UV inactivation doses measured at 253.7 nm for various microbial groups [9].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5539",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Forest Ecology and Conservation",title:"Forest Ecology and Conservation",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This book is dedicated to forest ecology and conservation on ecological and conservation aspects of forest. The book is divided into two sections: the first section "Forest Ecology" with four chapters deals with forest ecological aspects, while the second section "Forest Conservation" with two chapters looks into new techniques for conserving the forests. This book will bridge the gaps in the knowledge about some new emerging issues on forest ecology and conservation. It will be an interesting and helpful resource to all those in the field of forestry working for its sustainable use and conservation.',isbn:"978-953-51-3090-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3089-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4869-2",doi:"10.5772/63322",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"forest-ecology-and-conservation",numberOfPages:160,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"6bd160f6d1da73fc253dfe6c4df7c095",bookSignature:"Sumit Chakravarty and Gopal Shukla",publishedDate:"April 19th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5539.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9228,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:20,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:39,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 14th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 4th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 31st 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 29th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 30th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"101105",title:"Dr.",name:"Gopal",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"gopal-shukla",fullName:"Gopal Shukla",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101105/images/system/101105.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gopal Shukla, Ph.D., is currently an assistant professor of Forestry in Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India. He holds an MSc and Ph.D. in Forestry from Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya. Before joining the university, he worked under NAIP (National Agricultural Innovation Project), NICRA ( National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture), and SERB (Science and Engineering Research Board) projects. The focus of his research and development work is forest ecology and conservation.",institutionString:"North Bengal Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"North Bengal Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"94999",title:"Dr.",name:"Sumit",middleName:null,surname:"Chakravarty",slug:"sumit-chakravarty",fullName:"Sumit Chakravarty",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94999/images/system/94999.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sumit Chakravarty, Ph.D., has wide experience in forestry training, research, and development. He is currently a professor at Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India. He holds an MSc in Forestry and a Ph.D. in Agronomy from Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. He has conducted research on several aspects of forestry, agroforestry, medicinal plants, and climate change. He has trained many students in these fields. The focus of his research and development work is on forest ecology and conservation.",institutionString:"North Bengal Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"North Bengal Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"875",title:"Ecosystem",slug:"environmental-sciences-forestry-science-ecosystem"}],chapters:[{id:"54384",title:"Multi-Species Stand Classification: Definition and Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/67662",slug:"multi-species-stand-classification-definition-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1673,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The increasing demands for products and services from forests enhanced new approaches to stand composition, structure, and management, which encompass multiple use systems, frequently mixed either even aged or uneven aged. Stand classification is frequently based on one density measure (number of trees, basal area, volume or crown cover). As no standard criteria exist, the direct comparison between the different stand classifications is difficult. This created a need for a stand classification that incorporates not only the forest species and composition but also their horizontal and vertical arrangements. The four criteria stand classification incorporates the number of species and their proportion, their horizontal and vertical distribution. The application of this methodology enables an integrated approach, bridging the gap between composition and stand structure. Its use in the National Forest Inventories and in research studies is simple, as shown in the two cases of study presented. It also allows the evaluation of stands in a certain moment in time and their dynamics.",signatures:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54384",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54384",authors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}],corrections:null},{id:"54327",title:"Effects of Experimental Sowing on Agroforestry Ecosystem Primary Production during Recovery from Agricultural Abandonment in a Semi-Arid Region of Central Western Spain",doi:"10.5772/67665",slug:"effects-of-experimental-sowing-on-agroforestry-ecosystem-primary-production-during-recovery-from-agr",totalDownloads:1346,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We present a study of plant species diversity manipulation on abandoned arable fields and show that most diversity effects can be explained by a successional shift from annuals to perennial plant species. We tested the hypothesis that plant mixtures consisted of mid-successional plant species that were expected to occur on the site following secondary succession, and an increase in the initial plant species diversity at the beginning of secondary succession improves the amount of biomass produced. The main aim was to compare the aboveground biomass for the whole plant community and for different functional groups, using 7 years of field data at abandoned arable land in a semi-arid region of Central Western Spain. Significant differences were established for the treatment-year interaction, analysing the perennial-annual species ratio (P:A) in the HD and LD of sowing treatments. The differences were established at the start of the experiment, when the sown species were more effective in the HD-sowing treatment. There was a negative relationship among the productivity and mean richness of the natural colonization (NC) and the analysed sowing treatments (HD and LD). The coefficient of determination of this relationship was significant (R2 = 0.307, F(1, 13) = 5.75, P = 0. 032).",signatures:"Jimmy-Edgar Alvarez-Diaz, María del Carmen Santa-Regina and\nIgnacio Santa-Regina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54327",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54327",authors:[{id:"194429",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignacio",surname:"Santa-Regina",slug:"ignacio-santa-regina",fullName:"Ignacio Santa-Regina"},{id:"195723",title:"Dr.",name:"Jimmy-Edgard",surname:"Alvarez-Díaz",slug:"jimmy-edgard-alvarez-diaz",fullName:"Jimmy-Edgard Alvarez-Díaz"},{id:"195724",title:"Prof.",name:"María Del Carmen",surname:"Santa-Regina",slug:"maria-del-carmen-santa-regina",fullName:"María Del Carmen Santa-Regina"}],corrections:null},{id:"54603",title:"Methodological Considerations in the Study of Earthworms in Forest Ecosystems",doi:"10.5772/67769",slug:"methodological-considerations-in-the-study-of-earthworms-in-forest-ecosystems",totalDownloads:1825,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Decades of studies have shown that soil macrofauna, especially earthworms, play dominant engineering roles in soils, affecting physical, chemical, and biological components of ecosystems. Quantifying these effects would allow crucial improvement in biogeochemical budgets and modeling, predicting response of land use and disturbance, and could be applied to bioremediation efforts. Effective methods of manipulating earthworm communities in the field are needed to accompany laboratory microcosm studies to calculate their net function in natural systems and to isolate specific mechanisms. This chapter reviews laboratory and field methods for enumerating and manipulating earthworm populations, as well as approaches toward quantifying their influences on soil processes and biogeochemical cycling.",signatures:"Dylan Rhea-Fournier and Grizelle González",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54603",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54603",authors:[{id:"82355",title:"Dr.",name:"Grizelle",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"grizelle-gonzalez",fullName:"Grizelle Gonzalez"},{id:"194800",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Dylan",surname:"Rhea-Fournier",slug:"dylan-rhea-fournier",fullName:"Dylan Rhea-Fournier"}],corrections:null},{id:"54402",title:"Characterizing Predictability of Fire Occurrence in Tropical Forests and Grasslands: The Case of Puerto Rico",doi:"10.5772/67667",slug:"characterizing-predictability-of-fire-occurrence-in-tropical-forests-and-grasslands-the-case-of-puer",totalDownloads:1399,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Global estimates of fire frequency indicate that over 70% of active fires occur in the tropics, and the size and frequency of fires are increasing every year. The majority of fires in the tropics are an unintended consequence of current land-use practices that promotes the establishment of grass and shrubland communities, which are more flammable and more adapted to fire than forests. In the Caribbean, wildland fires occur mainly in dry forests and in grasslands and crop lands. Climate change projections for the Caribbean indicate increasing area of drylands and subsequent increasing potential for wildland fire. We assessed the last decade of fire occurrence records for Puerto Rico to quantify the relative importance of time, climate, land cover, and population to inform predictive models of fire occurrence for projecting future scenarios of fire risk. Kruskal-Wallis, generalized linear models, robust regression, simple and multiple regressions, and tree models were used. We found that hour of the day (time), mean minimum temperature (climate), and percent forest cover (land cover) significantly influenced fire occurrence, while population showed a weak effect. Many variable interactions showed to be important. These significant variables and interactions should be considered in fire-predicting models for the island.",signatures:"Ana Carolina Monmany, William A. Gould, María José Andrade-\nNúñez, Grizelle González and Maya Quiñones",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54402",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54402",authors:[{id:"82355",title:"Dr.",name:"Grizelle",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"grizelle-gonzalez",fullName:"Grizelle Gonzalez"},{id:"81164",title:"Dr.",name:"William",surname:"Gould",slug:"william-gould",fullName:"William Gould"},{id:"200068",title:"Dr.",name:"A. Carolina",surname:"Monmany",slug:"a.-carolina-monmany",fullName:"A. Carolina Monmany"},{id:"200069",title:"MSc.",name:"María José",surname:"Andrade-Núñez",slug:"maria-jose-andrade-nunez",fullName:"María José Andrade-Núñez"},{id:"200070",title:"MSc.",name:"Maya",surname:"Quiñones",slug:"maya-quinones",fullName:"Maya Quiñones"}],corrections:null},{id:"54299",title:"Remote Sensing and Forest Conservation: Challenges of Illegal Logging in Kursumlija Municipality (Serbia)",doi:"10.5772/67666",slug:"remote-sensing-and-forest-conservation-challenges-of-illegal-logging-in-kursumlija-municipality-serb",totalDownloads:1627,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Evidence convincingly shows that illegal and corrupt activities are the major underlying cause of deforestation—illegal logging contributes up to 30% of the global market, in excess of US $20 billion a year. Since so much deforestation is a result of illegal logging, we cannot rely on official production statistics to capture deforestation. Given the importance and complexity of forest preservation, an attempt was made to evaluate the possible use of a normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) in local forest management and prevention of illegal logging and corruption. We used the example of southern Serbian municipality Kursumlija that in the 2006–2011 periods experienced a 10% loss in forest area, as the obvious result of abrupt illegal logging. This process was very easy to locate and quantify (because illegal logging produced large canopy gaps that extend from the border of Kosovo to approximately 3–4 km into the Kursumlija's territory). In short, NDVI is very promising for countries like Serbia (that rarely perform forest inventories): It is relatively cheap and quick, and it can provide forest managers with essential information; it is easy to implement; the objectivity of these methods can significantly help in avoiding corruption and illegal logging.",signatures:"Miomir M. Jovanović and Miško M. Milanović",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54299",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54299",authors:[{id:"194569",title:"Prof.",name:"Miomir",surname:"Jovanović",slug:"miomir-jovanovic",fullName:"Miomir Jovanović"},{id:"201206",title:"Dr.",name:"Miško",surname:"Milanović",slug:"misko-milanovic",fullName:"Miško Milanović"}],corrections:null},{id:"54539",title:"From Paper to Carbon Money: Financing Forest Conservation and Offset",doi:"10.5772/67664",slug:"from-paper-to-carbon-money-financing-forest-conservation-and-offset",totalDownloads:1358,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As a result of the 21st Conference of the Parties (CoP-21) in 2015, the Paris Agreement formally recognised the importance of finance and forests to tackle climate change. However, Article 9 of the convention calls for the leadership of developed countries in mobilising climate finance, while encouraging other parties to provide financial support voluntarily. This is rather an unstable mechanism, since it is strongly affected by political and economic hardships. Forest finance could be established instead that, just like capital markets, might allow for countries to choose between interest-bearing bonds from forest conservation (natural forests) and/or offset (forest plantations). Bonds demand comes out of carbon savings from forest conservation or offsetting forests, whereas bonds supply arises from investments giving off carbon emissions that must be avoided through forest conservation or offset through forest plantations. A Loanable-Forest Funds (LFF) model is developed which shows that forest conservation scenarios require lower rates of interest on forest bonds than forest offsetting ones. Then, unlike the Kyoto Protocol, which emphasises forest offset (forestry-CDM), the formal inclusion of forest conservation (REDD+) in the Paris Agreement might lower the real rates of return to long-term forest investments.",signatures:"Valny Giacomelli Sobrinho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54539",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54539",authors:[{id:"61468",title:"Dr.",name:"Valny",surname:"Giacomelli Sobrinho",slug:"valny-giacomelli-sobrinho",fullName:"Valny Giacomelli Sobrinho"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6264",title:"Forest Biomass and Carbon",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"964f96c9209ff2a3eaf3c5c6a54d81c3",slug:"forest-biomass-and-carbon",bookSignature:"Gopal Shukla and Sumit Chakravarty",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6264.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101105",title:"Dr.",name:"Gopal",surname:"Shukla",slug:"gopal-shukla",fullName:"Gopal Shukla"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9841",title:"Agroforestry",subtitle:"Small Landholder’s Tool for Climate Change Resiliency and Mitigation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec5444e2a12dcd63ab9e7246d93a63ab",slug:"agroforestry-small-landholder-s-tool-for-climate-change-resiliency-and-mitigation",bookSignature:"Gopal Shukla, Sumit Chakravarty, Pankaj Panwar and Jahangeer A. 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The interplay between the endoplasmic reticulum membrane and the outer mitochondrial membrane, called mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membranes (MAMs), permits a wide range of cellular activity, including the division and fusion of mitochondria and the dynamic passage of lipids, glycogen, and calcium ions.
\r\n\tIt has been established that energy/nutrient depletion, calcium flux injury, or oxidative stress disrupt endoplasmic reticulum homeostasis and even induce accumulation of misfolded/unfolded proteins leading to endoplasmic reticulum stress. Under endoplasmic reticulum stress conditions, an adaptive mechanism of coordinated signaling pathways, defined unfolded protein response (UPR), is activated to return the endoplasmic reticulum to its healthy functioning state. The aging causes a decrease of the protective adaptive response of the UPR and an increase of the pro-apoptotic pathway together with endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructural injury. Controlling endoplasmic reticulum stress response, maintaining the appropriate endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructure and homeostasis, and retaining mitochondria interplay are crucial aspects for cellular health.
