\r\n\tThis book chapter’s main theme will be focused on transmission dynamics, pathogenesis, mechanisms of host interaction and response, epigenetics and markers, molecular diagnosis, RNA interacting proteins, RNA binding proteins, advanced development of tools for diagnosis, possible development of concepts for vaccines and anti drugs for RNA viruses, immunological mechanisms, treatment, prevention and control.
\r\n\t
Traditional societies have long considered what it means to be male or female, masculine and feminine. Ancestors have watched the sun and the moon for clues and signs as to natures of man and woman, masculine and feminine [1]. The creation stories around the world have always included roles of masculine and feminine in forming the world as we know it and its organizing principles [2, 3, 4]. Moreover, many places around the world did not organize their society within fixed, mutable concepts of positional understanding of masculine or feminine, but in the sense of balance, and acknowledged other possibilities of existence in between being male or female [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Both in human and animals, there has been recognition in diversity and transformative powers in the early times of society [1, 10, 11]. These societies had their own narratives on sex development and these remained throughout time.
Western narratives in sex and development have origins that can be traced back to medical and nonmedical philosophers over the last 2000 years. In Particular, the ideas from Aristotle, Plato, and Galen were influential medical thought on sex and development [12]. The ideas of how sex developed by these medical minds are somewhat strange today but set the early beginnings of scientific and medical understanding of sex development from the seventeenth century [12, 13]. For example, Aristotle did not see men and women as identical but nor did he see them as polar opposites [12]. Through the expansion of the Roman Empire, there was a strong influence of religious ideals of sex which had held until the seventeenth century. Of interesting note, and seldom discussed of Western thought, intersex people have been used to understand the true nature of sex and what it could or should mean and understanding normal and abnormal development [14].
From the seventeenth century with pioneering new medical and scientific technologies, it was possible to understand sex diversity in its elements such as genetics and chromosomes, hormones, enzymes, anatomy such as genitals and gonads, and the many others. These have been important to understanding how sex develops. This chapter does not intend to reproduce detail of each of these in defining what they are, their variations, and involvement in development. There are many textbooks and articles explaining each of these.
The chapter focuses on the narrative of the understanding of sex and development. Science as with every area of life is explained and understood through narratives. Facts never speak for themselves, rather they are understood within schemas and worldviews through those narratives. Sex and development is a good example of one such point. Science has demonstrated much diversity is the elements considered to make up sex – chromosomal, genetic, gonadal, internal genital, external genital, pubertal, and psychological [13]. These have been understood for some time now. Sex development through the elements of sex is understood through narratives, and these narratives affect people’s lives, physically, psychologically, and socially. Biologist Joan Roughgarden asks how do two fertilized eggs that start out looking about the same end up producing two adults as different as a man or woman, drag queen, or CEO [11]. How we understand the question and how it is narrated is of interest in this chapter. What is called normal and how it affects people who are outside normal is also important.
From narratives taught at school through to academic articles and books, the idea that biology controls development of the body. It is seen as a natural, biological process that begins from the joining of the two gametes – the egg and the sperm. From this point, a linear development progression begins that leads to a human being. It is that developing body that interacts with society. The chapter identifies how the current narratives either reinforce a biological essentialism or diminish the importance of biology in the narrative through social constructionism. There are issues with narrating through a biological essentialism of sex while also using a social construction of gender. Development cannot be reduced to either.
Rather the chapter focuses on the need to consider an alternative version of develop that is not focused on development like a mechanism nor as a social construction of development. The alternative is one of sex/gender narrative of becoming. It is a means of embodiment as through embodied being becomes from pre-birth through death. It is a narrativity of becoming that recognizes both a biological and social, and cultural being interacting with the surrounding environment.
The purpose of the chapter is not to debate the physiology, but how the narratives of these in development occur. It will do so through the differentiating between sex development or sex becoming. As the chapter will illustrate, the difference in the narrative is the difference of how people react to the body and the outside world throughout their life and also how medicine and society reacts to people of sex/gender diversity.
Before continuing on the focus of sex and gender development, it is important to have a brief discussion of particular framings that have been utilized in interpreting sex development. These framings have often limited discussion and the historicity of such framings have often either been ignored or been forgotten in relation to discussion of sex development.
The two framings of focus here that influence the discussion of sex development are biological determinism and social constructionism. The influences of both of these have had political impact on the biological and social lives of people over the last many hundreds of years. In particular, these framings have had negative impact on diversity of sex and gender. It is important to break these down to understand the nuggets of truth in them, if there are any, and separate from issues to have oppressed groups of people.
