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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11758",leadTitle:null,title:"Glass-Ceramics - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tGlass-ceramics have been described as polycrystalline materials of fine microstructure that are produced by controlling the nucleation and crystal phases growth within the glass. The glass is firstly melted, produced to shape, and thermally converted into mostly crystalline ceramics. The distribution of these crystalline phases in the glass matrix increases the uniformity of the material and, by comparison, effectively limits crack growth. The technologies of glass-ceramic have developed rapidly in the past few decades due to the excellent mechanical and thermal properties of these materials. These properties are attractive to replace traditional materials and can also meet the technical requirements of new applications, such as radome and coatings. Glass ceramics are receiving great attention due to their diversity of applications, which have the potential to meet the recent requirements of advanced mechanical, optical and biomedical applications. This book covers a wide range of topics such as glass-ceramic forming, shaping, and production, structure, properties, testing and characterizations, nucleation and crystallization, application of building materials, military, electronics, cooking ceramics, machinable ceramics, biomedical and optical materials.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-987-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-986-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-988-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"e03ff7760e0aaea457f259ab63153846",bookSignature:" Uday M. Basheer",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11758.jpg",keywords:"Glass-Ceramic Forming, Glass-Ceramics Shaping, Glass-Ceramic Production, Nucleation of Glass-Ceramics, Crystallization Mechanisms, Destructive Tests, Non-destructive Tests, Mechanical Properties, Biomedical Applications, Optical Applications, Electronics, Machinable Glass-Ceramics",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 12th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 7th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Senior Lecturer at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) with over 30 years of academic and practical experience in the field of ceramic and metal composites, metal alloys, advanced ceramics, porous ceramics, ceramic-metal joining, materials characterizations and forming, ceramic insulators, ceramic membranes, thermoelectric energy conversion, and ceramic coating.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"182041",title:null,name:"Uday",middleName:"M.",surname:"Basheer",slug:"uday-basheer",fullName:"Uday Basheer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182041/images/system/182041.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Uday M. Basheer Al-Naib is a Senior Lecturer at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). He completed his post-doctorate in Material Engineering at Universiti SainsMalaysia (USM) between 2013 and 2014. He received his Ph.D. in Materials Engineering from USM in 2013. He obtained his Master and Bachelor degree in Chemical Engineering from the University of Baghdad and the University of Technology, IRAQ, respectively. He has over 30 years of academic and practical experience in the field of ceramic and metal composites; metal alloys; advanced ceramics; porous ceramics; ceramic-metal joining; materials characterizations and forming; ceramic insulators; ceramic membranes; thermoelectric energy conversion and ceramic coating. He is acknowledged at the practical level for solving specific problems related to material industries. This was evident through his research work issued with different publishers and international material engineering journals with high impact factors. In addition to his own research, Dr. Uday has been acting as a supervisor of several academic theses (Masters and Doctorate) related to different fields of material engineering. He also has professional membership (ProfGradIMMM) in the Institute of Materials, Minerals, and Mining (IOM3) and Fellow membership (F.I.M.M.) at the Institute of Materials, Malaysia (IMM).",institutionString:"University of Technology Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429343",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Ivancic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429343/images/19998_n.jpg",email:"martina@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6084",title:"Recent Advances in Porous Ceramics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c6749abbf887821d1030727f7eee1d6f",slug:"recent-advances-in-porous-ceramics",bookSignature:"Uday M. 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Karuppasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7722.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182041",title:null,name:"Uday",surname:"Basheer",slug:"uday-basheer",fullName:"Uday Basheer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6320",title:"Advances in Glass Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d0a32a0cf9806bccd04101a8b6e1b95",slug:"advances-in-glass-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Vincenzo M. 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Shaheer Akhtar and Hyung-Shik Shin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6517.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52613",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Ameen",slug:"sadia-ameen",fullName:"Sadia Ameen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6188",title:"Solidification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0405c42586170a1def7a4b011c5f2b60",slug:"solidification",bookSignature:"Alicia Esther Ares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6188.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia Esther",surname:"Ares",slug:"alicia-esther-ares",fullName:"Alicia Esther Ares"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9393",title:"Engineering Steels and High Entropy-Alloys",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d33466a3272f97353a6bf6d76d7512a5",slug:"engineering-steels-and-high-entropy-alloys",bookSignature:"Ashutosh Sharma, Zoia Duriagina, Sanjeev Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9393.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145236",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashutosh",surname:"Sharma",slug:"ashutosh-sharma",fullName:"Ashutosh Sharma"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6802",title:"Graphene Oxide",subtitle:"Applications and Opportunities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"075b313e11be74c55a1f66be5dd56b40",slug:"graphene-oxide-applications-and-opportunities",bookSignature:"Ganesh Kamble",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"236420",title:"Dr.",name:"Ganesh",surname:"Kamble",slug:"ganesh-kamble",fullName:"Ganesh Kamble"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6656",title:"Phase Change Materials and Their Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b257f8386280bdde4633d36124787f2",slug:"phase-change-materials-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"Mohsen Mhadhbi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6656.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"228366",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",surname:"Mhadhbi",slug:"mohsen-mhadhbi",fullName:"Mohsen Mhadhbi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6805",title:"Electrical and Electronic Properties of Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6b6930e7ae9d0704f68b5c180526309",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-properties-of-materials",bookSignature:"Md. Kawsar Alam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6805.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199691",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Kawsar",surname:"Alam",slug:"md.-kawsar-alam",fullName:"Md. Kawsar Alam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8417",title:"Recent Advances in Boron-Containing Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3737be3f785ef9d8b318571ab474f407",slug:"recent-advances-in-boron-containing-materials",bookSignature:"Metin Aydin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8417.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"27070",title:"Prof.",name:"Metin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"metin-aydin",fullName:"Metin Aydin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"80684",title:"Plankton: Environmental and Economic Importance for a Sustainable Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100433",slug:"plankton-environmental-and-economic-importance-for-a-sustainable-future",body:'Oceans cover 71% of the surface of the Earth and have a huge diversity and high percentage of the earth biota [1]. Oceans take a key role in the global carbon cycle, therefore openly influence the speed and magnitude of climate changes, which can be observed in the aquatic organisms [2]. Moreover, the biota of the oceans have huge socioeconomic value, through food and feed production, nutrient recycling and carbon dioxide regulation [3]. Climate changes impacts on the ocean biota will provoke economic implications, so there is a need to understand the key drivers to understand the ecological change and how some to exploit the ocean organisms without putting pressure in the surrounding ecosystem [4]. In which, phytoplanktonic microorganisms develop the basis to the food chain status quo and greatly contribute for oxygen production and carbon dioxide sequestration, this organisms are mainly composed and denominated as plankton [5].