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She is currently engaged as a researcher for the Scientific-Disciplinary Sector BIO/16 Human Anatomy at the Anatomy and Pathophysiology Division, Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia (Italy).\r\nDr. Favero focuses on aging-related morphological dysfunctions as the prelude to various pathophysiological processes in her research programs. The central hypothesis is that natural antioxidants and, in particular, melatonin may act as molecular "switches" that modulate cells and tissues by suppressing, at various levels, oxidative stress and inflammatory signalling cascades. These research approaches represent powerful tools for developing innovative preventive strategies and identifying novel prognostic biomarkers for several diseases. 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Therefore, producing safe dairy products are more challenging compared to producing many other foods.
Thermal processing is the most common decontamination method to ensure food safety and to prolong shelf life by eliminating the spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms and enzymes. In recent years, use of non-thermal technologies is increasing as an alternative to the thermal processing in food industry. Ultraviolet (UV) light, which is a non-thermal technology, has recently attracted a lot attention to improvement of food safety. Compared to thermal processing, this promising technology can provide consumers with minimally processed, microbiologically safe and fresh-like products with minor effects on the nutritional and sensory properties of the product. On the other hand, this technology must not replace hygiene, good manufacturing or agricultural practice.
UV light application can also be introduced as an alternative to the use of chemicals in food industry. Besides, the use of UV light does not generate chemical residues. Additionally, it offers some technological advantages especially in developing countries in a small-scale production due to its low maintenance cost, low installation cost and low operational cost with minimal energy use. The operation and cleaning of the treatment is quite easy. In spite of its many advantages, its low penetration power restricts the area of use in food industry. Furthermore, its inactivation efficiency may be reduced or prevented because of physical features of food. At high doses, it can create negative effects on quality and some vitamins. In order to obtain effective results, applications should be made considering these situations.
UV irradiation of milk was first used in the mid-1900s for the purpose of vitamin D enrichment [1]. Efficacy of UV light treatment has been studied in recent years and more and more research has also been carried out to evaluate the potential applications of UV light as a non-thermal alternative to thermal processing of milk. On the other hand, due to the confirmed success and convenience of thermal processing, potential processing alternatives for milk are still limited. The use of UV light must not only be considered for microbial inactivation but also for the development of novel dairy products. The UV-treated pasteurized cow’s milk was authorized as a novel food in market by European Commission. It is reported that the treatment of the pasteurized milk with UV radiation results in an increase in the vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) concentrations by conversion of 7-dehydrocholesterol to vitamin D3 [2].
Contamination of dairy products with microorganisms may occur at several stages of production, originating from a variety of sources during production. Although heat treatment is applied for inactivation of foodborne pathogens, dairy products especially cheese can be contaminated with undesirable microorganisms. After pasteurization process, handling of the curd, equipment, processing lines, packaging or storage rooms can result in cross-contamination with a variety of microorganisms. Even if good manufacturing practices are applied, surface applications of antimicrobial agents before packaging are commonly used to prevent spoilage and extend storage life for some dairy products. Instead of chemical preservatives, additional solution is needed to control the growth of microorganisms just before or after packaging of dairy products. Surface application of UV light after production can offer an attractive alternative method to eliminate or control the growth of post-processing contamination. Other promising uses of UV light are the disinfection of air and water used in dairy plant, and surface decontamination of food contact surfaces and packaging materials.
A lot of research is mainly focused on the application of UV light to reduce microorganisms in milk, and relatively little research focuses on the decontamination of the surfaces of solid dairy products. There is lack of information about the relation of quality and safety of dairy products. Thus, the application of UV light for various dairy products needs to be investigated in terms of both quality and safety in order to increase the use and reliability of UV light in industry. There is also need for research on various applications of UV light on dairy plant.
In this chapter, UV technology is explained in terms of its principles, inactivation mechanisms, and available UV light sources and reactors are reviewed. Then, the effects of UV light on the inactivation of microorganisms and changes in the chemical and nutritional aspects of various dairy products are discussed.
UV light includes the wavelengths from 100 to 400 nm on the electromagnetic spectrum. UV light can be subdivided into four regions according to their wavelength: UV-A (315–400 nm), UV-B (280–315 nm), UV-C (200–280 nm) and vacuum UV (100–200 nm). UV-C light has the most effective germicidal effect on microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi and algae [3, 4]. UV-C radiation in the range of 250–260 nm has the highest germicidal effect and ultraviolet energy at a wavelength of 253.7 nm shows the maximum effect, at which the absorption of DNA is stronger [3].
In principle, the photochemical reactions of biomolecules of microorganism primarily result in germicidal effect leading to inhibition of microbial growth or to inactivation of the cell. Germicidal effect of UV light on microorganisms occurs because of cross-linking between the bases of adjacent pyrimidine dimers in the same DNA strand [5]. This situation leads to inhibition of transcription and replication of nucleic acids, which is called clonogenic death [6, 7]. In some conditions, the metabolism can repair the DNA damage by photoreactivation or darkreactivation depending on the microorganism. Nevertheless, at high UV doses, the repair cannot be possible because of the wider damage [8].
The UV light efficacy depends on several factors related to UV equipment, UV sources, operating and measuring conditions, target microorganisms and material or food to be exposed in food industry, which are summarized as:
UV light source and UV dose
UV sensitivity of microorganisms
The composition of target
Physical properties of target (turbidity, opaque, color, etc.)
Surface properties of target (roughness, dirt, etc.)
The germicidal effects of UV radiation primarily depend on the UV dose (J/m2) which refers to the UV irradiance or UV intensity flux and is defined as the function of the intensity and time of exposure. The UV intensity (W/m2) is the total radiation from the specified area. In most cases, as the exposure time and intensity of UV light increase and the distance from light source to target decreases, inhibition rate of cells increases. In addition, whether the sample is located directly under lamp or not affects the inhibition ratio of microorganisms for a group of samples.
The UV light sensitivity of the target microorganism is an important parameter for the selection of the UV light dose. Microorganisms have different structures due to their many characteristics. The necessary energy can vary for a certain species of microorganism according to strain, growth medium and stage of the culture. Therefore, different doses are needed for inactivation of various microorganisms. UV doses as D values required for reducing populations of various microbial groups are reported by Koutchma [9] in Table 1. Besides the sensitivity of microorganism its contamination level also affects the decontamination degree. In fact, in our research on decontamination of mold on the yoghurt surface, the population of mold affected the decontamination level of mold. This can be attributed to overlapping of microorganisms which prevents UV light from reaching the population at the lower layer.
Microbial group | |
---|---|
Enteral bacteria | 2–8 |
Cocci and micrococci | 1.5–20 |
Spore formers | 4–30 |
Enteric viruses | 5–30 |
Yeast | 2.3–8 |
Fungi | 30–300 |
Protozoa | 60–120 |
Algae | 300–600 |
UV inactivation doses measured at 253.7 nm for various microbial groups [9].
The D value is a measure of the resistance of a microorganism. It is given as the dose needed for an exponential decay of the target microorganism.
In dairy industry, one of the most important problems for dairy industry is biofilm formation which occurs with colonization of microorganisms on the surface. These biofilms block the light transmission, act as a protective barrier for microorganisms against the light and reduce the efficacy of UV treatment [10, 11].
Physical, compositional and surface properties such as thickness, viscosity, density, optical properties, color differences, dirtiness, roughness etc. can change the process efficiency. UV light has a restricted penetrability. Transparent fluids such as water are effectively disinfected by UV light, whereas opaque fluids such as milk are affected less due to poor penetration depth of light, and microorganisms cannot be affected directly [11, 12]. The composition of target is also important for the efficacy of UV light. Dissolved solids, suspended particles, organic solutes, macromolecules especially proteins and fat globules in food have shadowing effect on target microorganisms and limit the penetration and efficacy of light [11, 12, 13] Treatment efficacy also depends on the characteristics of surface exposed to light and application to smooth surfaces is more effective than rough surfaces. The dirtiness and roughness can cause to form shadows and prevents direct access of light to the microorganism. Viscosity and density determine the effectiveness of the transfer and flow model of the liquid in the system, while optical properties affect the UV light transmittance [9]. Light transmission of food and packaging material in UV application to the surface of unpacked and packaged food is a critical factor for decontamination. Higher absorbsion of light is obtained in dark foods, causing decrease of available energy for microbial inactivation [11].
Choosing the right UV source can increase the efficiency of microbial inactivation by increasing UV light penetration. The first and natural source of UV light is the Sun. The Sun emits radiation across a wide range of wavelengths. Other UV light sources are lamps. Many alternative UV light sources have been developed, such as low pressure mercury (LPM), medium pressure mercury (MPM), low pressure high output mercury lamp-amalgam type, mercury free amalgam lamps, pulsed-light (PL) and excimer lamps. LPM lamps are commonly used in food applications [14].
Mercury lamps have been the sources of radiation in most UV-based disinfection systems. The low and medium pressure mercury UV lamp sources are reliable sources for disinfection applications which are beneficial for their performance, and low cost. They are based on the vapor pressure of mercury while the lamps are operating. LPM lamps are designed to deliver a continuous monochromatic light at 254 nm. MPM lamps emit germicidal polychromatic light between 200 and 300 nm [9]. A breakthrough for economic UVC generation is the discovery of low pressure amalgam lamps [15]. This technology has recently been developed and incorporated into disinfection applications. The mercury emissions from lamps to the environment have encouraged the investigation of mercury-free lamps [9]. Xenon lamps are used in the Pulsed light UV technology. These lamps emit flashes in a short period of time. They have a broad spectrum of radiation between 180 and 1100 nm. Another UV light source is excimer lamps, which can emit pulsed light at 248 nm. It is possible to emit light in desired wavelength by using various gases such as He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe in the excimer lamps. The excimer lamps can be operated even at very low surface temperatures [7].
UV light applications are carried out with different equipment for solids or liquids: UV reactor designs for liquids according to flow types and UV cabinet designs for solids. It is necessary to increase the absorbed energy to the maximum level by developing the design of UV light device with appropriate lamp and size in order to achieve the desired effect.
Reactors are devices used for UV light application to liquids. UV reactor contains UV lamps inside. Each UV lamp is in a separate protective quartz tube to prevent the direct contact with liquid. The liquid flowing through the UV reactor is exposed to UV rays emitted from lamps. Thus, the microorganisms in the liquid become ineffective. In the selection of UV reactors, the physical, chemical and microbiological properties of the liquid to be disinfected and the amount of the liquid passing through are the most important parameters. In this context, the UV light dose should be determined according to the nature of the fluid and the target microorganism. In addition, to increase the efficiency of disinfection, parameters such as sediment and turbidity in liquid should be removed with sensitive filters.
The flow pattern of liquid in the UV reactor has also significant effect on total UV dose due to the differences in the position and residence times of the microorganisms in certain regions of the irradiated field [9]. The inactivation of microorganisms increases using turbulent flow in continuous flow UV reactors [16, 17].
The first reactor design is a thin film UV reactor. Thin-film reactors are characterized by laminar flow with a parabolic velocity profile [16]. Another reactor having laminar flow is laminar Taylor-Couette UV reactor. In both reactors, the two cylinders in the system are intertwined. While the system is running, the gap between the cylinders is filled with liquid product. In the thin film reactor, the UV lamps are placed in the inner cylinder, whereas in laminar Taylor-Couette UV reactor the lamps are placed on the outer cylinder and the inner cylinder turns around by creating whirlpools [18, 19]. The second design approach is turbulent flow reactors. They increase the turbulence within the reactor in order to make the liquid close to UV light source. In another approach, the UV reactor called Dean flow reactor includes a coiled Teflon tube with UV lamps and reflectors placed both inside and outside the tube, which are used to promote additional turbulence and to create a secondary swirling flow, also known as “Dean effect” [9].
UV cabinets are devices developed for UV light applications on the surface of solids. The number and position of lamps in the UV cabinet are the most critical factors for the disinfection of entire food surfaces. The UV processing units for solid food was well schematized by Manzocco and Nicoli [11]. If one side of the solid food is exposed to UV light, the food is placed on a support. For the exposure to the top and bottom sides, the food can be placed on a film or turned upside down during treatment. If all the surfaces of the solid food are exposed to the UV light at the same time, it is needed to increase the number of lamps and place the food on a film. For example, in dairy industry, only upper surface of the yoghurt in package is enough to be treated by UV light while all surfaces are exposed for many cheeses. If there is no food support, the product flows near the lamps coated with waterproof quartz tubes in a vessel containing water.
It is also possible to design a tunnel with a dynamic system moving with the food. In this type of cabinet system or tunnel, the food material is conveyed through UV tunnel and taken from the other end. The width and height of the tunnel are designed according to expectations of user. UV application time is adjusted by conveyor speed. Such tunnels provide convenience for industrial use. They are added to the desired point of production line and their use in the system is practical.
