
The use of this methodology allowed for the evaluation of different configurations, and the identification of the tourism route with the most potential according to its characteristics. Additionally, an important byproduct of the combination of these methodologies is the ability of being able to draw up a tourism route for improvement purposes to potentialise a destination or place, and generate strategies to attract a market.
Inventories and monographs were consulted, and interviews conducted to identify the resources in the municipality of Tenancingo. Once listed, each resource was visited to see first hand the characteristics and resource conditions. For this, an evaluation form with the aforementioned criteria was used.
Greater weight was given to the resource availability, accessibility, interest, temporality and travel time. Because not everyone has the same interests and physical condition, the distance can discourage potential tourists from visiting. Resources that are on private properties and require special permission have limited access. Poor accessibility inhibits the visit of some resources. Additionally, to avoid long transfers, the distance between resources was taken into account.
Based on the results from the evaluation forms, the resources with the lowest scores were discarded. From the 54 identified resources, the 20 most viable were selected, based on their state of conservation and their representation of municipality (see Table 1).
Cristo Rey Monument (C) | San Francisco de Asis Parish (C) |
San Clemente Cathedral (C) | Burnt milk sweets (F) |
Woven chair (F) | Pan de Tecomatlán (traditional bread baked in stone or brick oven) (F) |
Wickerwork (F) | San Simonito waterfall (N) |
Obispo (pork sausage typical of the region) (F) | Tecomatlán chapel (C) |
Pepeto (typical dish prepared with pork and seasonal vegetables from the cornfield) (F) | Los delfines water park (C) |
Wooden furniture (F) | Santo Desierto del Carmen Convent/Park (C/N) |
Rebozo (typical handwoven garment, similar to a shawl) (F) | Pulque (fermented alcoholic beverage) (F) |
Fruits and herbs liqueurs (F) | Balconies (natural resources with panoramic views) (N) |
Flower market (C) | Gorditas (thick corn tortilla stuffed with different ingredients) (F) |
Identified and selected resources by category.
Source: Authors.
Mincetur’s methodology [20] was followed to determine resource potential by identifying their category and hierarchy within the group of resources. The hierarchy was determined following pre-established criteria. An inventory form was used to compile information on the resources. Data included were the name of the resource, location, state of conservation, locality, means of transport, observations, services and activities.
In the municipality of Tenancingo, most of the resources are related to folklore, i.e. art and gastronomy. Important gastronomic expressions are ‘gorditas’, which are made of corn dough and stuffed with broad beans, pork crackling, beans or mixed. They are typically cooked on a hotplate heated over a wood fire, which gives them a unique flavour. These are normally enjoyed with a green or red sauce, accompanied with a fermented agave drink called ‘pulque’.
Within the categorisation, cultural manifestations mainly refer to buildings and monuments of great relevance. In the area, the building of the highest relevance is the San Clemente Cathedral, which is visited mainly during its annual festival. On the other hand, the natural sites category showed little participation in the proposed resources, mainly due to distance, pollution and safety. The Santo Desierto del Carmen convent, although a cultural resource, it is also a National Park with state decree (see Table 1, F for Folklore; C for Cultural; and N for Natural resource).
Once the resources were categorised, they were ranked. The ranking allowed the identification of the relative importance of the resources within the southern region of the state, as well as their potential to attract visitors. This was done with the use of the aforementioned forms. The obtained value on the form was multiplied by the weight according to the type of resource, resulting in a subtotal value. When obtaining the subtotal of each of the criteria, the sum was made and a total was obtained that corresponded to pre-established values of the equivalence Table T. Based on the results, the resources are ranked in four categories, with 4 having the highest potential.
Following this ranking procedure resulted in one resource in category 4, eighteen resources in category 3, and one resource in category 2. The resource in category 4 is of interest at an international level. The resources in category three have potential, while the resource in category two is seasonal. Most resources require improvement before they can be optimally used.