Plankton comprises single-celled algae – phytoplankton (which realizes photosynthesis) - and generally small animals (mm or less) – zooplankton (secondary producers, herbivores), which are drifting in marine currents. Phytoplankton is responsible for about 45% of the global annual primary production and serve as food for zooplankton, which in its turn is an ideal size food for several commercially important fish and large aquatic mammals. Plankton is a vital component of marine and freshwater ecosystems. Besides, they also make important contributions to the global biogeochemical cycle and improve the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, ‘pumping’ carbon into the deepest regions of the sea [5].
Planktonic communities are frequently used as bioindicators to monitor ecological changes in aquatic ecosystems [6]. Thus, being a management tool to supervise the ecological system quality and to be a tool to take actions, for example to prevent algal blooms, toxic contamination from undisclosed source. This happens, because plankton reacts at the lowest variation of surrounding ecosystem. Plankton species and planktonic communities varies incited by many abiotic factors (light availability, temperature, salinity, heavy metals, pollutants, pH and nutrients concentration) and biotic factors (predators, parasites) [7]. These variations are being studied through ecological data to help policy makers, for example, where the plankton community varies and there is harmful plankton species that grows rapidly due the excessive nutrients in water [8].
However, the plankton interest is not only as ecological tool, but also holds industrial and biotechnological potential to be used in commercial products. Through an industrial perspective, phytoplankton and zooplankton species have been used as a feedstock for a wide range of applications, such as wastewater treatment, or production of high value compounds; and commercial products, such as food and feed supplements, pharmacological compounds, lipids, enzymes, biomass, polymers, toxins, pigments. Zooplankton is commonly used as live food for larval stages to the period of termination of fish, shrimp, mollusks and corals [9, 10, 11]. However, to exploit these organisms at a commercial and industrial level, there is a need to understand the ecological data to cultivate this organisms in a controlled methods to have a best effective method with reduced cost, due the impossible control in the wild ecosystems (where commercial exploitation provokes a negative impact) [12, 13].
This book chapter aims to analyze the several advantages that plankton, specifically phytoplankton and zooplankton, their qualities, ecological and economic relevance, as well as their cultivation techniques, aiming the production of add-value products.
Plankton is a key-element to form the base of the aquatic food chain [14]. Every organism in the ocean habitat depends on plankton for their survival. Without them, the food chain will broke extensively provoking a shortage of the food basis [14]. For instance, bacterioplankton holds a key role to recycle compounds, minerals and energy within the food chain [15]. Due to climatic changes, plankton communities can change rapidly provoking diverse problems in the food chain, causing a bottom-up effect up to the fish, which is explored as a food source by humans. So, there is a need to monitor wild plankton communities to identify structural changes and, if necessary, to take actions in order to mitigate some of the negative changes, for example toxic algal blooms in marine ecosystems [4].
Plankton species are mostly short live forms and consequently, plankton communities are not greatly influenced by the persistence of older individuals from previous years. This can allow the joint of environmental changes and plankton dynamics, enabling fast analyzes unlike other aquatic organisms, such as fish species. Moreover, plankton can demonstrate dramatic changes within abiotic and biotic parameters variation (such as temperature, pH, salinity, nutrients and metals concentration, or even biotic changes, as bacteria or fungi proliferation) [16]. Regarding monitoring plankton communities, there are Continuous Plankton Recorders around the globe, aiming the development of studies about plankton dynamics (with abiotic and biotic data to understand plankton responses), and to contribute with updated data that will be pivotal to assist the management decisions of the stakeholders. In a large scale, this method has revealed itself, cost effective and essential to obtain data to understand the aquatic ecosystems [14].
Phytoplankton is one of the primary producers of the aquatic ecosystem, as well as the first organisms to produce energy, which they generate from light sources, such as solar. Phytoplankton converts light energy into carbohydrates through photosynthesis. The energy not auto consumed by them for survival and maintenance is available as food for herbivores or omnivores that feed on these microorganisms. Phytoplankton can absorb about 3% of the light energy that penetrate in the ocean. In fact, a low percentage when compared with terrestrial plants, which can absorb about 15% of the accessible sunlight. This divergence is triggered by the ocean itself, which absorbs sunlight in fluctuating grades. The sunlight is a limiting factor and a key source for phytoplankton survival and reproduction. If there is not enough sunlight, phytoplankton will diminish up to stable population [15].
Zooplankton is composed by heterotrophic organisms that feed on phytoplankton, being mainly secondary consumers and aquatic herbivores. Thus, their energy is acquired from consuming the primary producers. The energy disposal is identical for tertiary consumers, as well as for phytoplankton, only the energy stored is available for predators. This predator can be a different zooplanktonic organism or a larger animal that grazes on plankton [15].
To fully understand plankton biotechnological potential, there is a need to evaluate their ecological specifications, according to the species and geographical habitat. Phytoplankton can be an useful and promising feedstock, due to their resilience and quick adaptation to environmental changes, which incontestably has consequences on their secondary metabolism [17].
There are evidences of the existence of microalgae since the Precambrian period, approximately 3.5 billion years ago. These microorganisms, mainly marine species, are responsible for the production and maintenance of atmospheric oxygen [18]. Algae have a fundamental role on ecological balance maintenance. Moreover they have a pivotal economic and social importance by supporting fauna, which is a source of food for humans [19] and other organisms [20].
Algae are considered a pool of several compounds with biological activities [21, 22]. The algal composition varies according to environmental conditions, thus there are species with different concentrations of proteins, polysaccharides, pigments and fatty acids [23].
