Comparision of some important parameters of various landfill sites.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10536",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Campylobacter",title:"Campylobacter",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Campylobacter is the major cause of food-borne bacterial diarrheal illnesses worldwide. Many wild and domestic animals carry the organism in their intestines. Intestinal colonization results in the transmission of Campylobacteriosis to healthy animals, and epidemiological studies imply that contaminated animal products contribute to Campylobacteriosis. Interventions in animal production offer the best chance of minimizing illness risk. In addition, implementing enhanced hygiene standards and decontamination can reduce the prevalence of Campylobacter contamination in animal meat. This book investigates Campylobacter’s significance as a food-borne pathogen and summarizes recent breakthroughs in isolation, identification, the involvement of immune responses and microbiota, as well as novel control strategies.",isbn:"978-1-83968-976-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-975-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-977-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92910",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"campylobacter",numberOfPages:124,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c4b132b741dd0a2ed539b824ab63965f",bookSignature:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias and Saeed El-Ashram",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg",numberOfDownloads:718,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 9th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 8th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 9th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 28th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 27th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73465/images/system/73465.jpg",biography:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias received his DVM and MS in Veterinary Sciences from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), and his Ph.D. from Texas A&M University. He worked as a professor at UNAM for sixteen years, eight as head of the Avian Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine. He was previously president of the National Poultry Science Association of Mexico and is a member of the Mexican Veterinary Academy and the Mexican National Research System. Currently, he works as a research professor at the Center of Excellence in Poultry Science, University of Arkansas. His research is focused on poultry gastrointestinal models to evaluate the beneficial effects of functional foods to enhance intestinal health and disease resistance.",institutionString:"University of Arkansas at Fayetteville",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"9",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Arkansas at Fayetteville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"209746",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"El-Ashram",slug:"saeed-el-ashram",fullName:"Saeed El-Ashram",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/209746/images/system/209746.jpg",biography:"Dr. Saeed El-Ashram is a professor at Foshan University, China, and Kafrelsheikh University, Egypt, and a research professor at Zhaoqing Dahuanong Biology Medicine Co., Ltd., China. Dr. El-Ashram\\'s research focuses on parasitic diseases. He has more than 100 journal publications to his credit. He is currently an academic editor and reviewer and holds several registered patents. The primary focus of his research is to understand how the animal immune system recognizes and responds to parasitic infections with and/or without a microbial community. Some are the causative agents of significant diseases in humans, such as toxoplasmosis, cryptosporidiosis, alveolar echinococcosis, and fascioliasis. Others are a substantial financial burden to food producers because of the effects these parasites have on domestic animals, for example, coccidiosis and cryptosporidiosis (livestock and poultry).",institutionString:"Foshan University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Foshan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"906",title:"Bacteriology",slug:"pure-microbiology-bacteriology"}],chapters:[{id:"80537",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Significance of Campylobacter as Foodborne Pathogen",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102673",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-significance-of-em-campylobacter-em-as-foodborne-pathogen",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Saeed El-Ashram, Cheng He, Guillermo Tellez-Isaias, Victor M. Petrone-Garcia, Musafiri Karama, Beniamino Cenci-Goga, Luca Grispoldi, Reem Alajmi and Abdulaziz