The matrices by Zamorano Casal [21] allowed for the identification of areas of improvement of the resources. The functionality matrix focuses on the functional part of the service: transfers, distance, signage, comfort and safety. The aesthetic interpretation matrix examined the interpretative opportunities and landscape aspects, as well as the secondary recreational opportunities of each resource. Finally, the integration matrix integrated all the separate elements in modalities or types of tourism: ecotourism, ethno-tourism or adventure tourism, in addition to the recreational opportunities of each resource, resulting in a comprehensive experience.
The distance depends on the type of route, whether it is a day or night excursion, interpretative, and means of transportation (bicycle, horseback). The slope, the vegetation, and the width of the path were also considered to determine how many people could pass without difficulties, signs and comfort. For the transfer time, the centre of the town is taken as the starting point, this being normally the Kiosk of each town. In the case of Santo Desierto, the local taxi base is taken as the starting point. Each of the aspects was evaluated according to the established criteria.
The functionality matrix served to identify the weaknesses of each resource in its current state, and its accessibility. Signs to the site, basic services near the site (bathrooms, food, transportation, etc.), and safety were identified as primary needs. As a partial solution, the implementation of neighbourhood or police patrols near the resource is suggested. Some specific proposals for improvement, based on the matrix are:
Cristo Rey, which can be visited on foot or by vehicle, is located 40 minutes from the centre of the municipality. Reaching the resource involves a heavy climb if visited on foot. It is possible to walk undisturbed with a group of ten or more people. Panoramic views can be appreciated while climbing. However it lacks warning signs. Security may be an issue at certain visiting hours. So caution is necessary.
Santo Desierto can be reached on foot or by car. Travel is usually done on foot during pilgrimages. The travel time is approximately two hours. Along the way steep slopes are encountered, but panoramic views in certain places are also part of the hike. Parts of the road are paved, but some are not. It has some basic services, such as first aid, telephone, food, and transportation. However the signs are not adequate. They are missing, faded, or poorly located.
The Salto de San Simonito presents a spiral path. The resource is accessed on foot from the town. The dirt path is narrow but gives some panoramic views. There are no services at the resource. Security is lacking due to its isolated location.
Besides the identification of key improvements, the participation of local and municipal bodies is necessary to carry them out. For example, with suitable organisation, the signage to reach the resource can be placed in strategic places, as well as improvement of the access roads.
The aesthetic interpretation examines the landscape of the resource, such as flora, fauna, architecture, history, etc. besides the scenic attractions on the way to the different resources, the matrix identifies secondary recreational opportunities of each resource: meditation, landscaping, swimming, camping, hiking, horseback riding, and handcraft or other workshops.
From this matrix, the differentiation of the experience can be designed. The purpose is to provide greater satisfaction to the visitor and give a unique touch. The perceived opportunities would depend on aspects such as the space available around the resource, interpretive opportunities, whether formal (focusing on historical data of the place, legends, tradition, processes, workshop, etc.) or informal (interesting facts, visible details, social changes, among others). Scenic resources are directly related to interpretive opportunities, taking into account the elevation (and what can be seen), space (the aesthetics of the surroundings), availability of space (determining the space to move), design details (safety, comfort and transfer).
The opportunities offered by some of the resources to complement the visit, according to the matrix:
For the Cathedral Basilica of San Clemente, the architecture, history of the cathedral, and its patron feast are interpretive opportunities. The Cathedral is located in a slightly elevated place with a panoramic view on the centre of the municipality. It has opened (the garden) and closed (interior of the cathedral) spaces. It has stairs, restrooms, a place to park and security. In this resource it is possible to carry out activities such as meditation, prayer, and weddings, without disturbing the ongoing activities.
In the case of chair weaving, visits to craftsmen could include the narration and observation of the fabrication process, the people that are involved, the types of chairs that are made, and the time they take. The gastronomy of the municipality can be a complementary resource. Legends about the culture of the municipality provide interpretative activities that can be carried out indoors or outdoors.
“The balconies” are a natural resource that provides panoramic views of neighbouring communities and the Santo Desierto del Carmen. There, legends of each balcony can be told, as well as the process of making pulque from the maguey agave. Possible activities for this area are hiking, walking, meditation, camping and interpretation of the flora.