Microalgae retains about 50% of carbon in their biomass, which is obtained in most cases from atmospheric carbon dioxide. Therefore, they are attracting interest for carbon sequestration in industrial processes [24, 25]. Nitrogen and phosphate compounds are essential nutrients for microalgae to protein and cell membrane synthesis. In this context, the application of microalgae in water bioremediation is a sustainable application to remove high amounts of these compounds from water bodies, mitigating their negative impacts [26].
Zooplankton is offered as live food since the larval stages until the period of completion of fish, shrimp, mollusks and corals. They are organisms that have characteristics such as a rich nutritional composition, digestibility, buoyancy, ease of ingestion and attractive movement for post-larvae [27]. Rotifers are among the most widely used, mainly the genus
Artemia or brine shrimp is an aquatic crustacean genus with nonselective feeding habit, which can feed on tiny particles of food like microalgae, bacteria, detritus and small organisms [30]. Artemia is a good model organism for ecotoxicological studies because they have a short life cycle and can be cultured in a large scale [31, 32].
The rotifers
Copepods, used as live food, contribute to a better performance of fish larvae when compared to larvae fed with rotifers and Artemia [35, 36]. In general, copepod feeding results in an increase in survival, growth and a decrease in larval deformities [37, 38].
Due to a relatively high protein and nutrient content,
There are commercial exploitation of plankton wild resources to provide marine food sources for human consumption, mainly zooplankton (example copepods and krill) [42]. This plankton presents a great economic potential because they are enriched biochemical profile, such lipids, proteins, pigments and other bioactive compounds. However, even at the lower food chain level they can accumulate heavy metals, organo-chlorides, dioxins and other harmful compounds, thus can be a problem if not analyzed rigorously [43]. However, at low quantities their risk is minimum when compared to higher food chain levels [44].
In this case, there are plankton specialized fisheries, where the harvest of the targeted species uses scientific data to harvest the adults in one specific season, with equipment to collect the plankton desired. For example, this happens in the Norwegian region from 1950 until today [44].
Although the plankton wild harvest needs a strong marine strategy to not cause environmental problems and to promote a sustainable plankton fishery, with reduced by-catch [44]. The economic importance and valorization are identical to the cultivated plankton, see Section 6. In this case, the most advantage is for animal feed due to: i- Greater diversity of organisms and possibility of compatibility with the larvae’s and organism digestive apparatus; ii- The captured organisms will find themselves in different stages of development, and therefore, there must be some that have an adequate size to the requirements of apprehension of the cultivated larvae/organism; iii- The cost of capture is much lower than the cost of production of organisms used as live food. However, when compared to the cultivated, wild harvest demonstrates the consequent problems: i-the instable productivity rate due to the environment changes; ii- seasonality; iii-presence of parasite species, such as
To avoid natural resources overexploitation, emerged the need to evolve plankton cultivation techniques. In this way, it is possible to produce enough biomass to supply industrial applications without putting pressure under marine ecosystems [45].
In aquaculture, microalgae serve as food and help to maintain water quality, as they produce oxygen, consume carbon dioxide and nitrogen compounds, especially ammonia [46]. In addition, they can still be used as bioindicators of the level of eutrophication of water bodies [47].
Microalgae are highly efficient photosynthetic organisms, and due to their high biotechnological potential, makes them one of the hot research topics of the moment [48]. Microalgal biomass can be commercially explored in different areas such as nutrition, human and animal, wastewater treatment, biodiesel production and to obtain compounds of interest to food, chemical and pharmaceutical industry [49, 50].
The main physico-chemical factors that affect the growth of microalgae are light, temperature, salinity and availability of nutrients [50].
Microalgae energy reserve substances consists in compounds of high molecular weight such as α-1,4 glucans, β-1,3 glucans and others of low molecular weight such as (glycosides and poly oils). In algae, the lipid reserve is needed for thee synthesis of lipoprotein membranes [51], and is also used to regulate the fluctuation of cells in water.
Lately, microalgae have been attracting the attention of researchers worldwide due to their resilience and high commercial interest [52].
The production of microalgal biomass, through photosynthetic growth, requires carbon dioxide, water, inorganic salts and temperatures generally between 20 to 30°C. To reduce the costs of microalgae biomass production, sunlight should be used, through outdoor cultivations, considering that the contamination is minimal, using essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and, in some cases, silica [49].
Currently, raceway ponds are the most used technique in the upscale production of microalgae to obtain biofuel. However, for this production to be more effective, technological advances must occur to develop photobioreactors which use light more efficiently, reducing the costs associated [53].
Microalgae cultivation is advantageous because it is possible to obtain metabolic products, which are used in feed of marine and terrestrial organisms, food supplements for humans, or for use in environmental processes, such as wastewater treatment, fertilization soil, biofuels and phytoremediation of toxic waste [54].
Species bioprospecting is very important to select the best strains that can produce the most desirable metabolic products. Several studies have evaluated the use of different microalgae for different purposes [55, 56, 57], but this field of research needs is currently evolving and much research still needs to be done.
Lourenço [58] reports that the interaction of microalgae with the culture medium and its physical environment results in significant changes in cell density, which tends to increase numerically in large proportions after inoculation. On the other hand, the concentrations of nutrients dissolved in the culture medium tend to decrease with their multiplication, reaching the point of complete exhaustion, depending on the time of development of the culture, stressing it.
The choice of the culture medium is extremely important for mass production of microalgae. Its improper use can affect the growth rate and the biochemical composition of cells [59, 60]. For each microalgae species, the productivity and the biochemical composition of the cells strongly depend on the type of cultivation and the nutrient profile of the medium [61].
According to Lourenço [58], the choice of the culture medium should consider the operational costs involved, since often low-cost culture media may be deficient in some components and do not allow the maximum production of algal biomass.
The microalgae possess various antioxidant properties and they are potential oxidative stress control alternatives in Artemia and, perhaps, other aquatic organisms used in aquaculture [62].