Pulsed UV light is a modified and improved version of the UV-C light. Pulsed UV light is an application using devices containing ultraviolet lamps that emit ultraviolet light at high power at regular intervals. It is applied in a very short time (1 μs–0.1 s) in the range of 200–1100 nm [7]. In this technology, combined effect of photochemical, photothermal and photophysical conditions occurs and microorganisms become ineffective [20].
Clean and fresh air is necessary for food processing area. UV technology can be used for preventing the spread of airborne diseases by inhibition of airborne pathogenic microorganisms in the field of production, packaging, cooling, storage and ripening. For this purpose, low pressure mercury vapor lamps are successfully used as UV light sources. The efficiency of this process depends on the volume of the area and the power of the UV lamp.
UV-C light has been used to disinfect water for several years and has become a successful process that eliminates several types of microorganisms. UV-C technology is a good alternative to chlorine disinfection. In dairy industry, it is possible to use the UV systems for the disinfection of drinking water, process water, waste water and brine.
In food industry, the use of UV light for decontamination of packaging material is becoming widespread. The number of microorganisms on the surfaces of packaging materials such as boxes, cartons, foils, films, wrappings, containers, bottles, caps, closures and lids can be reduced or eliminated by applying the appropriate UV light doses. The packages can be treated with UV light before filling or closing the lid or the packaged food can be exposed to UV-C light. The effectiveness of UV treatment is better on smooth surfaces. On the other hand, the UV light cannot reach every spot because of shadowing on irregular surfaces.
Plastic materials such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinylchloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE) are increasingly being used as packaging materials for dairy products. These materials have many advantages such as availability, low cost, transparency, thermal adhesiveness and being a good barrier against oxygen, carbon dioxide, anhydrite and aromatic compounds [21]. Due to different constructions, thicknesses and various properties of these packages, their UV-C permeability is different. When the packaged food is UV treated, this permeability becomes more important. The UV permeability of PP/PP (50 μm), bone guard bags (BG) (25 μm), polyamide/polyethylene (PA/PP) (40 μm) and oriented polypropylene (OPP) (40 μm) were reported as 64, 67, 8 and 83%, respectively, by Manzocco and Nicoli [11]. However, there was no UV-C permeability of OPP/PE, PET/PE, Polyester and oriented polypropylene/cast polypropylene (OPP/CPP).
The cross-contamination of microorganisms from equipment to the products is an important issue in dairy technology. UV light can be used to provide disinfection of surfaces of conveyor and other equipment used in preparation, production and, storage areas. For an effective inhibition, microorganisms must be exposed to UV light directly. There should be no obstruction between the UV source and the surface to be sterilized. The success of this application also depends on the cleanliness of the material surfaces because dirt would absorb the radiation and hence protect the bacteria. Therefore, it is possible to say that UV light must be applied after cleaning processes of the dairy equipment.
Raw milk from healthy cows contains relatively few bacteria, but can be contaminated easily during handling and/or storage from a variety of sources (persons, containers, machines, pipelines etc.). Milk is also suitable for the growth of many pathogenic microorganisms carrying potential risk of transferring diseases from animals to humans. The storage conditions of milk before further processing influence the microbial population. To limit the bacterial population in the raw milk, applying effective cooling and good hygiene practices are essential. Heat application is traditionally used to kill the pathogenic bacteria and reduce the others, and extend the shelf life of milk. The success and convenience of heat treatment is proved for milk. Thus, the alternative technologies to heat treatment cannot be integrated into dairy industry easily despite studies in this field.
In literature, the results of the application of UV light technology as an alternative to thermal processing are contradictory. Some authors reported that UV light can be used effectively for the reduction of certain bacterial pathogens in milk. Cilliers et al. [22] showed the similar level of microbial efficacy obtained in milk processed with pasteurization (high temperature short time), UV light and their combination. Similarly, Crook et al. [23] investigated the effect of UV-C light on the inactivation of seven milkborne pathogens such as
UV light efficacy on the reduction of total number of microorganisms is also proved in different studies [29, 30, 31]. Reinemann et al. [29] reported that UV treatment to raw cow’s milk achieved more than 3 log reduction in total numbers of bacteria. The highest reduction was found for coliform bacteria followed by pyschrotrophs, thermodurics and spore formers. Microbial counts of UV treated milk (continuous turbulent flow system, 880 and 1760 J/L doses) were lower compared to those of control milk [30]. UV-C treatment of raw cow milk was capable of reducing total viable count by 2.3 log [31]. UV light treatment in milk can be used as a method to reduce the number of psychrotrophic bacteria to prolong the storage period of cooled raw milk [9, 22, 26, 32]. In contrast, Altic et al. [33] and Donaghy et al. [34] concluded that the UV light technology cannot be an alternative to current pasteurization process for milk. The authors found less than 1 log reduction in
UV radiation may be used for an alternative to pasteurization of cheese whey, valuable liquid dairy product, if the lamp fouling problem is solved [35]. In their study, for destruction of microbial population of 5.95 × 106 cells/ml in cheese whey, more than 3.3, 2.1 and 0.8 h residence times were needed in the first, second and third UV reactors, respectively. However, fouling was seen as a major problem when the temperature of cheese whey increased. As a solution to the fouling problem, coil reactor series were recommended instead of conventional reactor by Singh and Ghaly [36].
Table 2 summarizes the microbial inactivation and technical characteristics of UV light system used for milk that were reported in the studies cited above.
Type of UV reactor | UV treatment | Test microorganisms | Results/achieved inactivation | Studies | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bovine milk-full cream | Surepure40 turbulent flow commercial system | Aerobic plate count Coliform bacteria Aerobic mesophilic spores Anaerobic mesophilic spores Aerobic thermophilic spores Anaerobic thermophilic spores | Similar level of microbial efficacy with high temperature short time heat treatment | [22] | |
Milk | Thin-film turbulent flow-through pilot system | Potential as a non-thermal method to reduce microorganisms | [23] | ||
Goat milk | CiderSure 3500 apparatus | Suggested for the reduction of | [24] | ||
Bovine milk | Custom-made | Mesophilic aerobics Coliform bacteria Yeasts/Molds | A major effect on total coliforms, | [25] | |
Raw milk | Pulsed light sterilization system | A potential method for inactivation of | [26] | ||
Full fat raw milk and skimmed milk | Coiled tube | Higher resistance of Higher inactivation efficiencies of both bacteria in skimmed milk than full fat raw milk | [27] | ||
Bovine milk | — | Higher inactivation efficiency and lower reactivation ratio at 254 nm than 222 and 282 nm | [28] | ||
Raw cow milk | Pure UV system | Total viable count, Psychrotrophics Coliform bacteria Thermodurics | Suggested for reducing of bacteria not susceptible to thermal treatment and psychrotrophic in refrigerated milk stored for prolonged periods | [29] | |
Cow’s Milk | Continuous turbulent flow | Aerobic plate count Aerobic sporeformers Coliform bacteria | Lower counts in UV-treated milk | [30] | |
Raw cow milk | Continuous flow coiled tube | Total viable count | 2.3 log reduction | [31] | |
Whole and semiskim milk | Laboratory-scale | Not an alternative to current pasteurization | [33] | ||
UHT milk | Pilot-scale | Not an alternative to current pasteurization | [34] | ||
Cheese whey | Tubular-type | Total viable count | May be used on-line sterilization of whey if the proper reactor gap size and the appropriate residence time are used | [35] | |
Sterile whole milk | Pilot-scale UV light continuous flow-through unit | Significant reduction for all bacterial species tested except | [37] |
Efficacy of UV light application for liquid dairy products.
Surface of dairy products such as cheese, yoghurt, etc. is the primary location for microbial access and quality depletion during processing and storage period. Most of the chemical, oxidative, microbial and enzymatic reactions take place on the surface of the dairy product and cause undesirable changes that may reduce shelf life of the product. To prolong shelf life and reduce microbial growth and oxidative degradation of dairy products, some types of preservatives are used according to legislation limits. However, a negative public reaction is growing over the addition of chemical preservatives to foods. Although UV light application is limited for liquid dairy products because of the confirmed success of heat treatment, it is very promising for the surface applications of dairy products instead of using chemicals.
Light exposure of solid foods affects only a thin surface layer of the product, while a minimum light dose can reach its internal part [11]. Due to low penetration depth, UV light is suitable for inactivation of surface microorganisms to ensure product safety and extend shelf life with minor effects on chemical and nutritional values in dairy products. However, limited data are available on the effects of UV light on the surface decontamination, quality and organoleptic properties of dairy products.
In the surface applications of UV light, all targeted surfaces of the food must be exposed to UV light. For this purpose, flat products can be turned to allow exposure of both sides or placed on a supporting net or a film. Additional lamps can also be placed on the product sides [11].
One of the most common problems in cheese technology is molding on the surface. Application of UV light on cheese surface just before packaging can be a good solution to prevent mold growth. Lacivita et al. [38] reported 1–2 log reduction on
After packaging of cheese, application of UV-C would be a good safety method to inactivate hazardous microorganisms on cheese surfaces. For this application, the transmission of UV light through plastic film packaging and the thickness of packaging film are important parameters for eliminating or controlling growth of foodborne pathogens on the surfaces. Ha et al. [21] applied UV-C light for inactivation of food-borne pathogens on sliced cheese packaged with different types and thicknesses of plastic films. The authors’ results showed that adjusted 0.07 mm thick PP or PE film packaging in conjunction with UV-C radiation can be effectively used for controlling foodborne pathogens including
There has been really limited research carried on the surface decontamination of other dairy products with UV-light. Similar to cheese, post-processing contamination of the mold on set type yoghurt shortens its shelf life. That is why, the surface of set-type yoghurt samples contaminated naturally were exposed to UV light at different doses in a batch UV light cabinet to inactivate the mold at Ege University by chapter authors Koca and Saatli [42]. They indicated that UV light can be promising for mold inactivation of surface set-type of yoghurt and that higher doses of UV light increased oxidation levels slightly in yoghurt. Studies about the surface application of UV light to dairy products are summarized in Table 3.
Dairy product | UV treatment | Test microorganisms | Results/achieved inactivation | Studies |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sliced cheddar cheese | 5 UV-C lamps | Suggested use of PP or PE films in conjunction with UV-C radiation for controlling foodborne pathogens | [21] | |
Fiordilatte cheese | Enterobacteriaceae | About 1–2 log reduction without changes in color, texture and surface appearance | [38] | |
Kashar cheese | Molds | Promising for surface mold reduction of pasta-filata cheese, but off-flavor at high doses | [39] | |
White American cheese | Pulsed Light Sterilization System | Suggested use of pulsed UV light for inactivation of | [40] | |
Cheddar, process cheese | Bench top pulsed light unit 1.02 to 12.29 J/cm2 | Suggested application for PL for decontamination of the cheese surface through UV-transparent packaging and without packaging | [41] | |
Set-type yoghurt | Batch UV light cabinet | Molds | Promising for surface mold reduction of yoghurt, but increased oxidation levels and off-flavor at high doses | [42] |
Effects of surface application of UV light on different dairy products.
Milk is rich in protein, unsaturated fatty acids, metal ions, oxidases and other pro-oxidants that induce oxidative changes for lipids or protein in raw milk [43]. Dairy products are known as light sensitive products and light may decrease the nutritional value, the content of unsaturated fatty acids and vitamins especially riboflavin and α-tocopherol of the product [44, 45]. Figuring out the suitable UV doses which reduce the microbial growth enough without causing any sensorial defects is challenging. Consumer acceptance of UV treated dairy product will ultimately determine the acceptability of UV technology as an alternative or adjunct to commercial thermal treatment.
Limited research has been carried out on the effects of UV treatment on a biochemical and chemical perspective of dairy products. Some authors concluded that chemical composition of milk is not significantly affected by UV light application [43, 46]. Similarly, Cilliers et al. [22] concluded that UV light application to bovine milk did not affect most of the macro and micro-components, but reduced the cholesterol level compared to pasteurized milk. UV light application produced no change in raw milk with regard to the composition, free fatty acid profile, oxidation, or protein profile [46]. Another study showed that UV treatment to raw milk increased pH and reduced lightness, but did not change soluble solids content [43].
Lipid oxidation is known to be dependent on light exposure. In general, as the UV light dose increases, the oxidation degree and accordingly off-flavor increase in dairy products. In relation to oxidative changes of milk with UV light, increase in UV dose resulted in an increase in TBARs and acid degree values of the goat milk samples [47]. Similarly, higher values of malondialdehyde and other reactive substances in UV-treated raw cow milk were reported as an indication of oxidative degradation by Bandla et al. [31]. In contrast, Hu et al. [43] found no change in the values of TBARs of UV-C treated raw milk (11.8 W/m2 dose), but an increase in its protein oxidation.
The nutritional value and sensory attributes of dairy products may change with the light exposure depending on the oxidation of lipids and protein and light sensitivity. Jung et al. [48] reported ‘sunlight’ flavor, which is characterized by a burnt and oxidized odor in milk after 2 or 3 days of UV application. Oxidized flavor in milk perceived as off-flavor results from oxidation of unsaturated fatty acid residues in milk lipids and phospholipids. The photodegradation of proteins also results in off-flavors and organoleptic changes in milk [14].