S. Alouffi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80537",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80537",authors:[{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez"},{id:"452096",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",surname:"He",slug:"cheng-he",fullName:"Cheng He"},{id:"452097",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",surname:"El-Ashram",slug:"saeed-el-ashram",fullName:"Saeed El-Ashram"},{id:"455156",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Victor",surname:"Petrone-Garcia",slug:"victor-petrone-garcia",fullName:"Victor Petrone-Garcia"},{id:"455157",title:"Dr.",name:"Musafiri",surname:"Karama",slug:"musafiri-karama",fullName:"Musafiri Karama"},{id:"455158",title:"Dr.",name:"Beniamino",surname:"Cenci-Goga",slug:"beniamino-cenci-goga",fullName:"Beniamino Cenci-Goga"},{id:"455159",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",surname:"Grispoldi",slug:"luca-grispoldi",fullName:"Luca Grispoldi"},{id:"455160",title:"Dr.",name:"Reem",surname:"Alajmi",slug:"reem-alajmi",fullName:"Reem Alajmi"},{id:"455161",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulaziz",surname:"S. Alouffi",slug:"abdulaziz-s.-alouf",fullName:"Abdulaziz S. Alouffi"}],corrections:null},{id:"79935",title:"Salmonellosis and Campylobacteriosis, Emerging Zoonosis in the World and Current Situation in Mexico",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101875",slug:"salmonellosis-and-campylobacteriosis-emerging-zoonosis-in-the-world-and-current-situation-in-mexico",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis are the furthermost common zoonotic infections around the world that are transferred. The spread of Salmonella enterica serotypes Enteritidis (SE) and Typhimurium (ST) has increased dramatically in the last 50 years due to the consumption of food contaminated and the emergence of SE and ST infections with multiple antibiotic resistance. Retrospective investigations imply an epidemiological link between people and poultry. It has been argued that farm modernization and global exports of progenitor birds have had a vital role in spreading SE and ST. On the other hand, campylobacteriosis is more common than salmonellosis in affluent countries. Campylobacter jejuni has been identified as the primary cause of acute diarrheal illnesses, frequently associated with animal-derived foods, particularly poultry meat. The current review examines immunological and molecular biological techniques that allow for the quick detection of asymptomatic animal carriers, as well as recent characterizations of relevant taxonomic and pathogenic characteristics of these organisms. We further urge epidemiological research to evaluate the incidence of human diseases arising from poultry eating, based on preliminary non-publisher findings implying a prevalence of salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis in Mexican poultry farms comparable to other nations.",signatures:"Adriana del Carmen Gutiérrez-Castillo, Leopoldo Henri Paasch-Martínez and Norma Leticia Calderón-Apodaca",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79935",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79935",authors:[{id:"447370",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma L.",surname:"Calderón Apodaca",slug:"norma-l.-calderon-apodaca",fullName:"Norma L. Calderón Apodaca"},{id:"450290",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana del Carmen",surname:"Gutiérrez-Castillo",slug:"adriana-del-carmen-gutierrez-castillo",fullName:"Adriana del Carmen Gutiérrez-Castillo"},{id:"450291",title:"Dr.",name:"Leopoldo Henri",surname:"Paasch-Martínez",slug:"leopoldo-henri-paasch-martinez",fullName:"Leopoldo Henri Paasch-Martínez"}],corrections:null},{id:"75751",title:"The Role of Immune Response and Microbiota on Campylobacteriosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96755",slug:"the-role-of-immune-response-and-microbiota-on-campylobacteriosis",totalDownloads:261,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Million cases of campylobacteriosis and complications of post-Campylobacter jejuni infection occur every year around the world with huge life losses and economic burdens of billions of dollars. Few therapy options, such as antibiotics, are available to relieve severe cases of the enteritis. The slow progression on new intervention discovery and application is partially resulted from limited mechanistic understanding on campylobacteriosis pathogenesis. As a type of intestinal disorders, campylobacteriosis shares many common features with other intestinal diseases such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and Clostridium difficile infection. In pace with the advancement of the gastroenterology field, a large body of knowledge is accumulating on the factors influencing campylobacteriosis onset, development, and outcomes, including host immune response, intestinal microbiota, and its metabolites. In