Fiore and Tlusty [63] studied the incorporation of
Vinh et al. [64] cite that the profitability of Artemia producing farms in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, was significantly influenced by the geographic location and their interaction with the scale of production. To improve farm productivity, besides maintaining optimal stocking densities, moderate increases of organic fertilizer, feed and chemical inputs are recommended to supply Artemia with more nutrients and create better water environment for the optimal development and reproduction. Additionally, a periodic harvest of
Prusińska et al. [65] proved that the use of Artemia enriched in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the larval cultivation of the freshwater fish (
When cultivated, rotifers are relatively poor in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA: 20: 5ω-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA: 22: 6ω-3), and it is essential and therefore a common practice to enrich the culture with marine oil emulsions. Novel production techniques, such as closed recirculation systems are offering new possibilities for continuous supply of high-quality rotifers at densities 10 times greater than batch cultures. The increase in production in these systems is explained by the better water quality [66].
Yoshimura et al. [67] obtained a high density of rotifers (1.6 x 105 individuals mL−1) using continuous filtration of water developed for ultra-high density production, equipped with a membrane filtration unit (pore size: 0.4 μm) and set inside a culture vessel. The culture performance of this system was tested by feeding with freshwater
Alver et al. [68] used a system for automatic control of the growth and density of rotifer. The system computes feeding rates based on a setpoint for rotifer density and provides a fast growth period followed by rapid stabilization of the rotifer density. At the same time, overfeeding is prevented, thereby reducing the risk of cultivation crashes. Feeding rates are automatically computed based on measurements of the cultivation density and egg rate, and internal setpoints for growth rate and egg rate. The authors obtained densities in all tanks increasing from 60 to 90 mL−1 to the setpoint densities of 500 and 1000 mL−1 in 5–7 days, after insignificant growth on the first day. Gross growth rates slowed down considerably towards the end of the experiment, as the controller reduced feed rations in order to stabilize densities.
Han and Lee [69] studied the effects of salinity changes on the marine monogonont rotifer
Chilmawati and Suminto [70] observed the performance of copepod
Knuckey et al. [71] cultivated the copepod
Puello-Cruz et al. [72] cultivated the copepod
Using relatively simple culture techniques, in transparent plastic boxes (32 × 47 × 14.5 cm) containing 4.5 L of filtered aerated seawater at room temperature (28 to 32°C) and a salinity of 35‰, Ribeiro and Souza-Santos [73] cultivated the copepod
Sarkisian et al. [74] used an innovative design for an intensive culture system of the calanoid copepod
Poynton et al. [41] cultivated females of the cladoceran
Liu et al. [75] studied the effects of a polystyrene nanoplastic on physiological changes (e.g., survival, growth, and reproduction) and expression levels of stress defense genes (oxidative stress-mediated and heat shock proteins) in the freshwater flea
Raymundo et al. [76] compared the sensitivity of temperate and tropical cladocerans to different insecticides. The order of sensitivity of the native cladocerans to chlorpyrifos was:
Jaikumar et al. [77] described that the sensitivity to microplastics can differ between different species of cladocerans and can be drastically influenced by the temperature, although in high concentrations of exposure.
Hansen [78] cultivated the planktotrophic larvae of the boreal capitellid polychaete
In diverse industry areas, microalgae have been widely used as a source for a variety of practices and potential metabolic products, such as food supplements, pharmacological substances, lipids, enzymes, biomass, polymers, toxins, pigments or tertiary sewage treatment. They are also important in aquaculture as a source of nutrients and are of great importance in the production of oxygen, carbon dioxide sequestration and nitrogenous compounds removal, such as ammonia [46, 54, 58]. They are also used as bioindicators, reporting water bodies ecological quality status [47]. However, it is considered that the plankton biotechnology is still young when compared to macroalgal and terrestrial plant biotechnological exploitation and knowledge [79]. Nevertheless, when compared with this two biotechnology branches, it is estimated that plankton have specimens and more suitable, due to their reduced form, being mainly aquatic, a life cycle shortened and rapid adaptation of the metabolism which is capable to produce various interesting compounds [9, 13, 80].
The production of microalgae in different sectors generates social, environmental and economic benefits. For example, in the USA and India,
According to Wijffels [53], marine biotechnology aims to discover new products that can contribute to the health of human beings, such as, for example, new nutraceuticals obtained from algae for use in human and animal feed industries, besides the contribution also in the energy sector, such as the production of biofuels. According to the author, the ω-3 fatty acids, provenly beneficial for human health, can also be a potential source of biofuels. Therefore, the biggest challenge is to obtain these products with quality, in enough quantities and in a sustainable way.
The search to food sources are advancing as an indispensable resolve the feed problem, with the continuous world’s population grow restricted, by the global restrictions [82]. Phytoplankton aquaculture in an industrial large-scale to human food usage begin with the cultivation of
According to Pulz and Gross [79], the functional food market using microalgae, in pasta, breads, yoghurts and beverages, is rapidly developing in countries, such as France, United States, China and Thailand. The most common application has been in aquaculture, for the direct or indirect feeding of some species of fish, mollusks, crustaceans and other organisms of economic interest [83].
The consumption of ω-3 obtained from microalgae is beneficial for neural development, in addition to preventing coronary problems, cancer, hypertension, diabetes, cystic fibrosis, arthritis, asthma, schizophrenia and depression. Marine microalgae are capable of synthesizing ω-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic (EPA, C20: 5) and docosahexaenoic (DHA, C22: 6), which enter the marine food chain and are available in fish oil. These fatty acids are considered important in the development of brain tissue and visual function [84].
Microalgae are the main producers of biomass that accumulate in higher organisms through the food chain. For several centuries, they are used as food in Southeast Asian countries, mainly due to their high protein content. Recently, microalgae have attracted the interest of many researchers due to their structurally diverse bioactive compounds, efficient photosynthetic machinery, greater mass productivity and the absence of competition with arable land and drinking water. They can withstand adverse environmental conditions, producing a variety of biologically active primary and secondary metabolites, such as polysaccharides, carotenoids, omega-3 and 6 fatty acids and phenolic compounds. These metabolites exhibit a series of pharmacological activities, which include therapeutic, drug-carrying and physiochemical properties, including gelation, swelling and emulsification. These may be a new source of functional compounds in the food and pharmaceutical industries [85].