UV-C treatment has the potential to accelerate the formation of the volatile compounds in milk. In fact, Hu et al. [49] found an increase in the variety and content of volatile compounds of cow milk by the application of UV light (at 254 nm, 11.8 W/m2). Nevertheless, no major differences were observed in terms of aroma-active compounds of milk following the UV treatment, but some new volatiles were generated [25]. In another study, no difference was found between the odor of untreated and UV treated cow milk but after 1 day of storage the UV-C treated sample had a significantly different smell from that of untreated milk [31]. The flavor defects in cow milk were clearly differentiated by panelists [30]. Cilliers et al. [22] noted the ‘tallowy’ flavor descriptor for the UV treated milk. In another study, odor of UV treated milk was described by panelists as manure, stinky, barnyard, and goaty [47].
Vitamin A, carotenes, vitamin B12, vitamin D, folic acid, vitamin K, riboflavin (vitamin B2) tocopherols (vitamin E), tryptophan, and unsaturated fatty acid residues in oils, solid fats, and phospholipids are well known as light sensitive nutrients [50]. The first research was carried out the increase in Vitamin D in milk. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded that the treatment of the pasteurized milk with UV radiation results in an increase in Vitamin D. The effects of UV light on vitamins A, B2, C, and E in cow and goat milk were assessed by Guneser and Karagul Yüceer [51]. UV light sensitivities of vitamins for the milk samples were found as C > E > A > B2. Authors concluded that UV light application reduces the vitamin content and their reduction levels depend on the initial amount of vitamins and the number of passes through the system. In contrast to most research, Cappozzo et al. [46] found that UV light, HTST and UHT processing of raw milk caused to decrease in vitamin D content to undetectable levels. UV light treatment reduced the content of vitamin A from 24.5 at 1045 J/L to 14.9% at 2090 J/L, but HTST and UHT processes resulted in a large reduction (96.8 and 100%, respectively). In bovine milk, vitamin B12 and riboflavin were not reduced by UV application in contrast to thermal treatment [22].
Protein oxidation in dairy systems has an important effect on protein properties and functionalities. UV light can cause the degradation or modification of proteins that lead to changes in solubility, sensitivity to heat, mechanical properties, and digestion by proteases [14]. In fact, Semagoto et al. [52] found changes in the solubility and color of milk protein concentrate. UV induced photo-oxidation decreased the solubility and contributed to the discoloration of milk protein concentrate during storage. Furthermore, exposure to UV irradiation resulted in denaturation of whey proteins but this denaturation degree is low when compared to UHT or HTST [53].
Application of UV light to raw milk used in the production of dairy products may also influence the quality of product. Some changes in rheological properties of yoghurt from UV treated milk were generated by UV treatment [25]. In this research, higher viscosity and lower syneresis were found in the sample made from UV-treated milk compared to that of heat treated milk due to the effects of UV light on the molecular properties of proteins in milk sample. It is noted that UV treatment to raw milk limits the inactivation of native enzymes and the denaturation of whey proteins and the defects in products related to high initial bacterial counts, and shortens the ripening period of cheese. In contrast, Cilliers et al. [22] found no significant differences in the enzyme activity, α-amino acid contents and protein profiles of UV treated and pasteurized milk.
There are few data on the quality changes for surface application of UV light on dairy products such as cheese and yoghurt. Cheese treated with pulsed light at moderate (30 s at 8 cm) and extreme (40 s at 5 cm) conditions had higher values of TBARs compared to mild (5 s at 13 cm) treated and untreated samples, and the changes in color and chemical quality of cheeses were not significantly different after mild treatments. Additionally, when compared with packaged samples, unpackaged samples had slightly higher malondialdehyde values [40]. The application of UV light to surface of Kashar cheese slightly increased redness and yellowness values as the dosage of UV light increased, but these slight changes were not perceptible by the panelists [39]. However, they found that exposure of higher doses (9.630 kJ/m2) of UV-C light led to photo-oxidation and accordingly caused flavor defects. In the other study, UV light application in batch UV cabinet to set-type yoghurt surface did not cause any significant changes with respect to hardness and color parameters [42]. On the other hand, the off-flavor was detected by panelists for the yoghurt samples treated at high dosages of UV light.
The Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services (US FDA) approved the use of UV radiation for controlling surface microorganisms of food or food product, sterilization of water used in production and reduction of human pathogens and other microorganisms in juice products under specific conditions defined by Code 21CFR179.39 [54]. These conditions are limited to the use of low pressure mercury lamps emitting 90% of the emission at a wavelength of 253.7 nm. If the pulsed UV is considered, in code 21CFR179.41, US FDA [55] approves the use of pulsed UV light for the surface microorganism control at doses not exceeding 12 J/cm2 using xenon flashlamps, which are designed to emit broadband radiation consisting of wavelengths covering the range of 200–1100 nm, and operated no longer than 2 milliseconds for pulse duration. In addition, the minimum treatment required to obtain intended technical effect is used for food.
In European Union, UV light is accepted as irradiation [14]. The use of irradiation is limited but authorized in many European countries. According to European Commission, treating food with ionizing radiation may be authorized if there is reasonable technological need, it poses no health hazard and benefits consumers, and if it does not replace hygiene, health or good manufacturing or agricultural practice. Irradiated food or ingredients must be labeled. The UV-treated of pasteurized cow’s milk was authorized as novel food in market by EC because of the increase in vitamin D. It needs to be designated as “UV- treated milk” and also “contains vitamin D produced by UV-treatment” [2].
This work was supported by Ege University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit. Project Number: 18-MUH-008.
Food security is the basis of human health and quality of life. Today, food safety has become a major strategic issue in the world and has attracted worldwide attention [1].
Food security is effectively realized when food pillars, including food availability, access to food, food use, and food stability are at levels that allow all people to have physical and economical access to affordable, safe, and nutritious food to meet the requirement for a living active and healthy. When one of these four pillars weakens, then a society undermines its food security [2].
Most countries have established laws and regulations to provide the population with safe food. A safe food according to the law is nontoxic, harmless, and in accordance with nutritional requirements. It will not cause an acute, chronic, and potential danger to human health, for example, during planting, breeding, processing, packaging, storage, transport, sales, consumption, and other food activities. According to mandatory standards and requirements, there should be no foods with potential harm or danger to human health, such as harmful or poisonous substances with hidden potential to cause harm to consumers, which can lead to death [3].
Even though we have so much information at our disposal, the situation regarding global food security is still grim. Worldwide, food security and safety issues have increased over the past two decades. These increases continually raise questions about whether these current regulatory and control systems are effective. Recently, the World Health Organization (WHO), the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), and other organizations have developed new limits for the safety of the international food trade [3].
Food safety and quality are greatly influenced by the living conditions of pollution in different countries, as well as their economic development. Given the rapid socioeconomic changes of the last decade, worldwide, which promise a flourishing economic rise, food processing, food supply, and consumption patterns have undergone significant changes, increasing the number of outbreaks of food security problems. One of these problems, present worldwide, is given by mycotoxins [3].
Mycotoxins are one of the most important contributing factors to food loss, especially in developing countries, and have become a recurring challenge for food safety [4]. As a result, to date, serious concerns are raised by both consumers and health and nutrition professionals about the presence of mycotoxins in food [5]. Contamination of food by fungi and mycotoxins results in loss of dry matter, quality and nutrition, and poses a significant danger to the food chain [6].
Moreover, mycotoxin contamination decreases product quality and reduces export values, which can lead to significant economic losses for producing countries. Mycotoxin contamination directly reduces food availability and has its own contribution to hunger and malnutrition [4]. Drought stress, failure to implement good agricultural practices, poor postharvest practices, and insect infestation are factors that influence mycotoxin contamination [7, 8].
In addition, socio-economic factors, such as poor transport and trading systems, lack of awareness, and insufficient regulations and legislation, can also contribute to the risks of mycotoxin contamination [4].
Mycotoxin contamination can be mitigated to acceptable levels through an integrated management approach along value chains [2] good agricultural practices, biological control, sorting, electromagnetic radiation treatments, ozone fumigation, chemical control agents [2] plant growth [9], good manufacturing practices, Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP), and others [4] are some of the methods used to reduce/prevent the risks of mycotoxin contamination.
Contamination of food and food by mycotoxins has a considerable impact on food insecurity, trade, economy, and public health [10].
Food safety and security are basic needs for consumers. The major goal of world organizations is to take action to ensure food safety and security. In addition to food, the consumer is also exposed to water through oral intake, to the environment through inhalation, and exposure of the skin and penetration through it. Consumption of foods contaminated with mycotoxins, mainly cereals and foods of animal origin, is the most important and common route of exposure. Mycotoxins found in animal feed can indeed be transported in animal tissues, especially the liver, kidneys, and eggs [11].
Mycotoxins contribute significantly to food loss in developing countries [2]. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), about a third of total food is lost, totaling about 1.3 billion tons per year. It is also estimated that approximately five billion people worldwide are exposed to mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins. However, formulas for assessing the global economic impact of the presence of mycotoxins in food have been extremely difficult to develop [12]. Mycotoxins are a global public health problem, with spices, crops, meat, and dairy products being the main sources of mycotoxins [13].
The economic and social impact of these mycotoxins includes losses caused by death and disease of humans and animals, veterinary and medical costs, reduced animal productivity, loss of livelihoods, control measures, economic losses for farmers through food and feed losses, and waste due to contamination. The negative effects of mycotoxin exposure could be mitigated through the use of agricultural knowledge and public health practices, such as proper processing and storage of products [2, 12].
The problem of mycotoxins is of paramount importance because it can have carcinogenic, immunological, allergenic effects [14], toxigenic, nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, immunosuppressive, mutagenic [15], estrogenic and teratogenic effects, depending on exposure levels [16], which are particularly relevant for human consumption of contaminated food [14].
Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites, not essential for the normal growth and reproduction of a fungus, but capable of causing biochemical, physiological, and pathological changes in many species and pose a global threat to public health. Mycotoxins have harmful effects on both humans and animals. These effects include immune toxicity, carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity, teratogenicity, nephrotoxicity, indigestion, hepatotoxicity, developmental and reproductive toxicity, and more. Most mycotoxins can be found in various agricultural products, which are then processed, staple foods and often consumed, which are generally dependent on their composition—food matrix composition, water activity, relative humidity and moisture content of the product, pH, temperature, physical appearance, and degree of damage, as well as the presence of mold spores [17].
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites toxic to humans and animals [16, 18]. Most of these toxins have relatively low molecular weights and are generally thermally stable demonstrating high levels of bioaccumulation [16, 19]. More than 400 types of mycotoxins have been identified, however, only about 10–15 are considered to be of public health interest [19], with aflatoxin (AF), deoxynivalenol (DON), ergot alkaloids, fumonisins (FB), ochratoxin A (OTA), patulin (PAT), zearalenone (ZEN), and trichothecenes (T-2 and HT-2), the most prominent due to their high incidence in food. OTA and AF can be produced by toxigenic fungi associated with dried meat products [2, 12, 16].
Aflatoxins (
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is considered the most potent natural carcinogen and is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) group 1 as carcinogenic to humans. It is estimated that AFB1 causes up to 28% of all liver cancers, and has been associated with impaired immune system growth and dysfunction. AFB1 and its metabolites are excreted in urine, feces, and breast milk [22, 23].
Aflatoxins contamination has been demonstrated in cereals and cereal-based products [24, 25], organs, meat, pork products, and chicken eggs [26, 27]. In addition, aflatoxin M1 is released into milk through the milk glands of cattle fed aflatoxin B1—contaminated feed. Given the stability of the toxin during pasteurization and sterilization of milk and dairy products, even a relatively small amount of aflatoxin M1 can significantly affect human health [28].
The ochratoxin group includes ochratoxins A, B, C, and TA. An ochratoxin molecule is composed of dihydroisocoumarin and the L-β-phenylalanine component. The most toxic representative of the group is ochratoxin A (OTA), isolated from the mold of
The researchers’ reports showed that the genus Penicillium (
Significant concentrations of ochratoxin A have been found in plant-based foods, such as wheat, corn, rye flower, buckwheat, and breakfast cereals, but the toxin can also be found in offal, meat, and meat products due to secondary contamination [31]. Sources in the literature have reported that the most substantial amounts of ochratoxin A can be found in organ-based meat products [32, 33]. In addition, significant amounts of this mycotoxin have been found in smoked meat products and other animal products [17, 31].
The toxin F-2, the mycotoxin zearalenone, received this designation in 1962, after the
This mycotoxin is a nonsteroidal estrogen, and its chemical structure is that of resorcylic acid lactone [34]. Zearalenone production is increased especially in wetter, somewhat colder climates, with temperatures of 10–15°C. More than 150 zearalenone derivatives are currently known. The most toxic is considered α-zearalenone. More toxins up to 3–4 times compared to zearalenone. β-Zearalenone is thought to have an activity similar to that of zearalenone. This mycotoxin is thermally stable and stable in several types of solvents, such as ethyl acetate, acetonitrile, acetone, methanol, or chloroform. Zearalenone is insoluble in water but can be dissolved in alkaline water, alcohols, or ether. It is also insoluble in carbon tetrachloride and carbon [17].