Biological determinism is the basic idea is that there is an underlying true essence that discontinues between forms of the essence and has a constancy in the absence of change over time (p. 13) [15]. Biological determinism represents the claim that the present states of human societies are the specific result of biological forces and the biological “nature” of the human species [16]. Biological determinism refers to the idea that human behavior originates in and is dictated by biological entities or processes, either innate or constitutional (p. 16) [17]. The essence indicates that certain phenomena are natural, inevitable, universal, and biologically determined, and any variation is attributed to the imperfect manifestation of the essences (p. 10) [15].
Biological determinism of sex thus is the criteria that determine as two discrete true forms – male and female – with no overlap or ambiguity. The biological traits (genetic, hormonal, neuro-atomical, and so on) determine a person’s sex as male or female development through life (and holds their place in social life) with a heterosexual orientation (p. 10) [15]. Furthermore, it suggests that not only the biological traits, but also psychological and orientation reside within the individual as essence of their being (p. 13) [15].
Cultural determinism is another form believing that there are determinist attributes of being male or female that continues the Western ideals, for example, through gender. Gender is the viewpoint that women and men do differ because of socialization and that women are at least equal to and possibly superior to men [19]. It is another way to foil for biological determinism except for the biological but including virtually everything in the human social world such as capitalism, colonialism, urbanism, poverty, sexism, racism, social structure, imperialism, family structure, and an assortment of other social, economic, and political variables [18].
Social constructionism is the any social influence on individual experience [15]. Burger and Luckman propose that reality is socially constructed, and that the sociology of knowledge must analyze the process in which this occurs [20]. Social constructionism is not the trait of the individual such as taken from an essentialist position. Social constructionism sees it as a process external to the individual [15]. It suggests that the power and structures have control over the individual, and their traits are non-consequential. Moreover, while essentialists suggest universal values, social constructionists acknowledge there may be some universal traits, but there is no universal standard for such traits (p. 15) [15].
Social constructionism is often reflected through the notion of gender and development. The idea is that gender is not reliant on biological development, but the social structures in which the individual develops. It is not the gendered traits of the individual but the result social processes that are external to the individual that impact upon any traits of the individual [15]. Gender is defined by interactions between people, by language, and by the discourse of a culture [15]. Rather than conceiving of sexuality as an unchanging individual essence that we might trace over time, we can investigate its contingency upon historically specific frameworks of thought and practice (p. 91) [21].
Sex and gender development is still framed as both oppositional and disembodied. Like many concepts referred to in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, they are seen as either/or concepts. While one framing focuses on biology or physiology drives development and behavior, the other framing disregards it in favor of the social and institutional derivation.
Basing sex/gender development in either biological determinism or social constructionism is both misleading and has negative impact on people, but especially those who do not fit within the ideals of male or female. Intersex and transgender people who have had various names over the years have been the most severely impacted through these framings and still continue till today. Both deny or ignore critical elements of how human beings become who they are.
Though Western feminists in particular long criticized the notion that the behavior and abilities of women are uniquely determined by their biology [22], they adopted the social constructionist framing established by medical professionals from psychological theory – plasticity thesis. While trying to overcome being bounded by biology, they shift the focus from biology to psychology, while maintaining the oppositional binary of being male or female.
What these narratives of biological determinism and social constructionism indicate are binary understandings and how the Western concepts of opposition hold in discourse. Science in all of its forms from biological through social science has been influenced by such discourses. Science is a process of narrating around the discover of facts and evidence. In itself, it is a set of information that is available to be women into narratives. These narratives are also influenced by ideologies and their worldview. It is time for a different discourse that recognizes truths while not essentializing individuals into a particular structure and form. It is also necessary to understand that people are not just machines open to receiving and performing or adopting social structures.
Though a person’s biology does not define a person’s life, it is still very important in the development of a person. The consideration of biology as a mechanical system or a controlling essence do a disservice to the embodiment of people and their life experience. The implicit denial of the biological events of our lives has also failed to appeal to people’s ideas of “common sense” [22]. At the same time, nonrecognition of the effects and/or interconnections of society and the environment also neglect major impacts on a person and development. Both determinism and constructionism in its forms deny connectedness and agency of the person and community.
Understanding the framing of sex/gender, it is now possible to begin to consider the narrating of the sex and gender development or becoming. Narrating is core to the human experience. Human beings are self-reflexive, narrative beings transformed its raw experiences into abstractions [26]. Becoming indicates a person with capabilities and agency, a life plan, make choices and responsible to others [27]. It is organic yet susceptible to significant environmental, social, and cultural influences, for example, it assumes that it includes meaning and is value laden [27].