Currently, microalgae are being incorporated into many food formulations. Most of them use microalgae as a marketing strategy or as a coloring agent. As for example, the cyanobacterium Spirulina is not only in fashion, but is rich in several valuable and highly nutritious compounds, such as proteins, PUFAs and bioactive pigments, including chlorophylls, carotenoids and phycobiliproteins. One of the main advantages of natural pigments derived from Spirulina, when compared to their synthetic counterparts, is that the former has several health benefits, and can be used as an ingredient in the development of new functional foods. Proteins from Spirulina have proven to be excellent sources of bioactive peptides with potential application in the functional food industry as antihypertensive, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity and antioxidant ingredients [86] immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory among other positive bioactivities [87].
Some of the prerequisites for using algae biomass for humans and animals include determining the chemical composition; toxic biogenic substances; non-biogenic toxic compounds; protein quality studies; biochemical nutritional studies; supplemental value of algae to conventional food sources; health analysis; safety assessments (animal feeding tests); clinical studies (safety test and suitability of the product for human consumption) and acceptability studies [88].
The microalgae used as a food supplement are generally sold in the form of tablets, capsules and liquids or are incorporated in pasta, snacks, candy bars, ice cream, chewing gum, in mixtures of drinks and dyes for natural foods [88, 89]. Foods supplemented with microalgae biomass, when properly processed, can make foods more colorful and tasty, adding not only nutritional value, but also new, unique and attractive flavors [50].
The reasons for this recent growth in interest are cost-effective cultivation and a short cultivation time until the desired compost is obtained. In addition, they have the status generally considered safe and as such do not contain any toxins or pathogens that can be transmitted to humans. [90].
The plankton is a natural source for various animals’ species, which are cultivated. Consequently, they are a standard feed source to various farmed species. To other animals, they are non-natural feed source, which is used supplement to be incorporated with normal feed, similarly the plankton usage as human food supply, due to the high quality of protein, minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates and also essential fatty acids to be a high quality feed for fish and others animals [91].
Phytoplankton is a vital player in aquaculture (mariculture) as they are the natural food bases to larvae life stage of various types of mollusks, crustaceans, and fish. The utmost phytoplankton used in aquaculture worldwide belong to the genera:
The use of plankton as feed improver was attainment further attention by the I&D research teams and industry to develop feeds to diverse animals (mainly in aquaculture). Which, the main results are the animals feed with plankton gain weight, enhance of triglyceride profile and the protein deposition in muscle, the animal digestibility, starvation tolerance and carcass quality [91, 93].
Phytoplankton can be cast-off as a source of natural pigments for the culture of prawns, salmonid fish, and ornamental fish [91].
The cosmetic area is the third major commercial segment for phytoplankton application, due to the research of natural products to substitute synthetic ingredients. Thus, with cosmetic consumers turning their mindset, the cosmetic segment is one of the main actives to explore the biotechnological potential of the plankton. The natural and ecofriendly predispositions in this area, give an new input to find new high value, innovative and natural formulations for new products, without the imposition of reduced costs as the other areas [80]. The microalgae were not very common in cosmetic, nonetheless, microalgae and their derivatives are in beginning to be integrated in diverse formulas to skin and hair products, through a wide range of functions, such as excipient (stabilizer or emulsifier) or active ingredient. The phytoplankton is usually used in moisturizing, skin whitening, anti-aging, and sun protection creams formulations. However, the pigments from phytoplankton is cast-off as colorant agent for varied cosmetic products [94].
The application of microalgae to bioremediate wastewaters shows a great potential to complement traditional wastewater treatment processes. Furthermore, this approach addresses the need to reduce the costs associated with the growth media expenses for microalgae biomass production [95], through wastewater recycling to obtain microalgal biomass instead of culture medium [96].
Nevertheless, it is necessary to consider possible sources of growth medium contamination, such as grazers which feed on microalgae (Figure 1a and b), as well as the presence of other microalgae species that can compete or inhibit the target species production.
Microscopic observations of
Bioremediation of numerous pollutants of different characteristics and properties released from the domestic, industrial, agricultural and aquaculture sectors [97, 98]. Moreover, promoting microalgae cultivation in wastewater will help mitigate the environmental impacts of treated effluents since this biological method will complement conventional wastewater treatment and improve not only the removal of organic and inorganic load but also the removal of emerging pollutants, such as pesticides, metals, pharmaceuticals or household cleaning chemicals [99, 100, 101, 102].
In addition, they are also capable of removing metals, incorporating them in their cell wall [103] and other noxious compounds such as phenols and chlorophenols [104].
An emerging area for microalgae biotechnology is environmental applications. This is mainly due to its carbon dioxide mitigation capacity, reducing greenhouse gas emissions that are related to global warming and climate change; and its ability to grow in an effluent liquid that allows wastewater treatment. Today, there is a focus on the use of microalgae in renewable energy as a potential source for the production of biofuels, such as biodiesel, bioethanol, biohydrogen and biogas [105].
It is worth mentioning the importance of the production of biofuels through microalgae. Microalgae naturally contain about 10% lipids. These lipids are mainly present in photosynthetic membranes. Microalgae accumulate lipids in high concentration under “stress” conditions, caused, for example, by the depletion of nutrients such as nitrogen. In the absence of these nutrients, growth is hampered, while energy is continuously received in the form of light. Microalgae channel excess energy into large macromolecules, such as lipids or starch. In these cases, the lipid content can reach 60%. Under stressful conditions, these lipids accumulate in body lipids such as triacylglycerides or neutral lipids. The neutral lipids can be used as raw material for the production of biofuels [106].
During the past few decades, many research studies have covered different technologies to produce biodiesel from lipid-rich microalgae. Under controlled cultivation conditions, microalgae can accumulate metabolites intended to produce various biofuels. For example, starch and various types of oils can be bioaccumulated. Starch extracted from algae is easily hydrolyzed to glucose and used for fermentation in the production of bioethanol. Currently, commercial production of bioethanol from algae is not a viable choice due to the low yield of the product compared to other terrestrial biomasses. The high costs of algae cultivation systems are due to several complex steps: (i) algae cultivation; (ii) harvest; (iii) pre-treatment of biomass; (iv) fermentation; and (v) extraction of bioethanol. By linking all possible improvements at each stage of the process, a substantial advance towards cost-effective algae systems can be achieved in the future [107].