Cold wet periods and the early onset of frost, followed by strong periods of sunshine, favor the infestation of crops with Fusarium spp. Before harvest, in this process, zearalenone is also produced [30].
It is commonly found in corn, but can also be found in wheat, barley, sorghum, and rye from countries around the world. Although at much lower concentrations, zearalenone has also been found in milk, meat, organs, and eggs from animals exposed to this mycotoxin through contaminated feed [17].
Fumonisins are the group of mycotoxins produced by molds of the genus Fusarium and comprise fumonisins B1, B2, B3, and B4. The most toxic of these, fumonisin B1, is a propane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid diester. Molds that produce fumonisins in significant amounts are
Substantial amounts of this mycotoxin have been identified in foods intended for the human diet, but also in milk, meat, and eggs of animals feeding on feed contaminated with fumonisin B1, even if they were not found in concentrations harmful to human health. Recently, fumonisins B2 and B4 were produced by
Data from the literature have shown correlations between different diseases such as liver cancer in rats, esophageal cancer in humans, leukoencephalomalacia in horses or donkeys, pulmonary edema in pigs, and contamination with fumonisins. Fumonisin B1, according to IARC, is classified in group 2B as a potential carcinogen for humans [17, 36].
Deoxynivalenol (DON, vomitoxin), is a tetracyclic epoxy sesquiterpene and belongs to the group of trichothecene mycotoxins type B [37] and was first isolated from damaged barley grains in 1972. DON production is mainly attributed to molds
Among trichothecans, DON is the least toxic, but it is gaining importance due to its high prevalence in food around the globe. The man, who consumes contaminated grains, accuses acute nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, headache, dizziness, and fever. In animals, acute exposure to DON leads to lower food intake (anorexia) and vomiting, while prolonged exposure may lead to lower yields and thymus, spleen, heart, and liver disease.
The main grains in which DON has been identified are wheat, corn, rye, oats, and barley. They are found, but less often in rice, triticale, or sorghum. Cereals can be contaminated with DON in the field, but also during storage. Consequently, deoxynivalenol can be found in the raw material, the finished food product based on cereals, but also in feed [39]. It has been suggested that DON may also be present in products of animal origin, such as meat and milk [40]. Its metabolites are rapidly excreted from the body, especially in urine, but also in milk, however, in much lower concentrations [17].
Molds of the genera
Once produced by the mold
T-2 toxin together with HT-2, the most important metabolite in or, are produced by molds of the genus Fusarium and are trichothecene type A toxins. This mycotoxin is the basic representative of trichothecine, present in most situations when we talk about trichothecine. It was first identified in maize grown in France. It is a natural sesquiterpene and was isolated from the mold
The optimal parameters for the development of this mycotoxin are at least 0.88 water activity and a temperature below 15°C, but can be produced between −2°C and 32°C [27, 42]. T-2 toxin is thought to be a powerful cytotoxin and immunosuppressant capable of causing acute intoxication and chronic disease in both humans and animals. Symptoms of acute intoxication include nausea, tremors, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss [17]. T-2 toxin inhibits protein synthesis, leading to side effects of DNA and RNA synthesis [27]. In addition, it has an adverse effect on the immune system, showing changes in the number of leukocytes and hypersensitivity [42].
Of all cereals, oats are the ones in which contamination with this mycotoxin occurs most frequently and in higher concentrations. Residues and metabolites of T-2 toxin have been found in milk, but not in significantly high concentrations [17, 43].
Ergot alkaloids are produced by multiple species of the genus Claviceps.
Many mass poisonings caused by the consumption of cereals, flowers, and bread contaminated with ergot alkaloids are recorded throughout human history. If contaminated cereals are consumed in small quantities, one can only expect indigestion, while higher consumption leads to ergotism, that is, the disease that manifests itself with hallucinations, pain, and severe vasoconstriction eventually leading to dry gangrene and numbness of the limbs. The worst-case scenario involves kidney and heart failure and fatal outcomes, while abortion can be induced in pregnant women. A close link between sclerotia content and ergot alkaloid levels has been established in different crops (barley, oats, rye, triticale, and wheat grains) [17, 44].
Beauvericin is a cyclic hexadepsipeptide that is synthesized by various toxigenic fungi, including several species of Fusarium [45]. BEA can be produced by different species of Fusarium in different regions. For example, in the USA and South Africa,
Cyclopiazonic mycotoxin was first discovered in 1968. The species responsible for CPA production are
Citrinin is a polyketide mycotoxin, which contaminates food and is associated with various toxic effects. CIT is produced by several fungal strains belonging to the genera
Enniatins are a group of cyclic hexadepsipeptides, comprising 29 enniatin analogs, belonging to groups A and B. Of these analogs, the most commonly found in food (most commonly found in cereals and cereal products) and feed are A, A1, B, B1, although Enniatins B2, B3, and B4 are also found, especially in cereals. This heterogeneous group of mycotoxins is produced by several types of fungi belonging to the genus
Alternaria is one of the main mycotoxins with a mycotoxigenic effect found in cereals around the world. Although, cereals are constantly affected by Alternaria spp. and their toxins, little relevance is still given to the subject. Currently, tenuazonic acid in sorghum/millet baby foods is the only Alternaria toxin regulated by a government official (the Bavarian Food and Safety Authority) [54].
Mycotoxins are not only highly toxic but also widely distributed in various products, such as cereals [55, 56], nuts [57, 58], fruits, vegetables [59], corn [60], seaweed [61], wines [62], meat [12], eggs [63], dried fruits [64], coffee [65], milk [66], and so on. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has estimated that approximately 25% of world food crops are contaminated with mycotoxins each year [10].
Consumption of foods contaminated with mycotoxins could be the most important source of exposure to toxic mycotoxins, which can be mainly dangerous especially for children and infants [67]. Obviously, a wide mass of mycotoxins can be found in the same product, because a single species of fungus can produce several toxic metabolites, even several species of fungi can be present simultaneously and can produce different toxins [56]. For example, raw cereals are often contaminated with DON and NIV, and other mycotoxins such as AF, ZEN, and OTA are also detected in low-level raw cereals [68]. In addition, DON and ZEN are widespread especially in rice, and mycotoxins such as AF, OTA, and FB1 are also detected in rice [69]. Although mycotoxins are frequently coexisting, different samples may contain only the most common individual mycotoxin. For example, the most common mycotoxin in milk is AFM1, which is also known as “milk toxin.” Most investigations are aimed at detecting AFM1 in milk [70]. PAT is usually predominant in fruit-derived products [71]. In addition, the most common mycotoxin in wine is OTA [72]. Migration and environmental accumulation are the other important ways of exposure for people, with the exception of direct input. For example, Schenzel et al. reported that 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, DON, NIV, and BEA were detected in Swiss Midland Rivers [73]. A number of researchers have also indicated that drinking water is an important matrix contaminated with mycotoxins [74] and the living environment of humans, these being a principal threat to public health.
The increasing spread of mycotoxins and the highly toxic effects have led to the establishment of organizations that aim to make regulations on the control of food contamination. For example, the FAO a scientific advisory board of the WHO and the Joint Committee of Experts on Food Additives (JECFA) have the responsibility to assess the risks of mycotoxins. In 2001, the Commission’s Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) initially set maximum levels for AF, OTA, and PAT in food (EU Regulation 466/2001) (EC, 2001). In addition, the IARC has classified mycotoxins into different categories according to human carcinogenic risk. In addition, the EC has set the maximum levels allowed for most mycotoxins in food by Commission Regulation No. EC 1881/2006, but also methods of sampling and analysis for their control with the help of EC 401/2006 to protect or reduce losses that occur in production and to protect human health. The EC has set maximum limits of 0.012 mg/kg for AFB1 in apricots, pistachios, and almonds; 0.00005 mg/kg for AFM1 in raw or heat-treated milk and dairy products; 0.05 mg/kg for PAT in fruit juices; 0.002 mg/kg for OTA in wine; 0.075 mg/kg for ZEN in cereals; 0.5 mg/kg for DON in bread; 10 mg/kg for the amount of AFG1, AFG2, AFB1, and AFB2 in nuts and peanuts; and maximum limits of 400 μg/kg for ZEN in refined maize germ oil [10].
Cereals are perhaps the most consumed categories of products worldwide by humans because they are an important source of energy, vitamins, minerals, and fiber [75]. These products can come with different mushrooms from the farm, after harvest, or during storage. Most mycotoxins found in cereals are influenced by poor storage conditions, temperature, climate, drought, or insect damage [76]. The physicochemical composition of cereals, including water activity or pH, can influence the development of mycotoxins [58, 77].
Wheat contributes to a wide range of bakery products, such as bread, breakfast cereals, biscuits, cakes, pasta, and other cereal-based products. Therefore, the level of contamination of wheat with mycotoxins is essential in the food and feed chain. According to existing studies on wheat seeds, the major occurrence of mycotoxins was DON, ZEN, AFB1, OTA, HT-2/T-2, AF, and FUM, respectively. According to the EC regulation, the recommended limit for wheat mycotoxins is 4 μg/kg for AF, 2 μg/kg for AFB1, 1250 μg/kg for DON, 5 μg/kg for OTA, and 100 μg/kg for ZEN [78].
Of the studies on mycotoxins in wheat grains, 16.6% were reported to exceed EU-recommended limits. The most common were AF with a percentage of 50%, of which 40% were AFB1, followed by ZEN WITH 22.2%. In the case of DON, the highest value, 17,753 μg/kg, was reported in China [79], and in the wheat samples from Qatar Hassan et al. reported DON values of 0.1 μg/kg [78]. For ZEN the highest values were reported in India [80], and the lowest values in Qatar [81]. In the case of AF the highest values, 9 μg/kg, were reported for wheat samples from Qatar [81], the maximum level allowed for the EU being 4 μg/kg, and in wheat samples from Greece AF was not detected [82].
Topi et al. analyzed 10 Fusarium toxins in 71 wheat samples in Albania. The analytical procedure consisted of simple one-step sample extraction, followed by the determination of toxins using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Fusarium toxins were found in 23% of the wheat samples analyzed. In the wheat samples, the only Fusarium mycotoxin detected was deoxynivalenol (DON), present in 23% of the samples, with a concentration of 1916 g/kg, exceeding the maximum level allowed by the EU (1250 g/kg) [83].
According to Malir et al., the most common mycotoxins in wheat flour are aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, ochratoxin A, and deoxynivalenol [84].
Corn seeds are often contaminated with
Topi et al. analyzed 10 Fusarium toxins in 45 maize samples from Albania. Fusarium toxins were found in 78% of the maize samples analyzed. In 76% of the corn samples, fumonisins B1 (FB1) and B2 (FB2) were found with concentrations between 59.9 and 16.970 g/kg. The amount of FB1 and FB2 exceeded the maximum level allowed by the EU (4000 g/kg) in 31% of the maize samples [83].
According to Zinedine et al., the most common mycotoxins in cornflakes and corn-based foods are
The mycotoxins identified in rice seeds based on prevalence were AFB1, ZEN, DON, FUM, AF, OTA, and HT-2/T-2 toxins [78].
According to the maximum number of mycotoxins allowed by the EC for rice seeds, the following values are given—4 μg/kg for AF, 2 μg/kg for AFB1, 5 μg/kg for OTA, 100 μg/kg for ZEN, and 1250 μg/kg for DON. Of the studies analyzed, exceedances of the EC standard limit for AF and AFB1 (50%), FUM (25%), DON (16.6%), ZEN (11.1%) were reported. Values exceeding the maximum limits allowed by the EU were also reported in a study conducted in Somalia, where 330 μg/kg AFB1 and 4361 μg/kg FUM were detected in the rice samples [93]. The level of FUM and HT-2/T-2 toxins in all rice samples was below the EU maximum. In China, the maximum allowable level for DON in rice samples is reported at 1607 μg/kg [78].
Several authors have reported that the most common mycotoxins in rice are total aflatoxins, aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, and beauvericin [94, 95].
DON was an abundant mycotoxin in barley samples collected from different countries, followed by ZEN and T-2/HT-2 toxins. A study conducted in Canada showed that 56% of cold-season barley presented to the mycotoxin-contaminated industry whose DON concentration in some samples exceeded the regulatory level (1250 μg/kg) [96]. According to several studies conducted in Argentina [97], the Czech Republic [98], and Brazil [99], the main mycotoxin of the genus Fusarium reported in barley samples was DON. In a study conducted in Turkey, in the analyzed barley samples ZEN was not detected, and DON did not exceed the maximum level allowed by the EU (138–973 μg/kg) [100]. DON, FUMs, T-2/HT-2 reported in 50%, 25%, and 50% of barley samples from the Qatar food market with average values of 0.048 mg/kg, 0.553 mg/kg, and 0.067 mg/kg [81].
The most common mycotoxins in sorghum are FUM, AFB1, and ZEN [101]. According to a study conducted in Togo, FUM was detected in 67% of the samples and AFB1 in 25% [102]. In another study conducted in Somalia, the maximum allowable limits for FUM (FB1 and FB2) and AFB1 were exceeded in the sorghum analysis samples [93]. In a study conducted in Tunisia, in the analyzed sorghum samples, the presence of mycotoxins AFB1, OTA, and ZEN was reported, with values between 0.03–31.7 μg/kg, 1.04–27.8 μg/kg, and 3.75–64, 52 μg/kg, respectively [103].