Self-narration is an experience of temporal dimension that gathers events together into a coherent and meaningful structure that gives significance to the overall configuration, that is, the person [28]. Narration cannot be only understood in objective social categories, and these cannot adequately account for the lived dynamic aspects, rather resulting in reductive and reified understandings [28].
To ensure an illustrative difference, the chapter will discuss a difference between the development of sex and gender and (sex) becoming. The distinction is important as it illustrates how these narratives are written into people’s lives and what impact these narratives have.
Development since the early 1600s has been used to infer improvement, but for many individuals and collectives has resulted in quite the opposite. In terms of sex and gender, development implies a procedural sense or something being developed. It also indicates that such processes will follow linear paths from the beginning to the end. There is a determinist connotation within development and questions as to whether there is agency or autonomy possible in development. Development also suggests that that any deviations from the linear development processes are abnormalities. A clear example of such deviations is a population referred to as having disorders of sex development [29]. While there is a diversity of possibilities of the various biological parts of becoming, those not part of the ideal type are considered out of the normal, abnormal, or atypical.
In contrast, becoming is used to suggest organic nature of “becoming a person.” Becoming involves more than an individuated process. It has a multitude of influences and interconnections from the social, spiritual/cultural, and environmental embodiment of the person. Further, individual becoming always involves and is part of community sustenance and identity. Becoming is ongoing with the possibility of transformation from pre-birth through death. It is not linear nor immutable. Becoming is a narrativity of the socialized sex through the embodied physiological being with the surrounding community and context depending world.
This part of the chapter will discuss sex and gender development and the differences and similarities. It will also set out how biological determinism and social constructionism are or are not embedded in sex/gender development. It will then move to sex becoming and how that differs from sex/gender development.
To begin with, it is important to briefly describe the common narrative of sex and sex development. The common narrative also indicates particular understandings of what is abnormal, even disease, and outside of the common narrative. These variations outside of the norm have had impact on people outside of the standard ideal of the heterosexual male or female.
The narrative of sex/gender and its development must begin with the structures upon which it is based. That is, there is a norm, a standard pattern all life follows and that norm states that sex is an oppositional binary of being male or female with the male includes particular biological characteristics while the female has other characteristics. There are other general characteristics that are shared between the two – males and females.
The narrativity of sex development has an assumed foundation of an egg representing female and a sperm representing male. These are discrete and oppositional and the only possibilities. Females have XX chromosomes and particular physiology while males have XY chromosomes and particular physiology distinct from females. There are three core assumptions: it is binary (two different forms, male and female) which have distinct anatomical structures and biological functions; each form has different physical characteristics; and each form has different psychological and behavioral characteristics [30, 31]. There are two different species as male and female and not just two different reproductive systems (women have ovaries, a womb, and lactate while men are sperm producers) [32, 33, 34]. There are many texts defining these differences. Outside of these are mistakes of nature or abnormalities.
Sex development begins as process-based and linear. The very beginning of development is where the egg and the sperm meet and the egg provides an X and the sperm either an X or Y chromosome. Depending on what gene is provided from the sperm, X or Y, will determine if the newly formed zygote is a male or female. The zygote then begins the development process into either male physiology or female physiology. The presence of a Y chromosome makes the embryo develop as a male (individuals with Y will develop testes); in its absence, the default development is along the female pathway (ovaries will develop) [33]. Sex development theory assumes a master template (a master gene) as the norm that triggers a subordinate gene which cascades to downstream genes in a descending hierarchy of control [11]. As an analogy, development occurs as though a bowling ball was accurately rolled to hit a genetic kingpin at just the right spot and cause all the genetic bowling pins behind to fall down in perfect order and producing a normal baby is bowling a genetic strike [11]. This assumes there is a close linear association of “3G” sex – genetic, gonadal, and genitals – as core markers of sex [33]. The sex will then lead to the direction of other related sex characteristics. The chromosomes lead to a linear development of other anatomical structures including those often referred to as sex structures (e.g. ovaries, testes, uterus, scrotum, vagina, and clitoris) and most importantly the brain and the neural system [35].
From the time of birth, the linear development continues along the chromosomal pathway albeit at a slower pace until puberty. At puberty, sex development continues with “secondary sex characteristics” of body hair, breasts, voice, pitch, menstruation, and sexual sensations and desires [13, 35, 36]. One’s biological sex further develops into adulthood. Later in life, other factors change such as menopause in women. Up till recently, it has also been assumed that this determined sex will also determine one’s sexual relations, and hence the system of heterosexuality.