this chapter, we review the intestinal immune system, intestinal microbiome, and microbiome modulation of inflammation in the development of campylobacteriosis. The interplay between immunity, microbiota, and its metabolites may play essential roles on campylobacteriosis pathogenesis and the finding on the interaction may lead to new prevention and treatment options. The purpose of this chapter is to provide updated knowledge on the role of host–microbe interaction and the therapeutic potential on campylobacteriosis.",signatures:"Ying Fu, Tahrir Alenezi, Ayidh Almansour, Hong Wang, Zhenquan Jia and Xiaolun Sun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75751",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75751",authors:[{id:"342520",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Xiaolun",surname:"Sun",slug:"xiaolun-sun",fullName:"Xiaolun Sun"},{id:"346351",title:"Ms.",name:"Ying",surname:"Fu",slug:"ying-fu",fullName:"Ying Fu"},{id:"347285",title:"Dr.",name:"Hong",surname:"Wang",slug:"hong-wang",fullName:"Hong Wang"},{id:"347286",title:"Ms.",name:"Tahrir",surname:"Alenezi",slug:"tahrir-alenezi",fullName:"Tahrir Alenezi"},{id:"347287",title:"Mr.",name:"Ayidh",surname:"Almansour",slug:"ayidh-almansour",fullName:"Ayidh Almansour"},{id:"347289",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhenquan",surname:"Jia",slug:"zhenquan-jia",fullName:"Zhenquan Jia"}],corrections:null},{id:"81596",title:"Isolation and Identification of Campylobacter spp. from Food and Food-Related Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103114",slug:"isolation-and-identification-of-em-campylobacter-em-spp-from-food-and-food-related-environment",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Campylobacter species are among the most common causes of bacterial gastroenteritis in humans worldwide. The genus Campylobacter consists of at least 39 validly published species with wide distribution in various hosts and environments, which are either pathogens for humans or animals, or not pathogenic as identified so far. Various methods have been used for detecting campylobacters including conventional culture methods, molecular (such as polymerase chain reaction), immunological methods and genome sequencing. Currently, isolation and subsequent identification of the target campylobacters are required by most of the regulatory bodies globally. The multiple Campylobacter species exhibit diverse physiological and metabolic characteristics and growth requirements, which can interfere with the sensitivity and specificity of culture-dependent methods. Furthermore, strains among each species may behavior differently in various culture media and under various culture conditions. Therefore, it is important to apply appropriate isolation and identification methods for different types of species and samples based on specific purposes. This chapter will review the development and the current status of culture-dependent methods for the isolation and detection of various Campylobacter species from food and food-related environments during the next generation sequencing era.",signatures:"Honsheng Huang and Manuel Mariano Garcia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81596",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81596",authors:[{id:"342722",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hongsheng",surname:"Huang",slug:"hongsheng-huang",fullName:"Hongsheng Huang"},{id:"470223",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel Mariano",surname:"Garcia",slug:"manuel-mariano-garcia",fullName:"Manuel Mariano Garcia"}],corrections:null},{id:"75880",title:"Conventional and Molecular Detection Methods of the Opportunistic Bacterial Pathogen Campylobacter concisus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97004",slug:"conventional-and-molecular-detection-methods-of-the-opportunistic-bacterial-pathogen-em-campylobacte",totalDownloads:163,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Campylobacter concisus is an emerging pathogen that causes gastroenteritis and is a suspected cause of inflammatory bowel diseases. Its importance is enhanced by the chronic sequela that results from acute infection. This bacterium has been under-diagnosed in intestinal infectious diseases, and its clinical importance has not been determined yet. In order to establish the implication of this emerging bacterial species in human gastroenteritis and other infections, different approaches and procedure have been performed, where molecular typing methods have played a central role. The chapter provides a comprehensive past and recent updates on the detection of C. concisus by biochemical and molecular methods.",signatures:"Mohsina Huq and Taghrid Istivan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75880",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75880",authors:[{id:"343577",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Taghrid",surname:"Istivan",slug:"taghrid-istivan",fullName:"Taghrid