In a study conducted in Nigeria, all sorghum samples analyzed were contaminated with FUM and AF. OTAs have also been identified in some samples [104]. In a study conducted in Switzerland, on oats, by Schöneberg et al., the majority of mycotoxins identified were T-2/HT-2 [105]. In another study conducted in India, the analyzed oat samples were contaminated with ZE in the proportion of 84%, identifying values between 5.31 and 389 μg/kg [80]. In the US study by Jin et al., 75% of the rye samples were contaminated with DON, reporting values below 1.0 mg/kg, but showed an increase through the malting process [106].
According to Meca et al., the most common mycotoxins in barley are deoxynivalenol and beauvericin [107]. The most mycotoxins in cereal porridge are aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2 and deoxynivalenol and in breakfast cereals are aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2 [108].
Fruits and vegetables are extremely sensitive to fungal infestation due to their high water content and abundance of nutrients. They can decompose at any stage of the growth, harvesting, and storage processes, resulting in the production and accumulation of various mycotoxins [109].
Previous work has shown that mycotoxins that contaminate fruits and vegetables mainly include the toxin Alternaria [110], OTA [111], PAT [109, 112], and trichothecenes [113].
Although consumers can cut the rotten parts of fruits and vegetables before consumption, several mycotoxins, especially those mentioned above, may be present in the rest of the parts [113, 114], indicating that the removal of rotten parts cannot completely eliminate mycotoxin contamination.
A study of 20 samples of sweet peppers from two varieties showed that mycotoxins from Fusarium species involved in the internal rot of fruit migrate from contaminated peppers to initially healthy peppers. B fumonisins (1, 2, and 3) and beauvericin were identified after 10 days of incubation in a closed container and 20°C sweet pepper temperature conditions. Fumonisins B (1, 2, and 3) have been identified in lesions and around the tissue, indicating their migration to healthy parts. The values identified were between 690 and 104,000 μg/kg in lesions for fumonisin B (1) and outside the maximum lesion 556 μg/kg. For the other fumonisins, lower values were obtained in the lesions—10,900 μg/kg for fumonisin B (2) and 1287 μg/kg for fumonisin B (3). In the case of beauvericin, it was identified only in lesions, in a proportion of 95%, with values between 67 and 73,800 μg/kg [114]. A similar study was conducted for the analysis of eight mycotoxins (
H. Dong et al. analyzed seven mycotoxins (AOH, AME, TeA, TEN, OTA, PAT, and DON) from cherry tomatoes and two green leafy plants (salad and pakchoi) provided by Food Science and Technology—Guangzhou Harmony, China, and strawberries and tomatoes were bought from the strawberry fields and markets located in Guangzhou, China. All samples were freshly collected and checked for intact and no rotten visible parts. Mycotoxins were not detected in any of the fresh samples. During long storage, TeA was identified for tomatoes and AME and AOH for strawberries. Increased concentrations were observed with storage time. Studies have shown that optimal storage conditions for fresh fruits and vegetables, which include proper packaging and low temperature, help, delay the formation of mycotoxins [59].
Fruits and pomegranate juice from Greek markets were studied by Myresiotis et al. Three Alternaria mycotoxins (alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, and tentoxin) were determined, and in fresh samples, they were not identified. However, in the case of artificial inoculation of pomegranate fruits with various species of
A larger study of pomegranate fruits in Greece and Cyprus was presented by Kanetis et al. The fruits were studied before and after harvest. The results show that the rot of pomegranate fruits before harvesting was mainly caused by species of the genera Aspergillus (
And the postharvest fruit spoilage was mainly caused by
Apples, represented by the varieties Fuji, Golden Delicious, Granny Smith, and Red Delicious, in the study conducted by Ntasiou et al. are most affected by mycotoxins—AOH, AME, and TEN [116]. According to Munitz et al. isolated mycotoxins with the potential to be present in blueberries are FB1, FB2, FB3, ZEA, DON, AOH, AME, AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, HT-2, and T-2 [117].
There is a growing interest in baby food. According to the study conducted by Sarubbi et al., patulin is detected very often in baby food in Italy. According to EC regulation 1881/06, the maximum permitted limit of patulin in baby food is 10 μg/kg or 10 μg/l. A total of 80 homogenized baby foods were analyzed to assess children’s exposure to patulin by consuming these products. Experimental tests revealed significant differences between products from organic production and those from traditional production in all categories analyzed. Tomato concentrates showed an average patulin concentration of 7.15 ng/ml of the product; tomato sauce for baby food of 5.23 ng/ml; tomato sauce 4.05 ng/ml; homogenized pear of 0.79 ng/ml, homogenized apple of 0.85 ng/ml. The low incidence of patulin, or low concentrations, in Italian products, is a quality parameter for fruits and their derivatives [112].
The most common mycotoxins in baby food and baby fruits are aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2 patulin, and beauvericin [84, 118].
Abrunhosa et al. report the presence in the spice of several mycotoxins such as ochratoxin A, sum of aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, aflatoxin G1, and aflatoxin G2 [119].
Fungal diseases in the vineyard reduce the quality of grapes and affect their volatile profile. Therefore, it influences the taste, aroma, and color of both the juice and the wine. The most common mycotoxins in stubble are aflatoxins, alternariol, OTA, tenuazonic acid, citrinin, patulin, or fumonisin B2.
The countries that provide the most information about wine mycotoxins are the largest wine producers in Europe—France, Italy, and Spain. The most common and worrying mycotoxin in grapes is OTA, produced by Aspergillus carbonarius. The most important factors regarding the determination of the contamination once identified are the climate, the most important factor, and the high temperatures. The highest concentrations of OTA have been identified in southern Europe, where it is warmest. Accurate fungal identification and detection of mycotoxins in fungi are important and practical methods need to be considered. Both white and red wines, dry, sweet, or hardened can be contaminated with mycotoxins. According to reported studies, it seems that OTA appears more often in red and sweet wines, compared to white ones [120].
According to Oteiza et al. mycotoxins such as PAT and OTA were identified in fruit juices and wines collected in Argentina between 2005 and 2013. PATs were identified in 1997 from 5958 samples, with concentrations ranging from 3.0 to 19,622 μg/l, and 510 samples showed PAT levels above 50 μg/l. A total of 1401 with concentrations between 0.15 and 3.6 μg/l. These mycotoxins identified in fruit juices and wines are influenced by fruit type, product type, and year of production [62].
Jesus et al. in their study noticed that the most common mycotoxin in wines in the United States is OTA [121].
Beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage in the world. Its mycotoxin contamination is a public health concern, especially for heavy drinkers.
Many studies have been published on the fate of mycotoxins in beer production, analyzing the general production process or only part of it and highlighting the physical parameters that lead to variations in mycotoxin concentration [122, 123, 124].
Many studies on beer have focused their investigation on DON, which is the most abundant mycotoxin and is the biggest public health problem related to beer consumption [125].
According to EC regulation 1881/2006 and Commission Recommendation, 2013/165/EU, the maximum allowed levels of mycotoxins in the European Union for 13 compounds are regulated. In the case of beer, we refer to cereal products for which the following limits have been established—for AFB1—2 μg/kg, for total AF—4 μg/kg, for ZEN—75 μg/kg, for DON—750 μg/kg, for OTA—5 μg/kg, and for FUMB1 + FUMB2—400 μg/kg. These limits are considered of great importance because beer has high acceptability worldwide, is consumed in large quantities, and avoids the accumulation of mycotoxins, especially for loyal consumers. Mycotoxin contamination can occur at different stages of brewing. Some of them can be transferred from cereals to malt and then to beer due to their high thermal stability (AF, ZEN, and DON) and water solubility of mycotoxins (DON and FUM) [124, 126].
Whatever the origin, numerous surveys on the occurrence of mycotoxins in beer have been conducted worldwide to date, analyzing different styles of brewing. Many surveys of beer are specific to mycotoxin, looking for the appearance and exposure of humans to various Fusarium mycotoxins found in beer. Others are specific to the style of beer, grouping the beer samples according to the production style applied to the malted barley from which they are made [99, 126].
DON and its derivatives, together with AF, FB, ZEA, T-2, and HT-2 are the most studied mycotoxins in beer and barley, respectively. Among the technological processes, the most relevant stages in the beer production process that have an inhibitory effect on mycotoxins are soaking, baking, mixing, fermentation, and clarification. In these stages, mycotoxins are removed with drainage water, used grain and fermentation residues, diluted or destroyed as a result of heat treatment, or adsorbed on the surface.
Germination has no effect on the level of DON in beer but promotes its transformation into its glycosylated derivative (DON-3-Glc). During mixing, enzymes not only stimulate the release of conjugated DON from protein structures but also decrease the initial toxin concentration due to dilution. This step can be a source of contamination with AF and FUM due to corn-free malt adjuvants that are used for the purpose of high levels of fermentable sugars. Even if during cooking there is the possibility of adding to the hop contaminated with mycotoxins, the amount is too small to be significant for the final product. In general, about 60% of ZEN is eliminated with used grains.
To avoid massive economic losses, during the technological process of obtaining beer, various processes are applied to eliminate mycotoxins or prevent contamination with them, such as lactic acid bacteria during malting and beer, ozonation, special yeast strains (known to bind mycotoxins), hot barley grains, water treatment or fungicidal failures in the field [124].
Several authors reported that the most common mycotoxins in malt are aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, OTA, PAT, and DON, and in beer are OTA, DON, and sterigmatocystin [90, 127, 128, 129].
According to a meta-analysis by Khaneghah et al. out of 3182 centralized samples from 36 articles, the prevalent and global level of OTA was 53.0% (95% CI: 43.0–62.0) and 3.21 μg/kg (95% CI: 3.08–3.34 μg/kg), respectively. The correlations and the increase of the concentrations of these mycotoxins in the coffee beans were identified, together with the increase of the poverty, but also with the fluctuation of the precipitations from the whole year studied. The lowest concentrations (0.35 μg/kg) of OTA in coffee were reported in Taiwan, and the highest concentrations (79.0 μg/kg) were reported in Turkey [65]. Of the 26 samples of coffee beans and coffee products, 18% were identified with ENN, the average concentration of enniatin was 1901–1901 (g/kg) [130].
According to Batista et al., OTA is the most common mycotoxins in
In a study of chocolate for sale in Brazil, OTA and AF were identified [133]. Similar results were reported by Kabak et al. for chocolate produced in Turkey [134].
Several studies report the presence of mycotoxins in portable water, groundwater, and wastewater. The most common are ZEN, aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, and OTA [135, 136, 137, 138].
In the study conducted by Alcántara-Durán et al. on mycotoxins in peanuts, pistachios, and almonds, the lowest concentration level was between 0.05 and 5 μg/kg, being lower than the maximum levels established by current legislation [57].
Another mycotoxin identified in pistachios is aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Rastegar et al. investigated the effectiveness of the frying process by incorporating lemon juice and/or citric acid on the reduction of AFB1 in contaminated pistachios (AFB1 at two levels of 268 and 383 ng/g). Although frying for 1 hour at 120°C, 50 g of pistachios in 30 ml of lemon juice, 6 g of citric acid, and 30 ml of water, led to a good degradation (93.1%) of AFB1, this treatment changed the desired physical properties. In the case of frying for one hour at 120°C, with 15 ml of lemon juice, 2.25 g of citric acid, and 30 ml of water reduced by 49.2% the level of AFB1, from the initial value, without any visible changes of the pistachio in terms of appearance. Thus, a synergistic effect can be observed regarding the degradation of AFB1 between lemon juice, respectively citric acid and heating. In this situation, we can conclude that in the case of pistachios contaminated with AFB1, they can be degraded by frying with lemon juice and citric acid [58].
According to Abrunhosa et al., the most common mycotoxins in pistachios are aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2; in peanuts are aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, OTA, and in almonds are aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2 [119].
Consumption of dried meat products is increasing, but these products are highly perishable, and when contaminated with fungi, they pose a risk of human exposure to mycotoxins, and therefore, a global public health problem [139]. Dried meat is composed mostly of muscle tissue in which the physicochemical properties of their surface, such as low water activity, neutral to low pH, and nutrient content, cause the microbial population to grow in external layers of these products [140]. Changes in the low activity of water in these products can influence the metabolism of fungi favoring the biosynthesis of mycotoxins [141].
San Daniele ham, for example, contains NaCl concentrations that vary between 10 and 20% of the dry matter and its maturation lasts between 13 and 18 months [14]. Although these salt levels are impossible for many microorganisms to grow, the long maturation period facilitates the growth of microorganisms well adapted to this environment [143]. In addition, abnormal variations in temperature and humidity commonly encountered in the production of traditional products during the pre-ripening, ripening, and drying stages influence the growth of microorganisms [14, 144].
Regarding toxigenic fungi, four aflatoxins, namely B1, B2, G1, and G2, are considered to be some of the most important mycotoxins in dried meat. Aflatoxin B1 is the most common and has a higher toxigenic potential compared to other aflatoxins [12].