This chapter covered the many advantages that plankton have, specifically phytoplankton and zooplankton, their qualities, ecological and economic relevance, as well as their cultivation techniques, aiming the production of add-value products with industrial interest.
It is of great need to use all the knowledge presented and apply it in the different branches of ecology, industry or science, aiming the discovery of new products or directing it to a specific study area, being a subsidy of great importance for the environment and/or for the human being.
This work is financed by national funds through FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., within the scope of the projects UIDB/04292/2020 – MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences. This work was financed by the Live Food Production Laboratory (LABPAV) and the Tropical Aquaculture Study Group (GEAQUI) of the Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Ceará —IFCE, Campus Aracati, Ceará, Brazil. João Cotas thanks to the European Regional Development Fund through the Interreg Atlantic Area Program, under the project NASPA (EAPA_451/2016). Diana Pacheco thanks the PTDC/BIA-CBI/31144/2017—POCI-01project -0145-FEDER-031144—MARINE INVADERS, co-financed by the ERDF through POCI (Operational Program Competitiveness and Internationalization) and by the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT, IP).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The incidence of transverse colon cancer in an emergency setting is approximately 77–80%. Five percent of all colon cancer are located at the level of transverse colon, hepatic flexure cancer represents 3% whilst splenic flexure represents 2% [1, 2]. The complications associated with transverse colon cancer are represented by large bowel obstruction, tumor perforation, or more commonly diastatic perforation and hemorrhagic syndrome [3].
Based on embryological and anatomical considerations, the colonic frame can be divided into the proximal (“right”) colon represented by the cecum, the ascending colon and the proximal or right 2/3 of the transverse colon, and the distal (“left”) colon represented by the distal 1/3 of the transverse colon, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon, the rectum and the proximal 2/3 of the anal canal [4, 5, 6, 7].
Since the proximal colon is derived from the midgut the incidence of transverse colon cancer is higher in females. Thus, mucinous tumors are more common, which present an increased risk of genetic mutations ↑ CIMP, ↑ BRAF, ↑ MSI, ↑ CMS1, ↑ CMS3, ↑ KRAS, and where survival has a limited prognosis compared to distal colon cancers [8, 9, 10].
The recommended surgical technical principles for proximal colon cancer complications are simple and are represented by resection and anastomosis in the first intent in most scenarios, while in the case of distal colon cancer complications, surgeons perform resections and colostomies (terminal or loop colostomy) or in rare cases of hemodynamically stable patients, per-primam anastomoses.
The majority of transverse colon tumors and their complications follow the general characteristics of colorectal cancers. Thus, in an emergency setting, patients have already developed complications the disease is generally found in advanced stages (T3-T4) [11]. Due to the presence of complications at the time of diagnostic, radical intent surgery is most of the time impossible; surgeons cannot perform a radical D2 or D3 lymphadenectomy, due to local cancer spread and the technical impossibility to remove the tumor together with the anterior and posterior sheets of the visceral peritoneum. To follow Hohenberger principles introduced in 2009 [12] to completely resect the mesocolon and perform high vascular ligature, in the case of complicated transverse colon cancer becomes impossible in most cases [12, 13].
Embryologically, the small intestine starting from D3, the cecum, the ascending colon, and the proximal or right 2/3 of the transverse colon derive from the midgut. The vascular supply is represented by ileocolic vessels, right colic artery, and middle colic artery, all derivative from superior mesenteric vessels. The parasympathetic innervation of these segments of the intestine is represented by the vagus nerve.
For the distal third (or left third), the descending colon, sigmoid, rectum, and the proximal 2/3 of the anal canal the embryological origin are represented by the hindgut and the vascular supply by the left colic branches of the inferior mesenteric vessels. The parasympathetic innervation is represented by the pelvic splanchnic nerves S2-S4. The transition zone from the parasympathetic vagal to the sacred is called the Cannon-Bohm point [14]. This corresponds to Griffith’s point where Drummond’s marginal arch anastomoses with the ascending branch of the middle colic artery [15].
The proximal colon is anatomically the most dilated segment in the colonic frame, having the largest diameter at the level of the cecum (8 cm), while the ascending colon being is 6 cm in diameter and the transverse colon 5 cm. The transverse colon is the longest segment of the colic frame, having a length of about 50 cm as well as being the most mobile segment of the colon [16].
The arterial sources of the ascending colon are represented by the branches of the superior mesenteric artery. They are the ileocolic artery, the right colic artery which may be inconsistent, the middle colic artery with the right and left branches, the left colic artery with the ascending branch which has its origin in the inferior mesenteric artery. In addition to these arterial sources for each segment, some anastomoses from the marginal artery of Drummond (MA) – the marginalis colic artery (arteria marginalis coli), the anastomotic source between the superior and inferior mesenteric artery [14, 17]. Another important anastomotic arterial source, also the anastomosis between the two important arterial sources, is represented by Riolan’s arch, also called Moskowitz’s arch or meandering mesenteric artery. An important aspect of this marginal arch is present in the splenic flexion, the so-called Griffith area in which there is the possibility to interrupt this arterial anastomosis, thus having direct implications in resections of the transverse colon or splenic flexure [14].
Thus, colon resections regardless of the region are segmental resections. This principle was introduced and accomplished with the sigmoid colon segment by Jean-Francois Reybard in 1833. Later this type of resection extended to the transverse colon, becoming a transversectomy. Also related to the name of this surgeon, Reybard is also linked with the first right hemicolectomy, performed in 1832.
Colic frame lymph nodes are present according to the Japanese Society for Cancer of the Colon and Rectum (JSCCR) in four areas:
D1 or N1 lymphatic centers – epicolic/paracolic
D2 or N2 lymphatic centers – intermediates
D3 or N3 lymphatic centers – central
D4 or N4 lymphatic centers – located on the anterior face of the large retroperitoneal vessels [18].