Part of the purpose of the aesthetic interpretation matrix is the identification of new activities that enhance the visit to the resource. This will generate a greater influx from the adequate development of the proposed activities (craft workshops, walks, hiking, view of landscapes, interpretation of legends, historical accounts, camping, food tasting and appreciation of architecture, to name a few). Some of the interpretation opportunities will help the guide, such as resource leaflets, information sheets, guide speech and itinerary; adding to the knowledge of the site by the guide. The way in which knowledge is transmitted will depend on the group.
The integration matrix consolidates all the isolated elements of ecotourism, ethno-tourism, adventure and animation, in addition to the recreational opportunities of each resource, resulting in a comprehensive experience. This matrix allows taking the results of the two previous matrices and organising them according to the type of activity or tourism. For example, hiking belongs to ecotourism, gastronomy belongs to ethno-tourism, and so on. Activities are assigned according to one of the four aforementioned types (ecotourism, ethno-tourism, adventure, animation), thus allowing an overall vision of its potential.
According to Zamorano Casal [21], a panorama is the complete vision that one has of a set of elements, units or some type of object, and all the parts that comprise it. This allows the elaboration of the matrix and visualisation of its potential. By combining the matrices, the options for improving the resource are presented in terms of access (security, signage, the width of the road, transport, services, basic, etc.) and complementary activities (workshops, legends, tasting, historical explanation of the resource, camping, food tasting and appreciation of architecture, among others). On the other hand, it is necessary to integrate the above into a single product or experience.
The configuration of the routes was based on the grouping of resources following the categorisation by Mincetur; and considerations of location and diversity of resources [20]. The resources were identified according to their potential use. Six routes were proposed accordingly: Natural prayer, Disperse in the centre, the edge of Tenancingo, Artisans Route, Gastronomy Route, and Monuments Route. Using the ranking and hierarchy of the resources, the formula is applied to each of the proposed routes. The results allowed the identification of the routes with the best potential.
The evaluation of the routes was conducted following the methodology by González Ávila [22]. A value of 30 points was assigned to folklore since it is the largest group of resources that the municipality offers. Cultural manifestations were assigned 20 points because of the importance they have within the municipality and the various temporary activities that take place in connection with these resources. The 10 points assigned to natural sites are based on the number of resources in the municipality and their accessibility. Additionally, some of these resources are not well recognised within the municipality. The other 40 points were distributed between infrastructure and education for tourism, equipment (hospitals, parks and general services), general infrastructure (electricity and water) and tourism services (restaurants and transportation), having a maximum value of 10 points each.
The results of the evaluation of the routes ranged from 56.75 to 78. The routes with the highest potential according to their evaluation were Dispersed in the Centre and Artisans Routes. These routes allow the best use of resources and positively impact the communities that are located along the route. The possibility of implementation of the two routes is medium. On a scale of 0 to 100 the feasibility of implementation gave a total of 78 points for the first route, and 68 for the second (see Table 2). This means that its realisation will require a joint effort on the part of all those involved. Likewise, its implementation would serve as a starting point to publicise the other resources that the municipality has, giving impulse to the other routes that have a lower possibility of attracting tourism at this moment. The commercial activities of Tenancingo, which attracts people from neighbouring municipalities on market days (Thursdays and Sundays), can also be used to advantage. All of this will allow the promotion of these routes to a larger market.
Dispersed in the centre | Wx | Rx | T | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Obispo | 0.5 | 10 | 5 | |
Rebozo | 1 | 30 | 30 | |
Flower market | 0.5 | 10 | 5 | |
Fruits and herbs liqueurs | 0.5 | 10 | 5 | 45 |
Services and infrastructure | 33 | |||
Value of the route | 78 |
Highest evaluated route.
Source: Authors.
The successful implementation of routes in the municipality of Tenancingo is most feasible by beginning work with the route that obtained the highest score (78 points Dispersed in the centre). Starting with another route is not likely to result in benefits on the medium or long term. Additionally, it is necessary to consider that the resources should be addressed with reference to the identified weaknesses, which will allow them to be improved in terms of their aesthetics, security and service in general.