In addition to AF, OTA is an important mycotoxin that has been found in dried meat [30]. OTA was first isolated in 1965 from a culture of
OTA mycotoxin has been identified in Italian salamis [145] and AFB1 and AFB2 in Egyptian salamis [146]. OTA has also been found in blood sausages, liver-type sausages in Germany [147], Parma ham in Denmark [148], and dried Iberian ham in Spain [144, 149].
In a study in Cairo, burgers and sausages had the highest number of mushrooms compared to fresh meat and canned food. This contamination may be related to the addition of AFB1-contaminated spices to burgers [13].
Among the various forms of direct or indirect human exposure to mycotoxins, such as the intake of contaminated meat products, the relationship with human feed should be considered [12].
In a study of 115 chicken samples collected from central Punjab, Pakistan, the presence of AF, OTA, and ZEN was analyzed. The results showed that 35% of chicken samples were found contaminated with AF, and the maximum level of AFB1 was 7.86 μg/kg and total AF was 8.01 μg/kg found in the hepatic part of the chicken. Furthermore, 41% of chicken samples were found to be contaminated with OTA and a maximum level of 4.70 μg/kg was found in the hepatic part of the chicken meat. A total of 52% of chicken samples were found to be contaminated with ZEN and a maximum level of 5.10 μg/kg. The occurrence and incidence of AF, OTA, and ZEN in chicken meat are alarming and can cause health hazards and have called for the need for continuous monitoring of these toxins in chicken meat [16]. In 70 chicken tissue samples (liver, heart, and pipette) collected from the markets of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Shanghai (China) the main mycotoxins observed were DON, 15-AcDON, and ZEN [11].
In a study conducted by Rodrigues, they observed that the most common mycotoxin in Portuguese ham of pork, goat, and sheep is OTA [150].
In a study by Ezekiel et al. on mycotoxins in breast milk, complementary foods and urine obtained from 65 infants aged 1–18 months in Ogun State, Nigeria, it was observed that complementary foods were contaminated with six types of mycotoxins, including fumonisins identified in 14 of the 42 samples, with a concentration between 8 and 167 μg/kg and aflatoxins identified in 14 of the 42 samples, with a concentration between 1.0 and 16.2 μg/kg. In four out of 22 breast milk samples, aflatoxin M1 was detected, in addition to six other classes of mycotoxins. And for the first time, dihydrocitrinone was detected in six of the 22 samples studied with a concentration between 14.0 and 59.7 ng/L and sterigmatocystin in a sample of the 22 samples studied with a concentration of 1.2 ng/L. Mycotoxins were detected in 64/65 of urine samples, with seven distinct classes of mycotoxins observed demonstrating ubiquitous exposure. Two metabolites of aflatoxin (AFM1 and AFQ1) and FB1 were detected in samples 6/65, 44/65, and 17/65, respectively. The frequency of detection, the average concentrations, and the appearance of mixtures were usually higher in the urine at nonexclusive breastfeeding, compared to breastfed infants.
In conclusion, the study provides new information on mycotoxin exposure in children in a country at high risk of mycotoxin without adequate food safety measures. Although a small set of samples, it highlights the significant transition to higher levels of mycotoxin exposure in infants as complementary foods are introduced, providing an impetus to alleviate this critical early period and encourage breastfeeding [151, 152].
Other authors also reported the presence of mycotoxins in breast milk such as aflatoxin M1, beauvericin, dihydrocitrinone, alternariol monomethyl ether, enniatin A, enniatin B, ochratoxin A, ochratoxin alpha, ochratoxin B, and sterigmatocystin [153, 154].
In milk powder, the most common mycotoxins reported were aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2 [84], in milk aflatoxin M1 [154, 155]. Aflatoxin M1 is also found in cheese [156] or yogurt [119].
Mannami et al. conducted a study on 67 samples of liquid milk (46 pasteurized and 21 UHT) randomly collected during 2019 from supermarkets and dairy stores in four Moroccan cities (Casablanca (n = 27), El Jadida (n = 10), Fez (n = 18), and Meknès (n = 12)). The results showed that out of the 67 samples analyzed, AFM1 was identified in nine samples, while 58 samples (86.6%) had AFM1 below the detection limit. According to Moroccan regulations, the maximum limit allowed by AFM1 is 50 ng/l, and it can be observed that a single pasteurized milk sample exceeds the maximum limit allowed by 77 ng/l, by AFM1. According to Codex Alimentarius standards, where the maximum permitted limit is 500 ng/l, all milk samples studied fall within these limits [157].
A study by Marimón Sibaja et al. carried out between 2003 and 2018 in Latin America on aflatoxin (AFM1) from 3547 milk samples and 969 milk products showed that 67% of milk samples were contaminated with AFM1 and had a concentration between 0.001 and 23.10 μg/kg, and 63% of the dairy samples were contaminated with AFM1 and had a concentration between 0.001 and 18.12 μg/kg. According to these studies, referring to AFM1, the highest estimated daily doses were reported for Mexico (20.9 ng/kg body weight/day), Brazil (2.4 ng/kg body weight/day), Colombia (1.2 ng/kg body weight/day), and Costa Rica (1.0 ng/kg body weight/day). During the 15 years of the study, all average values calculated for Latin American countries exceeded the maximum limits allowed by FAO and WHO (0.058 ng/kg body weight per day) [158].
In a study of 80 egg samples (farm eggs and domestic eggs) collected from the central areas of Punjab, Pakistan, the presence of AF, OTA, and ZEN was analyzed. The results showed that 28% of the samples were found contaminated with AF, and the maximum level of AFB1 was 2.41 μg/kg and the total AF was 2.97 μg/kg. More than 35% of samples were found to be contaminated with OTA and a maximum level of 1.46 μg/kg. A total of 32% of samples were found to be contaminated with ZEN and a maximum level of 2.23 μg/kg. The occurrence and incidence of AF, OTA, and ZEN in chicken meat are alarming and can cause health hazards and have called for the need for continuous monitoring of these toxins in chicken meat [16].
In 152 egg samples collected from the markets of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Shanghai (China) the main mycotoxins observed were DON, 15-AcDON, and ZEN [11]. Makun et al. showed that 85% of eggs tested in Nigeria were contaminated with DON at concentrations between 0.6 and 17.9 ng/g [159].
Mycotoxins are a public health concern, mainly due to their multiple types and prevalence that can lead to adverse effects due to chronic exposure even when contaminating food at low levels. If ingested, mycotoxins can cause episodes of acute or chronic diseases, such as various types of cancer, food poisoning, liver disease, various hemorrhagic syndromes, immune and neurological disorders in humans [160]. In addition, mycotoxin contamination of food has been linked to cytotoxicity or even genotoxicity [161], which can also induce toxic effects on the liver and kidneys, immune reproduction and fetal toxicity, and teratogenicity and carcinogenicity [162]. Moreover, exposure to a mycotoxin diet has been associated with an increased incidence of esophageal and gastric carcinomas in certain regions of China [163]. Therefore, mycotoxin contamination is a long-term hidden danger to human health, and relentless efforts have been devoted to mycotoxin investigation [10].
In recent years, large-scale poisoning incidents and international trade disputes caused by fungal contamination are extremely common. For example, severe outbreaks of aflatoxinosis have been reported in Kenya, India, and Malaysia, killing hundreds of people. In the United States, mycotoxin corn infection is a chronic economic and health problem. The European Union’s food and feed rapid alert system has placed mycotoxins in second place based on the total number of hazard notifications [10].
Table 1 summarizes the structures of common mycotoxins and the toxic effects they cause on human health. For example, AF toxicity can cause the infant to deform by crossing the placental barrier [183]. In 2018, McMillan et al. confirmed that AF could cause other effects, such as anemia, immunosuppression, and reduced growth rate [165]. In addition, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has indicated that exposure to AF may impair renal function in addition to having strong hepatotoxic effects (IARC group 1) (group 1 means carcinogenic to humans), and the same effects have been reported for sterigmatocystin [55]. TA, a toxin produced by
Mycotoxins | Toxic effect | Reference work |
---|---|---|
Aflatoxin B1 | Development of hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer and affects the child’s development | [164] |
Anemia, immunosuppression, causing reduction growth rate | [165] | |
Ochratoxin A | Carcinogenic, teratogenic, immunotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and neurotoxicity | [10, 166] |
Zearalenone | Endometrial cancer | [167] |
Disorders of the hormonal balance of the body; prostate, ovarian, cervical, or breast cancers | [168] | |
Deoxynivalenol | Emesis, anorexia, growth retardation, immunotoxicity, reproduction, and development resulting from maternal toxicity. Altered neuroendocrine signaling, proinflammatory gene induction, disruption of the growth hormone axis, and altered gut integrity | [169] |
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, headache, dizziness, fever, and effects on reproduction | [170] | |
Fumonisin B2 | Teratogenic, hepatotoxic, and nephrotoxic | [161] |
T-2 toxin | A latent inhibitor of mitochondrial function and protein synthesis | [171] |
Causing low growth and side effects on the thymus, spleen, heart, and liver | [172] | |
Beauvericin | Induction of apoptosis, increases the concentration of cytoplasmic calcium | [173] |
Patulin | Impairment of some of the physiological parameters that characterize the intestinal barrier function | [174] |
Citrinin | Impaired renal function in addition to strong hepatotoxic effects | [10] |
α-Cyclopiazonic acid | Weight loss, nausea, diarrhea, dizziness, muscle necrosis, seizures | [175] |
Enniatin B | Cytotoxic effect for different cell lines and reduces the motility of wild boar sperm | [176] |
Alternariol | DNA damage | [177] |
Genotoxic in bacteria and mammalian cells | [10] | |
Sterigmatocystin | Genotoxic cytotoxic effects | [178] |
Induction of DNA damage in HepG2 cells | [179] | |
Fusaric acid | Modification of neurotransmitter levels by inhibition of dopamine hydroxylase and modulation of tyrosine hydroxylase | [180] |
Tenuazonic acid | Inhibition of protein biosynthesis; causing precancerous changes in the esophageal mucosa of mice | [181] |
Mycophenolic acid | Nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps, and diarrhea; infections hematological complications (anemia, leukopenia, neutropenia); cytostatic effects on lymphocytes | [182] |
Toxic effects caused by the main mycotoxins.
In recent years, large-scale poisoning incidents and international trade disputes caused by fungal contamination are extremely common. For example, severe outbreaks of aflatoxinosis have been reported in Kenya, India, and Malaysia, killing hundreds of people. In the United States, corn mycotoxin infection is a chronic economic and health problem [10]. The European Union’s food and feed rapid alert system has placed mycotoxins in second place in terms of the total number of hazard notifications.
CIT affects kidney function but has been shown to be less toxic than OTA. The latter has carcinogenic, neurotoxic, immunotoxic, and teratogenic effects, exerting nephrotoxicity. According to IARC group 2B (group 2B means possible human carcinoma) both OTA and fumonisins have carcinogenic effects on kidney cells) [10]. It is called vomitoxin because it can lead to some typical acute effects, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, headache, dizziness, or fever, which has also been linked to outbreaks of gastroenteritis in animals and humans. In addition, DON acts as a potent inhibitor of protein synthesis and stimulates the pro-inflammatory response, resulting in the impairment of multiple physiological functions. NIV has been demonstrated with immunotoxicity, hematotoxicity, myelotoxicity, and developmental and reproductive toxicity [169]. T-2 is a latent inhibitor of mitochondrial function and protein synthesis. Moreover, T-2 has toxic effects on the skin and mucous membranes [171].
Long-term ingestion of PAT has shown immunotoxicity, mutagenicity, and neurotoxicity in animals [112]. Trichothecenes are a large family of structurally related mycotoxins among which DON is the most common worldwide [184]. DON has high immunotoxic and immunosuppressive effects against a variety of animal and human cells [88].
DAS exerts acute and chronic effects on humans and animals, such as hematotoxicity, growth retardation, lung disorders, immunotoxicity, and cardiovascular effects [26]. In addition, Vidal et al. linked DAS toxicity to distal tubular epithelial necrosis in the kidney [184]. Fumonisins cause a lot of negative effects on humans and animals, such as teratogenic, hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic, esophageal cancer, liver cancer, and neural tube defects [161]. Belhassen et al. confirmed that ZEN stimulates the growth of human breast cancer cells [185], but IARC classified ZEN in group 3 (IARC) (group 3 does not mean carcinogenic effects on humans). In addition, ZEN has strong estrogenic activity and may be an essential etiological agent of infant intoxication, leading to premature enlargement of puberty and breast enlargement. Moreover, IARC reported that FUS-X mainly affects organs that have actively dividing cells, including hematopoietic tissue, spleen, and thymus, as well as exerts intestinal inflammation, inhibits protein synthesis, and induces apoptosis. However, the toxicity of mycotoxins is not stationary, which changes during metabolism in humans and animals [10]. In addition, the assessment of adverse health effects is complicated by multiple exposures to various mycotoxins that can lead to synergistic or antergic toxic effects [186]. Furthermore, the susceptibility of animals and humans varies according to species, age, nutrition, duration of exposure, and other factors [187]. Therefore, the synergistic or antergic toxic effects of different mycotoxins should attract more attention, which is also a new topic in mycotoxin toxicity research.