Development assumes an oppositional binary whereby from chromosomes to hormones to gonads to secondary sex characteristics there are only two choices: male (XY) or female (XX). The assumption is social sex social roles and function, expression follows on from sex development as male or female as biology established [37]. In another words, sex is understood here as a status determined by nature that unfurls into sociopolitical roles. Sex is so fundamental in the developmental program and experience is secondary to that of development in forming the male brain and male nature, or to a female brain and female nature [33].
The general sex development theory at its core is biological determinism. It infers that social development derives from the biological essence. The narrative imposed on these development systems upholds the oppression based on biological systems. It also maintains that any variation and difference is abnormal or not socially acceptable.
Prior to the 1950s, the term gender was not used, and social roles, expressions, and others relations to sex came within the umbrella of the term “sex.” The assumption was that the development of biology would extend to the developing of matching social roles and expressions and so on of society. When held strictly to such ideas, it became biological essentialism in that the person’s biology dictated the person’s position and function in society. Enforcement of biological determinism has led to sex oppression over the years, which has been often centered through patriarchy. Biological determinism of race and sex which began in the seventeenth century was recognized as having large social repercussions, especially for women and people of sex diversity [38]. Feminists have long criticized biological determinism that subordinated women to the behavior and abilities of women uniquely determined by their biology [22].
Gender as a concept and understanding arose with the rise of plasticity of human being [24]. The psychological theory posited that human beings are malleable or there is a plasticity of human beings [24]. This was the idea that humans are malleable beings and not fixed and subordinated to biological traits such as race and sex. It has its roots in the work of Konrad Lorenz concept of imprinting into dominance and adopted by Dr. John Money in establishing gender to imprint intersex people into the male–female binary [23]. The biological morphology (outer (and sometimes inner)) body was malleable and alterable [25]. The intersex and transgender persons’ bodies were alterable to fit the assigned or re-assigned gender. Dr. Robert Stoller extended the concept of gender to suggest that once a gender was assigned at birth, biology virtually superfluous except to medical professionals and produced the raw material (linear development) upon which gender developed which became known as the sex/gender split [23, 25, 39, 40, 41, 42].
Gender indicated that irrespective of the diversity of biology, a person’s development began from the assignment of gender at birth along with any necessary alteration of biology to match that assignment. A person’s gender identity derives from an inner sense of self – the psychological self – that usually matches the assignment at birth [23, 39, 43]. That sense of self develops social cues around them into the masculine and feminine person they were assigned to be. Gender development enables a concentration on the development psychological phenomena such as thoughts, behavior, and personality [23, 39]. A person has the ability to take roles that are not based on their biology in society and therefore be equal to each other – that is equality of man and woman (at least in theory). Gender development is the way a person perceives, expresses, and experiences sex identity within social relations of a social-political environment through imposed expectations (such as getting married and having children), norms, qualities, and behaviors upon an individual which vary across history societies, cultures, and classes [11, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49]. Gender development is a complex process within the sociopolitical world. It is an integration of one’s “inner sense of being male or female” experienced within the sociopolitical expectations and is influenced by other’s view of themselves [50].
Gender development begins at the time of birth, though some cues are even learnt pre-birth. Late in the pre-birth process, the fetus recognizes cues of acceptability within society of what it means to be their gender [51, 52]. After birth and by the age of 5 years, a child recognizes their gender; however, the child also recognizes the what gender recognition is acceptable or needs to be concealed/suppressed within the social setting and expects them to be [53, 54]. Through the early years, the infant continues to pick up those cues around them. As the child develops, they encounter endless gender clues and hints in the real world including gender stereotypes, encouraging or discouraging words, expressions, or body language from others, and sex segregation of adult social roles [33]. These clues and hints are taken on board in the person’s gender development. Consciously or unconsciously, developing gender with its associated patterns of permitted freedoms is quickly understood including the boundaries of that gender [34].
From childhood onward, gender development is fortified through internal and external sense of their psychological self [13, 36]. Development includes socially appropriate cues of being male or female including the socially constructed roles, behavior, activities, and attributes [55]. Development is reinforced through carers, whether it is family or other members of society their own social interests in the child’s gender becoming are reinforced [56]. These considerations influence one’s inner sense of self as expectations about the characteristics men and women have, and as gender norms dictating double standards for how women and men should behave, influencing people’s interests, self-concept, performance, and beliefs about capabilities in gendered domains [33].