The methodology proposed allowed the evaluation of tourism routes, based on the available resources and their conditions. Through different configurations and their subsequent evaluation, it was possible to identify the route with the highest potential for success. Further, through the use of this methodology, it was possible to identify weaknesses of resources as well as opportunities. This methodology can be especially useful for those areas with incipient tourism activity but natural and cultural resources that attract interest and can be improved.
As discussed at the outset, routes can be a source of improvement and income for the areas where they are developed. That is why they are presented as an opportunity for the development of the Tenancingo municipality as part of the tourism sector. However, the municipality presents several factors that prevent the development of the routes effectively, such as site maintenance, contamination, and security. These factors are under the control of the municipal government. By taking care of these aspects, with the cooperation of the inhabitants, it is possible to develop the route for better use of the resources. An adequate organisation is required on the part of those involved, in order to generate greater benefits.
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Toxic Aspects"},signatures:"Harsimran Kaur Gill and Harsh Garg",authors:[{id:"169137",title:"Dr.",name:"Harsh",middleName:null,surname:"Garg",slug:"harsh-garg",fullName:"Harsh Garg"},{id:"169846",title:"Dr.",name:"Harsimran",middleName:null,surname:"Gill",slug:"harsimran-gill",fullName:"Harsimran Gill"}]},{id:"43317",doi:"10.5772/54833",title:"Extreme Temperature Responses, Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Defense in Plants",slug:"extreme-temperature-responses-oxidative-stress-and-antioxidant-defense-in-plants",totalDownloads:11622,totalCrossrefCites:70,totalDimensionsCites:155,abstract:null,book:{id:"3226",slug:"abiotic-stress-plant-responses-and-applications-in-agriculture",title:"Abiotic Stress",fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress - Plant Responses and Applications in Agriculture"},signatures:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman, Kamrun Nahar and Masayuki Fujita",authors:[{id:"47687",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",middleName:null,surname:"Fujita",slug:"masayuki-fujita",fullName:"Masayuki Fujita"},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"},{id:"166818",title:"MSc.",name:"Kamrun",middleName:null,surname:"Nahar",slug:"kamrun-nahar",fullName:"Kamrun Nahar"}]},{id:"21989",doi:"10.5772/17184",title:"Bacillus-Based Biological Control of Plant Diseases",slug:"bacillus-based-biological-control-of-plant-diseases",totalDownloads:17396,totalCrossrefCites:65,totalDimensionsCites:153,abstract:null,book:{id:"432",slug:"pesticides-in-the-modern-world-pesticides-use-and-management",title:"Pesticides in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Pesticides in the Modern World - 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Almost all the parts of this plant, that are, fruit, leaves, flower bud, trunk, and pseudo-stem, can be utilized. This chapter deals with the fiber extracted from the pseudo-stem of the banana plant. It discusses the production of banana pseudo-stem fiber, which includes plantation and harvesting; extraction of banana pseudo-stem fiber; retting; and degumming of the fiber. It also deals with the characteristics of the banana pseudo-stem fiber, such as morphological, physical and mechanical, durability, degradability, thermal, chemical, and antibacterial properties. Several potential applications of this fiber are also mentioned, such as the use of this fiber to fabricate rope, place mats, paper cardboard, string thread, tea bags, high-quality textile materials, absorbent, polymer/fiber composites, etc.",book:{id:"7544",slug:"banana-nutrition-function-and-processing-kinetics",title:"Banana Nutrition",fullTitle:"Banana Nutrition - Function and Processing Kinetics"},signatures:"Asmanto Subagyo and Achmad Chafidz",authors:[{id:"257742",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Achmad",middleName:null,surname:"Chafidz",slug:"achmad-chafidz",fullName:"Achmad Chafidz"},{id:"268400",title:"Mr.",name:"Asmanto",middleName:null,surname:"Subagyo",slug:"asmanto-subagyo",fullName:"Asmanto Subagyo"}]},{id:"40180",title:"Plant Tissue Culture: Current Status and Opportunities",slug:"plant-tissue-culture-current-status-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:66561,totalCrossrefCites:45,totalDimensionsCites:96,abstract:null,book:{id:"3568",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture"},signatures:"Altaf Hussain, Iqbal Ahmed Qarshi, Hummera Nazir and Ikram Ullah",authors:[{id:"147617",title:"Dr.",name:"Altaf",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"altaf-hussain",fullName:"Altaf Hussain"}]},{id:"66996",title:"Ethiopian Common Medicinal Plants: Their Parts and Uses in Traditional Medicine - Ecology and Quality Control",slug:"ethiopian-common-medicinal-plants-their-parts-and-uses-in-traditional-medicine-ecology-and-quality-c",totalDownloads:4172,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The main purpose of this review is to document medicinal plants used for traditional treatments with their parts, use, ecology, and quality control. Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"70658",title:"Factors Affecting Yield of Crops",slug:"factors-affecting-yield-of-crops",totalDownloads:4150,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:"A good understanding of dynamics involved in food production is critical for the improvement of food security. It has been demonstrated that an increase in crop yields significantly reduces poverty. Yield, the mass of harvest crop product in a specific area, is influenced by several factors. These factors are grouped in three basic categories known as technological (agricultural practices, managerial decision, etc.), biological (diseases, insects, pests, weeds) and environmental (climatic condition, soil fertility, topography, water quality, etc.). These factors account for yield differences from one region to another worldwide. The current chapter will discuss each of these three basic factors as well as providing some recommendations for overcoming them. In addition, it will provide the importance of climate-smart agriculture in the increase of crop yields while facilitating the achievement of crop production in safe environment. This goes in line with the second goal of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of United Nations in transforming our world formulated as end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.",book:{id:"8153",slug:"agronomy-climate-change-food-security",title:"Agronomy",fullTitle:"Agronomy - Climate Change & Food Security"},signatures:"Tandzi Ngoune Liliane and Mutengwa Shelton Charles",authors:[{id:"313819",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliane",middleName:null,surname:"Tandzi",slug:"liliane-tandzi",fullName:"Liliane Tandzi"},{id:"314316",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles Shelton",middleName:null,surname:"Mutengwa",slug:"charles-shelton-mutengwa",fullName:"Charles Shelton Mutengwa"}]},{id:"59402",title:"Robotic Harvesting of Fruiting Vegetables: A Simulation Approach in V-REP, ROS and MATLAB",slug:"robotic-harvesting-of-fruiting-vegetables-a-simulation-approach-in-v-rep-ros-and-matlab",totalDownloads:2813,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"In modern agriculture, there is a high demand to move from tedious manual harvesting to a continuously automated operation. This chapter reports on designing a simulation and control platform in V-REP, ROS, and MATLAB for experimenting with sensors and manipulators in robotic harvesting of sweet pepper. The objective was to provide a completely simulated environment for improvement of visual servoing task through easy testing and debugging of control algorithms with zero damage risk to the real robot and to the actual equipment. A simulated workspace, including an exact replica of different robot manipulators, sensing mechanisms, and sweet pepper plant, and fruit system was created in V-REP. Image moment method visual servoing with eye-in-hand configuration was implemented in MATLAB, and was tested on four robotic platforms including Fanuc LR Mate 200iD, NOVABOT, multiple linear actuators, and multiple SCARA arms. Data from simulation experiments were used as inputs of the control algorithm in MATLAB, whose outputs were sent back to the simulated workspace and to the actual robots. ROS was used for exchanging data between the simulated environment and the real workspace via its publish-and-subscribe architecture. Results provided a framework for experimenting with different sensing and acting scenarios, and verified the performance functionality of the simulator.",book:{id:"6265",slug:"automation-in-agriculture-securing-food-supplies-for-future-generations",title:"Automation in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Automation in Agriculture - Securing Food Supplies for Future Generations"},signatures:"Redmond R. Shamshiri, Ibrahim A. Hameed, Manoj Karkee and\nCornelia Weltzien",authors:[{id:"182449",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:"A.",surname:"Hameed",slug:"ibrahim-hameed",fullName:"Ibrahim Hameed"},{id:"203413",title:"Dr.",name:"Redmond R.",middleName:null,surname:"Shamshiri",slug:"redmond-r.