Thus, segmental, limited, or extensive resections for transverse colon cancers follow Hohenberger’s recommendations for mesocolon excision and central vascular ligation [19, 20].
There are several comparative studies between D2 or D3 lymphadenectomy recommendations for locally advanced cancers, that often present themselves in the emergency department. They do not show a clear advantage of D3 over D2 but recommend performing D3 lymphadenectomy to obtain a radial resection margin and a larger number of lymph nodes necessary for accurate staging [21, 22, 23]. The minimum number of lymph nodes required for an accurate staging is 12 [2, 24, 25].
Transverse colon cancer frequently metastasizes to the lymph nodes of the infrapyloric lymph nodes, pancreatic cephalic nodules, and gastro-colic ligaments [26].
Another aspect used in surgical resections of transverse colon cancers is resection of the hepatic or splenic flexures. It is, therefore, necessary to define this flexure, anatomically. There is no general surgical concept but the most common limit is represented by a portion of 10 cm belonging to the ascending or descending colon, respectively 1/3 corresponding to the transverse colon. The splenic flexure is always located higher, and more angled, often creating an additional obstacle [14].
Large bowel obstruction – is the most common complication of colorectal/rectal colon and transverse colon, representing about 77% of the entire volume of complications [27, 28]. The most common symptom is the lack of bowel movement in a patient with intestinal transit disorders. Due to the relatively large diameter of the proximal colon, ascending and transverse, the tumors become palpable, giant even, a long time before producing mechanical occlusion [29].
In this situation, the technical principle is segmental resection (Figure 1) represented by the right hemicolectomy, detailed by Kohler and Mikulicz or extended to the right, towards the left of the middle colic vessels followed by an ileocolic anastomosis or the segmental resection (transversectomy) followed by end-to-end anastomosis. There are divergent views and, in this regard, many articles and studies show that limited resections, such as transversectomy are more effective [24, 30].
Surgical approach of the colon.
If the location of the tumor is at the level of the hepatic flexure, then the common surgical procedure is a standard right hemicolectomy, with right omentectomy and ligation at the origin of the ileocolic vessels, right colic, and of the right branch of the middle colic vessels, followed by an ileo-colic end to end anastomosis (Figure 2).
D2/3 extended right hemicolectomy.
If the obstructive tumor is located at the middle of the transverse colon, then you can opt for a transversectomy with omentectomy and resection of the mesocolon (Figure 3), and high ligation at the origin of the middle colic vessels. If the local anatomy is favorable, namely after an adequate mobilization of both the hepatic and the splenic flexure if we can obtain a resection margin of about 10 cm, then we can opt for a tension-free anastomosis. If the local anatomy is not favorable, it is recommended to perform an extended right hemicolectomy with omentectomy and high ligation of the vascular pedicles followed by an ileocolic anastomosis. This type of anastomosis is classified with the lowest fistula rate [24, 30, 31, 32].
D2/3 transverse colectomy.
If the occlusive tumor is located at the left third of the transverse colon, then an extended right hemicolectomy is recommended as long as we obtain an adequate distance resection margin as well as an adequate radial resection margin – all by maintaining the integrity of the visceral peritoneum sheets.
Location of the tumor at the level of the splenic flexure may be followed by segmental resection of the splenic angle, left omentectomy, resection of the mesocolon and ascending branches of the left colic vessels, extended gastrocolic lymphadenectomy and colo colic anastomosis TT, or extended right hemicolectomy with omentectomy, mesocolon excision and extended gastro-colic lymphadenectomy, prepancreatic lymphadenectomy followed by an ileocolic end to end anastomosis (Figure 4) [28, 29].
D2/3 extended left hemicolectomy.
The principle of diversion or the protection of an anastomosis using an ileostomy [28] has lost ground lately, being today only an exceptional indication [33].
In certain particular situations, like in an emergency, it is useful to practice a subtotal colectomy (Figure 5), as radical as possible with ileo sigmoid anastomosis. The second indication for subtotal colectomy is the cecal diastatic perforation with the occlusive tumor in the transverse colon and the third indication for subtotal colectomy is synchronous tumors.
D2/3 subtotal hemicolectomy.
Extended right hemicolectomy is performed, in an emergency in about 73.7% of cases while left hemicolectomy is performed in 20% [2].
Perforation followed by localized or generalized peritonitis is the second most common cause of complications in transverse colon cancer [3, 28].
Due to generalized peritonitis, septic shock, and multiple organ failure (MSOF), the patient becomes hemodynamically and respiratory unstable, leading to postoperative management governed by other principles, namely hydro electrolytic rebalancing and stabilization, exploratory laparotomy, identification of exact perforation site, and rapid surgical gestures.
Perforations in this situation are frequently diastatic and the most frequent localization is in the cecum region. In this situation, subtotal colectomy is required, followed by ileosigmoid anastomosis. In some rare cases, there is the possibility of parietal perforation through tumor necrosis and localized peritonitis, which prolongs the patient’s addressability to the doctor. This situation is more common with the transverse colon or splenic flexure. However as long as the general condition of the patient is stable, a limited resection such as transversectomy can be attempted, but with the establishment of a diversion colostomy or by emptying the colon on the operating table with a first intent digestive anastomosis being recommended especially by Asian authors [28].
The hemorrhagic syndrome represents the 3rd emergency form of transverse colon cancer, the rarest form being an uncompensated hypovolemic shock with hemodynamic instability [28].
The presence of hemorrhage in cancer pathology is common in about 50% of cases [28]. The general form of manifestation, however, is occult hemorrhage, with minimal blood loss that does not suddenly undermine the patient. Thus, exsanguinating shock is rare [3].
If the endoscopic intervention cannot stop the hemorrhage or if embolization is not successful, then resection surgery is required when more than 6 units of blood [31] are transfused, followed by either a double colostomy or an anastomosis depending on the patient’s hemodynamic stability [3, 28].