In addition, a wide range of masked mycotoxins that have been produced by plant phase II metabolism may co-appear as contaminants in addition to parent compounds in food samples. The group of masked mycotoxins comprises both conjugated extractable and related varieties. Bound mycotoxins are attached to carbohydrates or proteins by covalence or non-covalence, which cannot be detected directly and must be released from the matrix by chemical or enzymatic treatment before detection [188]. Regarding the toxicity of masked mycotoxins, on the one hand, these mycotoxins can degrade in free states in the digestive tract of humans and animals, releasing their prototypes of toxins, thus increasing exposure to toxins and posing a greater threat to human health. On the other hand, changes in mycotoxin molecules that reduce or eliminate toxicity can lead to an apparent overestimation of mycotoxin contamination. Thus, it is necessary to understand the fate of masked mycotoxins during food processing and digestion. Khaneghah et al. conducted a comprehensive review of changes in DON masked forms and their occurrence in combination with culmorin in grain-based products [189]. They also comprehensively exposed the characteristics, incidence, control, and fate of DON and its masked forms [190]. However, there are only limited data reported on the occurrence of masked mycotoxins in food, as well as information on the transformation, stability, and release of masked mycotoxins in the food chain. Moreover, masked mycotoxins easily escaped conventional detection due to the biotransformation of their structures, leading to underreporting [191]. In view of the above, it is essential to pay more attention to the subsequent investigation of masked mycotoxins, in particular their occurrence, exposure, toxicity, and nontarget screening.
The purpose of this chapter was to analyze the significant types of mycotoxins in food that are consumed directly or indirectly by humans. Studies show that contamination of various mycotoxins is still high in developing countries and remains the main concern in these regions. In recent years, most reports of contamination have been reported for maize, wheat, and rice, respectively. AFB1 are considered the most dangerous mycotoxins and have a high prevalence in cereals that in most studies exceeded the EC permitted limit. DON, ZEN, and FUM are the other significant mycotoxins in cereals, such as barley, sorghum, and oats.
The high stability of mycotoxins during the production, distribution, storage, and processing of cereals was aimed at the contamination of mycotoxins in cereals. Therefore, the development of practical control and management strategies is essential to ensure consumer safety.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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The proposed bridge design has a total span of 4440 m with two 330-m end spans and a central span of 3780 m. The height of the two pylons is 702 m, and the deck width is 40 m. The features of this structure include the combination of a suspension bridge and cable-stayed bridge, application of carbon fibre materials, extension of deck width and pretension techniques. Linear static analysis, dynamic analysis and theoretical analysis are conducted under different loading cases. In linear static analysis, the stresses under critical load combinations are smaller than the ultimate strength of the materials. However, the maximum deflection under the dead and wind load combination exceeds the specified serviceability limit.",book:{id:"6395",slug:"bridge-engineering",title:"Bridge Engineering",fullTitle:"Bridge Engineering"},signatures:"Faham Tahmasebinia, Samad Mohammad Ebrahimzadeh\nSepasgozar, Hannah Blum, Kakarla Raghava Reddy, Fernando\nAlonso-Marroquin, Qile Gao, Yang Hu, Xu Wang and Zhongzheng\nWang",authors:[{id:"211659",title:"Dr.",name:"Faham",middleName:null,surname:"Tahmasebinia",slug:"faham-tahmasebinia",fullName:"Faham Tahmasebinia"},{id:"221172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samad M.E.",middleName:null,surname:"Sepasgozar",slug:"samad-m.e.-sepasgozar",fullName:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar"}]},{id:"61896",title:"Children’s Playgrounds in Slovak Mass Housing Estates: History and Current Trends",slug:"children-s-playgrounds-in-slovak-mass-housing-estates-history-and-current-trends",totalDownloads:1349,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Children’s playgrounds represent an important amenity in the concepts of mass housing, The study chapter presents the unique concepts of children’s playgrounds that have been applied in the Slovak mass housing estates of the second half of the twentieth century, designed by architects and artist, and inspired by the best European experiences, for example, by the landscape design of the Stockholm School. The early inhabitants of the Slovak mass housing estates were predominantly young families with children. The residential aging of this homogenous social structure caused that during the lifespan of housing estates, the demand for playgrounds decreased, they became underused and fell into decay. Today, the social structure of mass housing estates becomes more heterogeneous, what puts new requirements on the design of open public spaces and, as well as, on the regeneration and design of children’s playgrounds, to serve the rising demands of the inhabitants and to enhance the livability of the housing estates. The study examines the current examples of the children’s playgrounds from Slovak mass housing estates, which show that nowadays the typified design of the standardized catalog type elements is used and preferred.",book:{id:"7205",slug:"housing",title:"Housing",fullTitle:"Housing"},signatures:"Katarína Kristiánová",authors:[{id:"224853",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarina",middleName:null,surname:"Kristianova",slug:"katarina-kristianova",fullName:"Katarina Kristianova"}]},{id:"66232",title:"Geotechnical Engineering Applied on Earth and Rock-Fill Dams",slug:"geotechnical-engineering-applied-on-earth-and-rock-fill-dams",totalDownloads:2359,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter presents the importance of geotechnical engineering on the site selection, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of earth-rock dams and earth structures; it emphasizes the geotechnical engineering work related to dam safety during the operation stage. Preliminary geological studies required to select the best dam site are described first. Next, the field and laboratory studies related to the curtain design and dam foundation treatment, as well as geotechnical studies required for the construction, operation, and maintenance of the dam, are discussed. Recent developments in the following three areas are also included: (a) seismic considerations for the design, construction, and maintenance of earth dams; (b) importance of water flow control through the dam embankment and dam foundation, required to avoid internal soil erosion and excessive pore pressure; and (c) dam safety in Mexico and around the world. A case history of a recent failure is used for illustration purposes. In this example, design and construction shortcomings resulted in serious damages on an earth dam. Conclusions and recommendations related to this topic are presented at the end of this chapter.",book:{id:"7587",slug:"hydraulic-structures-theory-and-applications",title:"Hydraulic Structures",fullTitle:"Hydraulic Structures - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Raúl Flores-Berrones and Norma Patricia López-Acosta",authors:[{id:"58505",title:"Dr.",name:"Raul",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Berrones",slug:"raul-flores-berrones",fullName:"Raul Flores-Berrones"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"114",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"1082726",title:"Potential of Nonlinear Dynamics Tools in the Real-Time Monitoring of Large Dams: The Case of High Enguri Arc Dam",slug:null,totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5992/intechopen.1000204",abstract:'Large dams are grand structures with a complex nonlinear dynamic behavior. These nonlinear effects, though relatively small, can be very important for the analysis of dam mesoscopic damage accumulation using available monitoring data, namely, the time series of strains/tilts of the dam structure in response to the periodic filling/draining process of the reservoir. The authors derive the characteristics of the unknown dynamics using the time series of tilts and strains of a structure by means of recurrence plots (RPs), recurrence quantification analysis (RQA), Lempel-Ziv complexity (LZC), mutual information (MI), detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA), and singular spectrum analysis (SSA) for studying dam dynamics. Anomalies in the nonlinear dynamics characteristics of the measured time series of the tilts/strains of dam during the reservoir regular filling/discharge process may signal the abnormal behavior of the object. These methods were used for the analysis of the monitoring data of the 271-m-high Enguri arch dam, still one of the highest (in its class) dams in the world, which was built in the canyon of Enguri river (West Georgia) in the 1970s. Since 1996, the European Centre “Geodynamical Hazards of High Dams” of the Council of Europe has been operating on Enguri dam. Since 2020, the International Project DAMAST: Dams and Seismicity has been going on in the Enguri dam area.
',book:{id:"11187",title:"Special Topics in Dam Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11187.jpg"},signatures:"Tamaz Chelidze, Teimuraz Matcharashvili, Ekaterine Mepharidze, Levan Mebonia, Mirian Kalabegashvili and Nadezhda Dovgal"},{id:"1084630",title:"Analysing the Possibility of Failure of Cascade Dam System and a Case Study from Brazil",slug:null,totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5992/intechopen.1000202",abstract:'A cascade dam system poses more hazards for downstream life and structures, when compared with a single dam located on a river. Therefore, there is a need to develop differentiated procedures to classify and regulate these dams. In the state of Mato Grosso (MT), Brazil, it is common to find multipurpose dams, which can be considered as a cascade, when a dam failure causes adverse effects in downstream dams. The objective of the study is to analyse the possibility of dam failure located in the cascade system operated by the municipality of Várzea Grande, MT by the Associated Potential Damage (APD) classification used throughout the country. In order to do this, the specification namely “Simplified Methodology to Define the Classification Flood Zone of Associated Potential Damage of a Dam” developed by the National Laboratory for Civil Engineering in Portugal (LNEC in Portuguese) was utilised. This specification was adapted by the National Water and Sanitation Agency (ANA in Portuguese) in Brazil. In the case study, there are three dams (Dam 1, Dam 2 and Dam 3) in the cascade system. Dam 1 can cause overtopping problem for Dam 2 and Dam 3. According to APD classification, dams considered for the study are categorised as “high dam”.
',book:{id:"11187",title:"Special Topics in Dam Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11187.jpg"},signatures:"Angélica Luciana Barros de Campos, Ruben Jose Ramos Cardia and Welitom Ttatom Pereira da Silva"},{id:"1081439",title:"Recent Evaluation on Total Risk of Cascade Dams on Murat River of Upper Euphrates Basin, Turkey",slug:null,totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5992/intechopen.1000206",abstract:'The dams within a cascade system pose a high total risk to the downstream life, even if they provide significant benefits in terms of flood protection, irrigation water, and domestic water supply and energy production; a dam in a cascade system also poses a substantial risk from the point of view of other structures in the basin and causes the danger to grow due to the triggering effect from the point of view of dam failure. In this study, the total hazard of the dams in the Murat River located in the upper part of the Euphrates-Tigris Basin, the largest basin in Turkey, will be evaluated, and calculations made about it will be summarized. The possible hazards in a cascade system will be highlighted. Ten large dams of various types ranging from 36 m to 138 m in height from the river basin have been considered in this context. The analysis results show that six dams are under near-source effect in terms of seismicity, and all of the dams considered have a high total risk, although they have different hazard ratios. In addition, three separate dams located within the cascade structure carry a much greater risk regarding the dangers that other structures may create.
',book:{id:"11187",title:"Special Topics in Dam Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11187.jpg"},signatures:"Hasan Tosun"},{id:"1082008",title:"Uncertainty Factors Influencing Hydroelectric LCA Studies: A Review",slug:null,totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5992/intechopen.1000185",abstract:'Despite the increase in research on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Hydroelectric Power Plants (HPP) there are issues that need to be better discussed. This review aims to discuss factors that influence HPP LCAs such as: indirect emissions, different stages of HPPs (construction, operation, and decommissioning), scale/productivity of HPPs, types of projects (reservoir and run-of-river) and use of the ground. Most of the results obtained by HPP LCAs indicate that the construction phase is the most influential phase for indirect emissions due to the use of steel and concrete. The comparison of the HPP’s LCA results with the LCA of other energy sources indicates that for the analyzed category Global Warming Potential (GWP), the HPPs present a good environmental performance considering the quantified emissions, their productivity and useful life. The present review highlights some uncertainty factors that influence HPP LCA studies and cites the need to carry out future studies on the environmental impacts of HPPs including these factors.
',book:{id:"11187",title:"Special Topics in Dam Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11187.jpg"},signatures:"Marla T.B. Geller and Anderson Alvarenga de Moura Meneses"},{id:"1084778",title:"Geomembranes in Dam Engineering",slug:null,totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5992/intechopen.1000175",abstract:'Geomembrane systems are used to provide, enhance, or restore watertightness in dams since 1959. In new construction, they are installed on embankment dams, RCC dams, and cofferdams, while in rehabilitation they are used on all types of dams. They can be installed as a full-face liner, or to line parts of the dam where a higher risk of infiltration is expected, or as external water stop at peripheral and vertical joints and at contraction joints. They can be exposed to the water of the reservoir or be covered by a ballast layer; a watertight seal at all peripheries prevents water infiltration underneath the geomembrane liner. A geomembrane water barrier is a technically and cost-effective sustainable solution. The chapter discusses the design of the state-of-the-art solutions, the technical and economic advantages, installation aspects, performance, and references, with significant examples of all available options. A recent solution for underwater placement, developed for repair but applicable also in new construction, will be presented.
',book:{id:"11187",title:"Special Topics in Dam Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11187.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriella Vaschetti"},{id:"1083097",title:"Managing the Quality of the Impounded Water",slug:"tbc-29",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5992/intechopen.1000168",abstract:'Design, construction, and operation of a dam should involve planning and careful consideration not only of the foundation and mass of the dam itself but also of the proper management of the reservoir, and of communities displaced by the reservoir, and impacted in any way upstream or downstream. Many management problems involve a reservoir’s density stratification, resulting in low oxygen, phosphorus release, and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the lower layers. Control measures include selective withdrawal and artificial aeration. Case examples are given. Other problems introduced by damming are often best dealt with by measures slow and well-considered, as illustrated by examples. References for further study are provided.
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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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