Moreover, as one matures, one continues to author gender as cued by relationships, society, and sociality [56]. This continues with the child as their status as sex determined, and gender authored. This becomes their sociopolitical status of life which is not escapable. It is central to and entangled within one’s social and legal life of recognition and relationality. At an early age, they pick up on cues about acceptable and non-acceptable relationships, even though they yet may not know their favored sexual relationships [53, 54]. As they turn to their teens, they begin to form relationships usually favoring culturally accepted values, such as heterosexual [53, 54]. The infant uses these ques. as a guide together with the gendered world around them in becoming their gender. These relationships primarily adhere to the sociopolitical way of life.
Gender introduced by Western feminists into the public sphere derived from and was based in the work of Dr. John Money and Dr. Robert Stoller. They accepted that through gender it was possible to socialize a person into an assigned sex stable sexed subject [23]. The focus of the theory was to normalize intersex and transgender people into the male female binary as they were creating ambiguity of the two-sex system. The sex/gender split introduced by Dr. Stoller was essential to feminist work. Removing biology as the root of the diversity enabling a capturing of these populations and normalizing them with the binary, oppositional system. Moreover, gender did not interfere with the broader institutional, patriarchal system, but only remove biology as an essence upon which it was built. This enabled women to be equal in social and psychological development as men. It was this idea that feminists adopted introducing gender into the public sphere [23, 39].
Western science has had an interesting relationship with biological diversity. As far back as the Greeks such as Aristotle and Plato, there was recognition of the diversity of being beyond male or female even though there was little acceptance of them as full human beings [12, 14]. Since the modern science period, there has been a large discovery of various diversities of sex and gender.
Sex development and diversity are not generally considered as possibility. When sex development ranged beyond the standard norm, they as considered as abnormal sex development. Though sex diversity was not fully accepted, especially in the West, under various names people we call intersex and transgender people today still existed.
Due to greater awareness of biological diversity and social unrest of norms including increasing awareness and recognition of gays and lesbians, and fear of communism, there was a need to protect the binary and diminish and erase diversity [23]. Gender was such an institution to remove sex and maintain the binary including its meaning and basis in society. Dr. John Money established gender it was to erase the possibility of intersex people and ensure they conform to being male or female to fit into society. He believed that in spite of the physiological characteristics, intersex children were malleable and could be assigned a gender – male or female – and raised accordingly [57]. Once assigned, there may be necessity to change the child’s body to match the assignment – completing what nature did not finish – and encourage child and parent bonding and development of gender [25].
Dr. Robert Stoller also worked with Money’s notion of gender in his work with transgender people. Transgender was earlier understood as a biological reality, but this was transformed by Stoller as an independent psychological phenomenon (p. 31) [23]. The development of gender identity as a psychological reality shifted sense of embodiment that transgender people once had (p. 99) [25]. Though transgender people may have desired transformative support of particular biological parts, they still would relate to the world through their body. The focus of gender changed that indicating that the relationship was through their psychological being.
Both for intersex and transgender people, they were seen as diseased and in need of a cure [11]. By fixing these groups, they could live successful lives in society. Such an implementation of social construction upon the bodies and lives of these groups was still rooted in biological determinism – the belief that there are only two human which are male or female.
Though gender was an attempt to overcome the problems of biological determinism, through using social constructionism, it is questionable to what extent it has done so. Gender and its development are underpinned by cultural determinism based in the male and female ideal (minus the control of biology). It has not freed society of the shackles of the binary understanding of the world as an immutable state and erased diversity. Though there is a use of the term gender diversity, it is in the sense of social constructionism and not including biological diversity such as intersex people exemplify nor does it provide for and enable embodiment.
The development of sex and gender indicated a linear process of development as either male or female. Any deviation was a developmental error. This has led to nonrecognition of people who are no longer recognized as a person without the help of medicine to rehabilitate them into the standardized norm as a male or female, even if it was the opposite to that assigned at birth (as with transgender people).
Narrativity of becoming is not just a different name but indicates a different way to understand a narrative of how a person becomes who they are. As mentioned earlier, it is organic interaction and interconnections of their embodied being within a social-cultural and environmental place. Embodiment moves beyond the body as a bodily form to a conception that through the body provides realms of agency, practice, custom, and so on [58]. It infers social relationality and connectedness – a sense of belonging. Embodiment indicates the agency and experience of the world through a person’s bodily form, mediated from physiology within and the cultural, social, political, and environmental world without [58]. Becoming throughout their life is inclusive of overlapping and intersecting multiplicities such as sex/gender, race, ethicality, class, (dis)ability, and so on. Becoming is a process of evolving, reinventing, or transforming nature. [62]. It is a mediation between stasis and change [28, 63] where nothing is resolved or in closure, yet often contradictory as it accommodates the emergence of new possibilities or transformations of the whole and the parts of one’s becoming [50, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66].