The localization of the primary tumor in the transverse colon and the type of the emergency: occlusion, peritonitis with diastatic perforation or hemorrhage, as well as hemodynamic and respiratory stability of the patient, severity of hydroelectrolytic imbalance, require as emergency surgical treatment the following surgical therapeutic options (on cases that may benefit from surgical treatment):
In the case of the unstable patient, performing a lateral (loop) or terminal colostomy or ileostomy, possibly associated with a segmental resection for an area of perforation or hemorrhage and the second surgery for curative resection with associated D2/3 lymphadenectomy and anastomosis.
In the case of the stable patient, the intention will be curative surgical treatment and here an intervention with D2/3 lymphadenectomy and mesocolon resection is required according to the rule – CME and CVL imposed by Hohenberger. Depending on the location of the tumor hepatic flexure, standard transverse colon or splenic flexure, the presence of another synchronous tumor formation, vascular abnormalities or anatomical features of the transverse colon, high localization of the splenic flexure, the technical variants that can be achieved are represented by: segmental colectomy of the transverse colon or transversectomy, extended right colectomy, subtotal colectomy with CME and CVL Hohenberger and per-primal anastomosis TT, LL or LT, depending on local factors, technical possibilities – manual or mechanical and experience or preference of the surgeon.
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Therefore, this chapter makes a literature review of the most important general aspects of endogenous antioxidant systems, which will provide another point of view from which to approach the study and treatment of many chronic degenerative diseases, such as diabetes, hypertension, and Parkinson.",book:{id:"5407",slug:"a-master-regulator-of-oxidative-stress-the-transcription-factor-nrf2",title:"The Transcription Factor Nrf2",fullTitle:"A Master Regulator of Oxidative Stress - The Transcription Factor Nrf2"},signatures:"Tomás Alejandro Fregoso Aguilar, Brenda Carolina Hernández\nNavarro and Jorge Alberto Mendoza Pérez",authors:[{id:"154732",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza-Pérez",slug:"jorge-a.-mendoza-perez",fullName:"Jorge A. Mendoza-Pérez"},{id:"154908",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomás A.",middleName:null,surname:"Fregoso-Aguilar",slug:"tomas-a.-fregoso-aguilar",fullName:"Tomás A. 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Various diseases such as cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and neurodegenerative clearly exemplify the chronic oxidative stress. Therefore, it is important to consider that at low and moderate ROS levels, it can, for example, act as signaling molecules that support cell proliferation and differentiation and activate survival pathways in response to stress. Correlations between oxidative stress and disease should be carefully investigated in order to understand whether oxidative stress actually increases susceptibility to a particular disease or opposite.",book:{id:"5407",slug:"a-master-regulator-of-oxidative-stress-the-transcription-factor-nrf2",title:"The Transcription Factor Nrf2",fullTitle:"A Master Regulator of Oxidative Stress - The Transcription Factor Nrf2"},signatures:"Rosângela F.F de Araújo, Danyelly Bruneska G. Martins and Maria\nAmélia C.S.M. 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Lipids of seeds are essentially composed of TAG; it would be interesting to describe their synthesis during the maturation of the seeds. Some plants contain in their reserve lipids unconventional fatty acids such as gamma linolenic acid in Borrago officinalis L., short-chain fatty acids C: 12 and C: 10, fatty acids with very long chains, and fatty acids that are cyclical. All of these fatty acids can have industrial and/or pharmaceutical applications.",book:{id:"7036",slug:"advances-in-lipid-metabolism",title:"Advances in Lipid Metabolism",fullTitle:"Advances in Lipid Metabolism"},signatures:"Fatiha AID",authors:[{id:"256576",title:"Prof.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Aid",slug:"fatiha-aid",fullName:"Fatiha Aid"}]},{id:"66369",title:"General Perception of Liposomes: Formation, Manufacturing and Applications",slug:"general-perception-of-liposomes-formation-manufacturing-and-applications",totalDownloads:3315,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"Liposomes are currently part of the most reputed carriers for various molecular species, from small and simple to large and complex molecules. Since their discovery, liposomes have been subject to extensive evolution, in terms of composition, manufacturing and applications, which led to several openings in both basic and applied life sciences. 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Tetrazole and its derivatives play very important role in medicinal and pharmaceutical applications. The synthesis of tetrazole derivatives can be approached in ecofriendly approaches such as the use of water as solvent, moderate conditions, nontoxic, easy extractions, easy setup, low cost, etc. with good to excellent yields.",book:{id:"6365",slug:"molecular-docking",title:"Molecular Docking",fullTitle:"Molecular Docking"},signatures:"Ravi Varala and Bollikolla Hari Babu",authors:[{id:"212519",title:"Dr.",name:"Varala",middleName:null,surname:"Ravi",slug:"varala-ravi",fullName:"Varala Ravi"},{id:"221476",title:"Dr.",name:"Bollikolla",middleName:null,surname:"Hari Babu",slug:"bollikolla-hari-babu",fullName:"Bollikolla Hari Babu"}]},{id:"67034",title:"Biotransformation of Steroids Using Different Microorganisms",slug:"biotransformation-of-steroids-using-different-microorganisms",totalDownloads:1551,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The introduction of a hydroxyl group “biohydroxylation” in the steroid skeleton is an important step in the synthesis of new steroids used physiologically as hormones and active drugs. There are currently about 300 known steroid drugs whose production constitutes the second category within the pharmaceutical market after antibiotics. Several biotransformations at industrial scale have been applied in the production of steroid hormones and drugs, which have functionalized different types of raw materials by means of chemo-, regio-, and stereoselective reactions (hydroxylation, Baeyer-Villiger oxidation, oxidation reactions, reduction of group carbonyl, isomerization, and Michael additions, condensation reactions, among others). 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"344229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankeshan",middleName:null,surname:"Padayachee",slug:"sankeshan-padayachee",fullName:"Sankeshan Padayachee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315727",title:"Ms.",name:"Kelebogile A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mothupi",slug:"kelebogile-a.-mothupi",fullName:"Kelebogile A. Mothupi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"337613",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tshakane",middleName:null,surname:"R.M.D. Ralephenya",slug:"tshakane-r.m.d.-ralephenya",fullName:"Tshakane R.M.D. Ralephenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"11",type:"subseries",title:"Cell Physiology",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology",scope:"\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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