-shamshiri",fullName:"Redmond R. Shamshiri"},{id:"241193",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj",middleName:null,surname:"Karkee",slug:"manoj-karkee",fullName:"Manoj Karkee"},{id:"241194",title:"Dr.",name:"Cornelia",middleName:null,surname:"Weltzien",slug:"cornelia-weltzien",fullName:"Cornelia Weltzien"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"5",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82757",title:"Seed Dormancy: Induction, Maintenance and Seed Technology Approaches to Break Dormancy",slug:"seed-dormancy-induction-maintenance-and-seed-technology-approaches-to-break-dormancy",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106153",abstract:"Dormancy is the major cause of erratic germination, patchy emergence and uneven seedling establishment in the field. These traits are exceedingly undesirable in crop production as future phases of growth and development are strongly linked to uniform seedling development at early growth phases. Variations in maturation time, and difficulty in managing abiotic and biotic stresses during pre- and postharvest are common consequences of uneven germination and seedling emergence. Minimizing this negative impact of dormancy in a seed lot is the major concern of all seed production companies. Generally, mature seeds show some considerable dormancy during which embryo growth is halted momentarily because one or more internal and external stimuli for growth resumption is/are absent. If the inhibition of seed germination is solely due to insufficient or complete absence of external signals, then the seed is in a state of quiescence. Otherwise, if linked to internal factors, then the seed is in a state of dormancy. Induction, maintenance, and release of dormancy are therefore related to Seed-dependent factors such as morphology, hormones, state of embryo maturity at seed dispersal and chemical inhibitors. This chapter focuses on species-dependent methods currently used to break dormancy, reduce germination time and improve emergence and seedling establishment.",book:{id:"11322",title:"Seed Biology Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11322.jpg"},signatures:"Tabi Kingsley Mbi, Ntsomboh Godswill Ntsefong and Tatah Eugene Lenzemo"},{id:"79168",title:"Pulses: A Potential Source of Valuable Protein for Human Diet",slug:"pulses-a-potential-source-of-valuable-protein-for-human-diet",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99980",abstract:"Nutritional profile of pulses has significant importance in human diet with respect to protein and mineral quality and bioavailability. Protein energy malnutrition is widespread throughout the world especially among the developing countries. Pulses being rich in macronutrients such as protein from 20 to 26% and low in calories are most suitable for product development for target-oriented population. During last decade, the demand for pulse-based products with high protein and fiber, low glycemic index, and gluten free with more antioxidant showed increasing trend by the consumers. Drift of end-use application of pulses generated interest for research in all disciplines such as breeding, agronomy, food, and nutrition, etc. A great share of plant protein in human diet may be a critical step for reducing dependence on animal origin protein source. This chapter will review contribution or choice of plant-based protein from legumes or pulses with good-quality protein based on amino acid composition. Additionally, this overview can give insight into the development of new product with balanced nutritional quality and high protein contents as a potential protein supply for malnourished population.",book:{id:"12236",title:"Legumes Research- Volume 2",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12236.jpg"},signatures:"Saima Parveen, Amina Jamil, Imran Pasha and Farah Ahmad"},{id:"83012",title:"Cotton Based Cellulose Nanocomposites: Synthesis and Application",slug:"cotton-based-cellulose-nanocomposites-synthesis-and-application",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106473",abstract:"Nanocellulose is a renewable natural biomaterial which has risen to prominence due to its biodegradability and physiochemical properties making it a promising candidate to replace non-biodegradable synthetic fibers. Due to its profound qualities, nanocellulose extracted from cotton fibers have tremendous application potential and have been intensively studied particularly in the generation of nanofillers and as reinforcement components in polymer matrixes. Deposition of inorganic nanoparticles on cotton fabric result in antimicrobial textiles with multifunctional use particularly in manufacture of PPE and as filtration devices against environmental pollutants and pathogens. This chapter compiles three main sections. The first section gives an overview of the extent of work done in the creation and application potential of cotton-based nanocomposites. The second section describes the in situ and ex situ methods of nanoparticle deposition and self assembly on cotton fabrics to generate multifunctional