The very beginning of sex becoming is prenatal. As various physiological interactions begin, there are decisions made as to “pathways” of becoming of the future being. Each physiological part of a person is a the consequence of dozens of different genes and numerous pathways by which cells are assembled, differentiated, and assigned alternate functions in sex becoming [13]. Even chromosomes do not operate in isolation but require certain biochemicals called enzymes to makes the genes effective [11]. As Joan Roughgarden suggests as analogy, it is like a committee (chromosomes, hormones, enzymes, and other physiological members) that meets throughout becoming even at the early physiology stages before society and culture even have become part of the person’s becoming [11]. This analogy is important to indicate that diversity in biology and physiology is important in becoming but is not an automatic process but organic with multiple possibilities.
The processes continue from the time of birth. The only difference is that from the time of birth the social, cultural, and environmental members of the committee have more voice on the committee that they had pre-birth to continue the analogy further. Becoming continues through childhood, adolescence into adulthood. Even late into the later stages of life becoming, or even slowing of life, continues. Becoming is a recognition of the interconnectedness not only of the people around them but also the land from which they derive.
Sex becoming is the embodiment of being and belonging as male, female, both, or neither relating how they see themselves, and how they think others see them, in performing social roles, expressions, and functions through their biological body [51, 59, 60, 61]. Such a becoming enables people to connect with their spiritual and cultural ancestral beings and contribute to overall human potentiality and community sustenance and identity. Although sex becoming will always in and through social relations, the relations will not necessarily completely define us where reciprocity exists and there is respect for uniqueness of being.
Becoming is organic enables transformative possibilities. Though it recognizes biological and physiological importance, it is not as a controlling force as in biological determinism. Rather, it is in the sense of embodiment, that is through the body (whether it is in the form that one is born with or has been transformed due to medical necessity or gender-confirming need) with the social and environmental interconnectedness. What becomes clear is social constructionism does not provide the basis for embodiment and interconnectedness but leads back to a type of determinism.
The aim of this chapter was not to go through the various biological mechanisms involved in sex development. As mentioned near the beginning, there are numerous texts out there providing eloquent discussions of the various parts and their functions in the development process.
Rather, the chapter has aimed to focus on the narratives used in describing the development process. All facts are only understood when incorporated within a narrative. As noted in the chapter, all meaning is understood through narratives. Whether in early times, in the modern era, or the technological era, narratives are how humans understand the world. It is through these narratives that it is possible to indicate what something is worth and how it is valued. The narratives are also central to social organization and understanding how a person fits into the world around them and what functions they may have within society.
Sex and gender development narratives are bound within narratives that have been maintained over many years through religious and scientific dominions. The early understanding was through early form and the more direct biological determinism. Though it has largely been debunked regarding race, there is still a strong support for such ideas today regarding sex and sex development. Many of the texts do not use the words today but when read contextually still maintain such a theory.
The introduction of social constructionism, however, was aimed to curve the impact of sex determinism, or at least that is how some in the gender studies have argued. The idea of social constructionism is that biology should not and does not control destiny. Though there was oppression linked to biology as destiny, and hence the purpose for introducing social constructionism, at the same time it has led to the abandonment of embodiment. Furthermore, in particular for sex/gender development has been implemented as the same ideology as a binary, oppositional system of male and female only not based on biology determining future roles and functions of people. The result has been a cultural determinism and enforcement of a Western ideal of what is means to be male or female and the spreading of its particular narrative of sex/gender development.
The group or population that has suffered the most of both of these ideas has been those of sex/gender diversity. While under sex biological determinism has led to limited or no recognition and acceptance, under social constructionism it led to enforced transformation into assigned or reassigned genders which often also involved changing the morphology of the body to match their newly assigned genders. A greater impact for both intersex and transgender people was the loss of embodiment as the move to gender concentrated a person’s knowledge and sense of oneself was based in their psychology. Not only did it deny a relationship with the person’s body and being, but also it was an individualizing process separating people from community and connectedness. The effect of social constructionism, or even it could be argued cultural determinism, was a loss of ability to develop a diversity of being, for example as intersex or transgender, that was outside of the framing of maleness or femaleness.
Realizing development as a becoming enables a return to embodiment. It is a relation to the body (even if it be transformed from that at birth) and at the same time, a relatedness to the social and environmental world around them. Mover, becoming was organic, not linear nor immutable. It provided a means of agency yet still had bounds of social and cultural responsibility.