Istivan"},{id:"343579",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsina",surname:"Huq",slug:"mohsina-huq",fullName:"Mohsina Huq"}],corrections:null},{id:"76534",title:"Health Care Associated Infections (HCAIs) a New Threat for World; U-Turn from Recovery to Death",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97193",slug:"health-care-associated-infections-hcais-a-new-threat-for-world-u-turn-from-recovery-to-death",totalDownloads:259,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Health care associated infections also termed as nosocomial infections are notable cause of morbidity and mortality especially in resource limited countries like Pakistan. Newborns and aged people have more probability of being infected by Health care associated infections because of immunosuppressant. Central line associated blood stream infections (CLABSI) are considered as one of the promising negotiator associated with Health Care associated infections. Improper health care setting and unaware medical staff play a championship protagonist in prevalence of health care associated infections. Standard hygienic measures should be adopted to reduce risk of Health care associated infections. So, there is a pressing need to take on control policies by Government to handle this dilemma. This chapter gives new intuition to healthcare associated microbes, infections and provides comprehensive detailed on ironic precaution to scientific community.",signatures:"Ayesha Noor, Ali Raza Ishaq, Laila Jafri, Faiza Jabeen, Rehana Rani, Bushra Hafeez Kiani, Nosheen Akhtar, Zeeshan Javed, Tahira Younis and Fatima Jalal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76534",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76534",authors:[{id:"80263",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatima",surname:"Jalal",slug:"fatima-jalal",fullName:"Fatima Jalal"},{id:"259738",title:"Dr.",name:"Faiza",surname:"Jabeen",slug:"faiza-jabeen",fullName:"Faiza Jabeen"},{id:"267225",title:"Dr.",name:"Nosheen",surname:"Akhtar",slug:"nosheen-akhtar",fullName:"Nosheen Akhtar"},{id:"280030",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Raza Ishaq",slug:"ali-raza-ishaq",fullName:"Ali Raza Ishaq"},{id:"345824",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ayesha",surname:"Noor",slug:"ayesha-noor",fullName:"Ayesha Noor"},{id:"413985",title:"Dr.",name:"Laila",surname:"Jafri",slug:"laila-jafri",fullName:"Laila Jafri"},{id:"413986",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehana",surname:"Rani",slug:"rehana-rani",fullName:"Rehana Rani"},{id:"413987",title:"Dr.",name:"Bushra Hafiz",surname:"Kiani",slug:"bushra-hafiz-kiani",fullName:"Bushra Hafiz Kiani"},{id:"413988",title:"Mr.",name:"Zeeshan",surname:"Javed",slug:"zeeshan-javed",fullName:"Zeeshan Javed"},{id:"413989",title:"Dr.",name:"Tahira",surname:"Younis",slug:"tahira-younis",fullName:"Tahira Younis"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5471",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"514afc8c2d4eb28ddca22c032ad96d9e",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",bookSignature:"Shymaa Enany and Laura E. 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This includes lesions such as melasma, sun-induced lentigo, café-au-lait macules, moles, and malignant melanoma. In the second category “congenital hypopigmented disorders”, diseases such as albinism, piebaldism, hypomelanosis of Ito, and tuberous sclerosis are placed. The third topic is “common and acquired disorders of hypopigmentation”, where diseases such as vitiligo, tinea versicolor, and tinea alba are discussed. The fourth topic is the “treatment of hyper- and hypopigmented disorders”. Types of treatment include sunscreens, hydroquinone, skin peels, retinoids, azelaic acid, laser and IPL therapy, skin surgery, and depigmentation therapy.
\r\n\tThe fifth topic is “complications and drug side effects in the treatment of pigmentation disorders”. These include drug allergies, hyper- and hypopigmentation, persistent skin depigmentation, scars, skin burns, and the potential for skin cancer and skin lymphoma. The last topic is called “coping and support along with skin pigmentation diseases”. Increase the quality of life, psychotherapy, team therapy, and asking for understanding and support from family members.
Landfill leachate is a liquid composed of absorbed components which may be soluble solids or any other undesirable components present in the landfill. It is formed when water passes through the landfill waste in the form of rain and seeps through the stockpile consisting of waste materials from different sources such as municipal and industrial wastes. Since the waste material can comprise of various chemicals, organic and inorganic compounds in large volume which also gets decomposed, the leachate that is formed is generally high in toxicity.