cotton-based nanocomposites with antimicrobial potential while the final section describes the incorporation of cotton nanofibers in polymer matrices, their reinforcing properties, as well as surface modification to assist their incorporation. Finally in the conclusion, a summary of the up-to-date challenges and progresses is presented postulating the undiscovered arenas and future undertakings of this venture.",book:{id:"11362",title:"Cotton",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11362.jpg"},signatures:"Patricia Jayshree Samuel Jacob"},{id:"82476",title:"Joint Action of Herbicides on Weeds and Their Risk Assessment on Earthworm (Eisenia fetida L.)",slug:"joint-action-of-herbicides-on-weeds-and-their-risk-assessment-on-earthworm-eisenia-fetida-l",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105462",abstract:"Frequent and intensive use of similar modes of action herbicides increases selection pressure resulting in nature adapt and a number of herbicide-resistant weeds. The most effective methods to prevent and delay herbicide-resistant weeds are herbicide tank mixture and adjuvant mixed herbicides. This chapter intends to explain the advantages of herbicide tank mixture and adjuvant mixed herbicides. In addition, the models of estimated herbicide mixture interaction response have been explained. Although herbicide mixtures have benefits, they may present risks leading to soil pollution and affecting soil fauna such as earthworms. Therefore, we discussed the negative effect of mixture herbicides on Eisenia fetida. On the other hand, various models to calculate mixture herbicide toxicity on earthworms will be present in this chapter.",book:{id:"11610",title:"New Insights in Herbicide Science",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11610.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammad Taghi Alebrahim, Elham Samadi Kalkhoran and Te-Ming Paul Tseng"},{id:"82937",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-1",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105944",abstract:"Stress in plants refers to external conditions, which drastically affect the growth, development, or productivity of plants. Stress triggers a wide range of plant responses, such as altered gene expression, cellular metabolism, changes in growth rates, and crop yields. Some abiotic stresses, such as low or high temperature, deficient water, and ultraviolet radiation, make plant growth and development unfavorable, leading to a fall in crop yield worldwide. The following writeup incorporated the abiotic stress factors related to the growth and development of plants, such as temperature, drought, heat, cold, and many more. Abiotic stress factors are the nonliving factors influencing the metabolism, growth, and development of the plant tissues at that particular time when such abiotic stress affects them. As a result of such abiotic stresses, the plants have generated many stress tolerance factors. Various stress-responsive genes are thus being formulated in response to the abiotic stresses, so the plants can survive even in such extreme conditions as well. Henceforth, it can be concluded that the abiotic stress factors imposed on the plants adversely impact their growth and developmental procedures, and at the same time, they also produce some stress tolerance factors to minimize the damage.",book:{id:"11330",title:"Plant Response Mechanisms to Abiotic Stresses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11330.jpg"},signatures:"Shubham Dey and Ayan Raichaudhuri"},{id:"82943",title:"Laboratory Diagnosis of Candidiasis",slug:"laboratory-diagnosis-of-candidiasis",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106359",abstract:"The burden of Candidiasis continues to increase and so does the Candida species. Although Candida species are closely similar phenotypically, they differ from each other in terms of epidemiology, genetic characteristics, antifungal susceptibility and virulence profile. Therefore, reliable and accurate laboratory methods for identification of Candida species can determine the Candidiasis burden and enable the administration of the most appropriate antifungal drug therapy to reduce fungal mortality rates. Conventional and biochemical methods are often used in identification of Candida species. However, these techniques are specific and sensitive enough in detecting the non albicans candida (NAC) species. Molecular techniques have improved the laboratory diagnosis and management of Candidiasis due to improved sensitivity and specificity threshold. This chapter provides an overview of different laboratory methods for diagnosis of Candidiasis.",book:{id:"11608",title:"Candida and Candidiasis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11608.jpg"},signatures:"Benson Musinguzi, Obondo J. 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