Understanding development as becoming recognized the complex organic being with multiple interconnected communicating with each other. From both internal and external directions, the physiological, social, psychological, and cultural multiplicities communicate and discuss at various stages of becoming of what possibilities there are and which direction to become. It is an ongoing process that continues through death where even some cultures would suggest that some of these multiplicities continue becoming in some way.
Becoming does not deny that there are external forces, yet at the same time recognizes that agency derives through the embodied being, and not simply a psychological sense of self. It is a means of acknowledging a cultural and spiritual connectedness of being along with its collective identity rather than the individualized and atomized notion of being. Becoming is a narrativity of the socialized sex through the embodied physiological being with the surrounding community and context depending world.
Understanding development through a different paradigm does not deny biological or physiological reality but does change the narrative of how life, society, and the surrounding environment connect and organize together. It provides a narrative of cohesiveness yet respect for difference and uniqueness, while individuals have duties to one another. As such, it provides a space of relationality rather the separateness and individuality that derives from sex/gender development.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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\n\nDisruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
\n\nIf this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
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The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. 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The main global health organizations have incorporated patient safety in their review of work practices. The data provided by the medical laboratories have a direct impact on patient safety and a fault in any of processes such as strategic, operational and support, could affect it. To provide appreciate and reliable data to the physicians, it is important to emphasize the need to design risk management plan in the laboratory. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an efficient technique for error detection and reduction. Technical Committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) licensed a technical specification for medical laboratories suggesting FMEA as a method for prospective risk analysis of high-risk processes. FMEA model helps to identify quality failures, their effects and risks with their reduction/elimination, which depends on severity, probability and detection. 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Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"30178",title:"Chest Mobilization Techniques for Improving Ventilation and Gas Exchange in Chronic Lung Disease",slug:"chest-mobilization-techniques-for-improving-ventilation-and-gas-exchange-in-chronic-lung-disease",totalDownloads:31193,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"648",slug:"chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-current-concepts-and-practice",title:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - Current Concepts and Practice"},signatures:"Donrawee Leelarungrayub",authors:[{id:"73709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirakrit",middleName:null,surname:"Leelarungrayub",slug:"jirakrit-leelarungrayub",fullName:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub"}]},{id:"46082",title:"Fecal Incontinence",slug:"fecal-incontinence",totalDownloads:3717,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3835",slug:"fecal-incontinence-causes-management-and-outcome",title:"Fecal Incontinence",fullTitle:"Fecal Incontinence - Causes, Management and Outcome"},signatures:"Arzu Ilce",authors:[{id:"30672",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzu",middleName:null,surname:"Ilce",slug:"arzu-ilce",fullName:"Arzu Ilce"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"16",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82399",title:"Geriatric Care in Africa",slug:"geriatric-care-in-africa",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105614",abstract:"There are an increasing number of people that are aging. This is also common in Africa. Therefore, they need specialist care from various categories of health care workers and other professionals on geriatric medicine and gerontology. There are few geriatricians in Africans. This is because there are few training centres in the continents. Also, most of the geriatricians are trained on the other side of the continent overseas.",book:{id:"11226",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Healthy Aging",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11226.jpg"},signatures:"Dabota Yvonne Buowari"},{id:"82376",title:"Mechanical Thrombectomy for Acute Pulmonary Ischemia",slug:"mechanical-thrombectomy-for-acute-pulmonary-ischemia",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102548",abstract:"Acute pulmonary embolism (PE) is a restrictive pulmonary vascular compromise with devastating complications depending on size and location. Massive and sub-massive classifications reflect hemodynamic compromise and cardiac dysfunction due to right ventricular strain, respectively. In addition to cardiac dysfunction, pulmonary ischemia and infarction play a key clinical factor. Mainstay management is with anticoagulation to prevent further clot propagation. Recent technological advances have revolutionized treatment modalities. Mechanical thrombectomy, catheter-based clot retrieval, is an effective way to eliminate emboli, restore cardiopulmonary function, and prevent ischemic injury. One such device, the FlowTriever System, has emerged as a way interventionalists can proceed with embolectomy and provide high level, life-saving care for acutely decompensated patients.",book:{id:"10712",title:"Thrombectomy - Recent Advances in Ischaemic Damage Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10712.jpg"},signatures:"Adam Raskin, Anil Verma and Kofi Ansah"},{id:"82402",title:"Diagnosis and Treatment of Venous Leg