Due to generation of huge amount of solid wastes, many of which contain toxic and recalcitrant substances, its control and management has become the utmost need in recent years. Segregation of waste materials and recycling are two major ways of reducing the pollution in a solid waste dumpsite or a landfill. Among the hazardous components of landfill leachates, microplastics in the size range of 100 to 1000 μm is also found in many of the municipal solid waste landfill leachates. This has been developed after a long time period of time, and the major types are polyethylene and polypropylene which are increasingly used throughout the years because of its convenience to use. Other hazardous components which have been of major concern since long time are toxic heavy metals like lead, arsenic, cadmium, mercury etc. and xenobiotic compounds like halogenated organic compounds. Proper and timely monitoring of the landfill and its leachate is required to control the pollution that can occur to the groundwater, soil and air. Gases that get released due to decomposition and microbial activity have caused severe accidental bursts in many landfill areas due to improper management and lack of monitoring. Therefore, risk assessment is an important criterion for the management of landfill areas. A number of treatment methods comprising of physical, chemical and biological methods have been developed, but none of these methods alone can be declared as having the highest efficiency as the landfill leachates also vary in their composition, volume and migration. However, bioremediation or treatment using biological processes is of major interest because of its low-cost, high efficiency and environment friendly. Physical and chemical methods, although very efficient, have high cost and some of the chemical methods pose environmental concerns in the long run. Regarding biological processes, a number of microorganisms are yet to be explored which can be used as a bioremediating agent. Many bacteria and fungi are already proved to have high removal capacity of leachate parameters like BOD, COD, nitrate and sulphate. In recent years, microorganisms able to remediate heavy metals, xenobiotic compounds and even plastics have been discovered. This shows that there is huge potential of microorganisms to help in the treatment of landfill leachates.
Leachates contain both organic and inorganic pollutants, out of which some constituents are highly toxic and pose a threat to the environment. The actual composition of landfill leachate varies according to the type of waste which has been dumped and accumulated. In developing countries waste segregation is not practiced, waste management and treatment system are not well established and landfill systems are also not properly designed to prevent leachate flow. Because of lack of waste segregation, landfill dumpsites may have mixed waste materials. For example, in a municipal solid waste (MSW), food waste, household discards, plastics, paints, mercury containing waste, batteries and other products made up of toxic compounds and heavy metals may be present. However, in general, the dissolved organic matter comprises of acids, alcohols, aldehydes and sugars, and the inorganic components such as calcium, magnesium, sulphate, chloride and ammonia. These constituents are present in much higher concentrations than normal aquifers. Inorganic pollutants found in leachates are ammonium, phosphorous, sulphate and heavy metals. Volatile fatty acids are majorly present in young leachates and tend to decrease gradually in aged landfills. Humic acids and fulvic acids are also commonly present in old landfills and leachate plumes. Among the heavy metals, the common ones are Fe, Pb, Ni, Cd, As, Cr, Cu and Hg. Other toxic pollutants which are present in landfill leachates are the aromatic hydrocarbons (Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, and Xylene), phenols, pesticides, polyethylene, plasticizers, and halogenated organic compounds like PCBs and dioxins. Landfills are also a shelter for pathogenic microorganisms, mostly coliform bacteria and a few viruses. The pH and temperature changes may, however, inactivate these microorganisms.
A variety of microorganisms degrades the various components present in the landfill waste and produces their metabolic products and other decaying organic matters. Through decomposition of organic constituents by microorganisms dwelling in the landfill site and also through chemical reactions between the components of waste, landfill gases are released in the form of methane and carbon dioxide which are greenhouse gases. The gases release increases gradually over time and poses environmental threat and security issues to the people residing near the landfill sites. Table 1 shows a comparision of some important pollution parameters of landfill sites at various places. It is observed that the pHs of these landfill sites are mostly in the alkaline range, there is increased level of electrical conductivity, COD, chloride and nitrate concentrations, and the common heavy metals which are present are Fe, Ni, Cu and Cr.
Landfill site | TDS (mg/l) | Electrical Conductivity (mS/cm) | pH | Chloride (mg/l) | Nitrate (mg/l) | Sulphates (mg/l) | BOD (mg/l) | COD (mg/l) | Heavy metals | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ghazipur Landfill site, Delhi, India | 34,560 | 23,221 | 8.4 | 1598 | 449 | ND | 9250 | 20,992 | Fe, Zn, Cu, Pb, Ni, Cr, Cd | [1] |
Mavallipura landfill site, Bangaluru, India | 2027 | 4120 | 7.4 | 660 | 22.36 | ND | 1500 | 10,400 | Fe, Ni, Pb, Cu, Cd, Cr | [2] |
Borg El-Arab landfill site, Egypt | 27,452 | 40,921 | 7.8 | 11,387 | 1.4 | 596 | 11,700 | 15,629 | Fe, Zn, Ni, Cd, Cr | [3] |
Sukawinatan landfill, Indonesia | 4640 | ND | 7.45 | 162.5 | 93.6 | 199 | 145.7 | 900 | Fe, Cu | [4] |
Alhend’ın landfill site, Spain | 34,470 | ND | 7.96 | 7298 | ND | 166.7 | 5750 | 30,994 | Fe, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn | [5] |
Landfill at Bizerte, North Eastern Tunisia | 1770 | 19.6 | 7.4 | 3300 | 1628 | ND | 5200 | 26,200 | Fe, Cu | [6] |
Comparision of some important parameters of various landfill sites.
(ND: Not defined)
Landfill leachates cause serious environmental issues mostly in developing countries polluting the groundwater, soil and air. Even in an engineered landfill site with landfill liners, the barriers tend to get damaged or deteriorate with time, therefore, leachate may get leaked and pass through the soil. The consequence is harmful effects to human health and also causes hindrance to economic health and development. Heavy metals such as Pb, As, Cd, Cr and Hg leach out from uncontrolled landfill sites and cause a major threat to human health. Due to rapid urbanization, areas near the landfill sites in many cases are gradually transformed into residential areas and also covered by agricultural fields. Inorganic cations and anions like sodium, calcium, chloride, sulphate etc. seep through the leachate and contaminate groundwater and soil. These inorganic substances are not altered by the soil type and remain a pollutant of the water and soil [7]. This ultimately gives rise to changes in soil composition and fertility. Studies have shown that iron and zinc are the major pollutants of the soil samples in the vicinity of landfill sites. Zinc is present mostly in the upper soil layer and iron has highest dispersion rate [2]. Leachate percolation in soil reduces the hydraulic conductivity resulting in clogging of the soil and these changes the properties of the soil such as water retention, field capacity etc. The soil microbial community gets changed and formation of biofilms with metal precipitation may arise.
Remediation of landfill leachate using microorganisms is a cost effective approach as compared to conventional treatment processes. However, a lot need to be explored and studied regarding this area. The conventional methods of treatment are chemical and physical methods such as coagulation/flocculation, chemical oxidation, air stripping and membrane filtration [8]. These methods can remove COD and other toxicity levels ranging from 40–90%. However, in many cases, cost of the whole process and also production of non-degradable sludge remains a disadvantage. Use of microorganisms does not have these disadvantages and are also effective in the treatment process as there are a number of microorganisms which produce various extracellular enzymes through which they can degrade toxic compounds to less toxic or non-toxic products. Landfill leachate samples have been studied to investigate the microorganisms dwelling in them and which have the capability of degrading the main pollutants of leachate such as nitrate, phosphate and ammonia. It has been found that certain fungi, actinomycetes, and bacteria belonging to
Organism | Source of isolation | Substance degraded | Percent removal | Heavy metal resistance | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Powerstown Landfill, Co. Carlow, Ireland | Nitrate, Phosphate, ammonia | 35%, 55%, 88% | As, Cd, Fe, Ni, Cu | [9] | |
Not characterized, wastewater effluent as microbial source | Weltevreden Sanitary landfill site, Brakpan, South Africa | Ammonia COD | 99% 36% | — | [10] |
Municipal landfill management, Istanbul | Nitrogen Phosphorous | 69.03% 100% | — | [11] | |
Jebel Chekir landfill leachate, Tunisia | TOC | 70–80% | As, Fe, Pb | [12] | |
Nonthaburi landfill site, Thailand | Color, BOD, COD | 78%, 68%, 57% | — | [13] | |
Immobilized microorganisms | — | COD and Ammoniacal Nitrogen | 98.3%, 99.9%, | — | [14] |
Removal efficiency of leachate pollutants by some organisms.