Ulcer",slug:"diagnosis-and-treatment-of-venous-leg-ulcer",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105676",abstract:"Venous leg ulcer (VLU) represent a pathological tissue change in the form of a defect in the lower leg which occurs as a complication of chronic venous insufficiency. The prevalence of VLUs varies between 1.5–3% in the total population and 4–5% in persons over the age of 80. Venous ulcer is usually localized on the inner side of the lower third of the leg, oval, circular or irregular in shape. It is usually fibrous or covered with fresh granules that bleed heavily to the touch. It is very important to have a comprehensive clinical examination at the very beginning. Subsequent non-invasive and sometimes invasive tests may be indicated for diagnosis and treatment planning. Inadequate diagnosis results in inadequate therapy. The goal of therapy is complete restitution of the tissue defect and prevention of recurrence. The three basic elements of VLUs therapy are: local therapy, compression therapy and surgical treatment. If VLUs do not heal despite the application of standard therapeutic modalities, there are opportunities to apply new treatment technologies. The modern approach to the treatment of VLUs is based on the application of various biophysical interventions and medical devices.",book:{id:"11723",title:"Wound Healing - Recent Advances and Future Opportunities",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11723.jpg"},signatures:"Karanikolic Vesna and Karanikolic Aleksandar"},{id:"82393",title:"Pathogenicity, Characterisation and Impact of Ambient Bio-Aerosols on the Climatic Processes: With a Special Emphasis on the Indian Subcontinent",slug:"pathogenicity-characterisation-and-impact-of-ambient-bio-aerosols-on-the-climatic-processes-with-a-s",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104750",abstract:"Airborne particulate matter contains biological entities from various anthropogenic/biogenic activities. Within 1 nm–100 μm size, these are carried to long distances through various external agents. Identified as potential pathogens, they bring forth substantial economic losses in many parts of the world. Despite these shortcomings, bio-aerosols play a vital role in cloud condensation, ice nucleation, precipitation and various atmospheric processes affecting the hydrological cycle in general. Furthermore, bio-aerosols play a decisive role in the dispersal of reproductive plant parts and fungal spores, which play important roles in the evolution and sustenance of ecosystems. However, there remains substantial knowledge on air micro-biome with respect to their occurrence, transformation, role in climate change, interaction and impact on living organisms, agriculture and ecosystem. The current COVID-19 pandemic is a wakeup call for retrospective analysis of airborne particles to reduce their emission, transmission and health risk hazards while understanding their impact on various atmospheric processes. This chapter identifies the various types of bio-aerosols and systematically includes their prime role in the climatic processes, pathogenicity to the exposed flora and fauna along with an exclusive interrogation into their types and characterisation over the Indian subcontinent with a hugely diverging population and pollution panorama.",book:{id:"11231",title:"Air Quality and Health",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11231.jpg"},signatures:"Minati Behera, Jyotishree Nath, Sony Pandey, Ramasamy Boopathy and Trupti Das"},{id:"82384",title:"Phytochemicals from Solanaceae Family and Their Anticancer Properties",slug:"phytochemicals-from-solanaceae-family-and-their-anticancer-properties",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104462",abstract:"Cancer is one of the most dreadful disease conditions all over the world. With the side effects and cost of conventional treatment, there is a demand for new therapies to prevent cancer. Research studies proved many plant products possess anticancer properties. Currently, a few plant-based drugs are used to treat it. The phytochemicals are investigated by in vitro and in vivo to assess their mechanism of action against cancer. This chapter is an overview of anticancer compounds extracted from plants of Solanaceae family with the potentials results. Many research has confirmed the anticancer efficiency of the biomolecules, such as solanine, solamargine, tomatidine, Withanolides, scopoletin, capsaicin found in Solanaceae, and their mode of action, such as cell cycle arrest, inhibiting signaling pathways, autophagy, suppression of enzymes in various human cancer cell lines of breast, pancreas, colorectal, liver, and cervical and also in animal models. This chapter seeks to provide an outline of key examples of anticancer activity of phytochemicals from the Solanaceae family, which offers a track for the development of novel medicines for cancer treatment as a single drug or in combinational drug. 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In addition, given the lack of an effective vaccine against ZIRK, the possibility of using as a therapeutic strategy the reduction of inflammatory processes that are established as a result of viral infection through the use of bioactive phytonutrients was analyzed.",book:{id:"11702",title:"Eye Diseases - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Therapeutic Options",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11702.jpg"},signatures:"Ilaria Piano, Francesca Corsi and Claudia Gargini"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:715},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9753",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",subtitle:"Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9753.jpg",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids-recent-advances",publishedDate:"July 28th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shagufta Perveen and Areej Mohammad Al-Taweel",hash:"575689df13c78bf0e6c1be40804cd010",volumeInSeries:21,fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids - Recent Advances",editors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:12}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:228,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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