Bioremediation using microorganisms is a method of choice due to its low cost and simplicity in operation mechanism. The various types of biological treatment processes are upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), activated sludge reactor, membrane bioreactor, rotating biological contactor, batch reactor and moving bed biofilm reactor. All of them are efficient in treatment of young leachates. The UASB and batch reactor processes are also efficient in treatment of middle aged and mature leachates. Anaerobic reactor using seed sludge as inoculants has been found to tolerate high levels of COD and also precipitate heavy metals such as Fe, Zn, Ni, Cd, Pb, Cu and Cr [15]. Phytoremediation is one efficient and inexpensive process for remediation of mature leachates. However, phytoremediation has many limitations like remediation only limited to the surface and depth where the roots can reach, slow growth, and inadequacy in preventing the contaminant from leaching into the groundwater.
Various bioremediation processes have been experimented and their efficiency studied so far, but it has been observed that bioremediation when combined with physical and chemical processes in a monitored manner shows much promise and efficacy in removal of pollutants of leachate plumes.
Landfill is the preferred method for solid waste disposal all over the world due to its ease and low-cost operations. However, landfilling requires proper designing of its structure and planning of disposal in order to avoid its pollution effects to the environment. Landfill leachates if not properly controlled can give rise to serious consequences like soil contamination and ultimately damage to crops and vegetation. In some cases, there may be accumulation of heavy metals in vegetation and consequently in fishes dwelling in contaminated water bodies like lakes and streams. The ultimate effect is biomagnification and serious health issues to people inhabiting the nearby areas of the landfill. Most of the components are carcinogenic and genotoxic in the long run. Therefore, the landfill leachates need to be properly monitored and controlled. Due to lack of engineered systems in most of the landfills all over the world, and also due to the practice of merely dumping wastes in the landfill sites of developing countries, underlying soil and groundwater pollution by the toxic leachates have become a major concern in the recent years [16].
Management of leachate has posed a challenging task as it requires various stages such as (i) monitoring of its formation and flow or migration, (ii) assessment of the various parameters of leachates, (iii) investigation of its hazardous components, and (iv) its treatment before finally releasing to the environment.
Leachate formation and its duration may depend on the components of a particular landfill site and its microbial community composition. The flow rate and the leachate volume may also vary depending on the season and rainfall. Therefore, proper investigation of the leachate formation is required in order to control the flow rate and migration of leachate plume. Various techniques used for monitoring leachate plume migration are hydro-geological techniques, electromagnetic methods, fluorescence methods, stable isotopes labelling, microbial analysis etc. [16]. Microbes play important role in characterizing the important parameters of leachates. Present day advancement in molecular biology techniques shows great promise to delineate the microbial community composition in a short time period. Metagenomics and next generation sequencing technology would greatly help in finding out novel microorganisms with novel pathways of complex compounds degradation. This information would further help in managing the landfill sites through natural attenuation.
The important parameters like pH, alkalinity, BOD, COD, TDS, nitrate, sulphate, chloride, electrical conductivity etc. should be assessed regularly and check whether their values are according to the permissible limits set by various regulators. Multi parameter analyzer can be used to measure different parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity, oxidation reduction potential, salinity, temperature etc. Spectrophotometers are used to check many of the parameters which involve color development [17]. Procedure for measurement of parameters should be according to the standard procedures adopted by United States Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) or similar professional organizations which have set the standard protocols. The values obtained can be compared with the standards of various regulatory limits so as to assess the risk of the leachate to the environment.
Hazardous components of landfill leachates such as toxic heavy metals, halogenated compounds, aromatic compounds, pesticides and other recalcitrant organic compounds, if present even in minute quantities can eventually give rise to contamination of soil and the groundwater. Therefore, the hazardous components need to be analyzed and proper treatment methods such as physico-chemical and biological treatments can be recommended. Assessment of heavy metals in landfill leachate is often an arduous task as we have to understand the metal speciation and its flow [18]. Heavy metals tend to get oxidized and this fact has to be considered in the assessment studies. Most of the heavy metals are present in the form of complexes and the metal speciation is also influenced by biological activities. Risk assessment i.e. the effect of hazardous components to the environment needs a systematic approach because of the uncertainty of the soil environment and groundwater flow. Various predication models and softwares are available for risk assessment of landfill leachates [19]. The implication of biological toxicity tests of leachate samples is also commonly applied by many investigators. Phytotoxicity tests of leachate samples have been reported using
The various reliable treatment methods of landfill leachates are (i) Biological reactors, (ii) Physico-chemical treatment, and (iii) natural attenuation. Biological treatment methods have been found to be more efficient in case of young leachates which are easily biodegradable whereas in case of old leachates, physic-chemical treatment methods are more suitable. Combined treatment methods where biological, physical and chemical treatment methods are applied have been shown to have highest efficiency [16]. Natural attenuation, which involves the merging of physical chemical and biological processes occurring in nature, has been found to be very useful for remediation of leachate plume. Natural processes in constructed wetlands and aerated lagoons have shown high efficiency (60–99%) in removing BOD, COD, ammoniacal nitrogen, Chloride, phosphate, iron and phenols [22, 23, 24]. Biological reactors with aerobic and anaerobic digestion processes have shown high removal capacity of BOD and COD as well as heavy metals in some cases. Among the advanced oxidation processes, ozonation has potential in removing color and organic acids i.e. humic acid and fulvic acid [25]. Coagulation using Ferric chloride followed by filteration and reverse osmosis has been shown to completely remove organic pollutants like Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and Bisphenol A [26]. Among the latest treatment technologies, leachate treatment using magnetic adsorbents and nanomaterials are of special interests as they have high efficiency in removal of organic acids and heavy metals [27, 28]. But the use of these techniques has environmental impacts and further research need to be done with green and environmental friendly processes.
Landfill leachates pose serious threats to the environment. In many cases, groundwater contamination has occurred due to lack of monitoring and efficient treatment system. The general parameters which are measured in a landfill site are pH, alkalinity, electrical conductivity, TDS, BOD, COD, chloride, ammoniacal nitrogen, nitrate, sulphate etc. Analysis of hazardous components like toxic heavy metals, halogenated compounds, polymers etc. are also necessary. Treatment methods using microorganisms is an attractive way for removing or remediating the pollutants in the leachates as it is cost effective and environment friendly. There is a great potential in studying the efficiency of microorganisms in leachate treatment, but a lot need to be explored in this field. Novel microorganisms having potential use in leachate treatment can be explored using modern techniques like metagenomics. Biological treatment of leachates from young landfill sites has already been proved efficient. The treatment efficiency for leachates from old landfill sites can be improved by integrating biological method with physical and chemical methods. Natural attenuation through aerated lagoons and phytoremediation is also a means for eliminating pollutants in the vicinity of landfill sites. In the present scenario, reducing solid waste and hazardous waste components by reuse and recycling should be strictly considered. The landfill sites should be properly designed to avoid leachate contaminants to soil and groundwater. Proper monitoring, risk assessment, and leachate treatment with advanced technologies are very much necessary to avoid any kind of serious environmental impact.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) comprise a large variety of organic compounds whose main characteristic is that they are formed by the fusion of benzene rings [1]. PAHs are originated mainly from incomplete pyrolysis of organic materials. Pyrolysis is the process in which organic compounds such as fuels undergo a change in the molecular structure at high temperature without sufficient oxygen concentration. These reactions are mainly dependent on temperature and concentration and are generally endothermic [2].
During combustion at high temperatures and relatively low amounts of oxygen, part of the combustible material is fragmented into small molecular masses, usually to free radicals by pyrolysis (approximately 500–800°C), which recombine to give rise to the PAHs by pyrosynthesis by decreasing the temperature. Once PAH of low molecular weight is formed, (e.g., naphthalene, 128) the pyrosynthesis process continues with “zigzag additions,” which generates high molecular weight PAH [3].
PAHs are categorized as low molecular weight (LMW) and high molecular weight (HMW) based on molecular structure. The LMW PAHs include two and three rings structure while HMW PAHs comprise four and more rings structure. The carcinogenicity of PAHs increased with increasing molecular weight [4].
PAHs are ubiquitous pollutants in the atmosphere. The behavior of PAHs in the atmosphere depends on complex physicochemical reactions, interactions with other pollutants, photochemical transformations, and dry and wet deposition. PAHs in the ambient air exist in vapor phase or adsorb into airborne particulate matter depending on the atmospheric conditions (ambient temperature, relative humidity, etc.), the nature (i.e., origin and properties) of the aerosol, and the properties of the individual PAH [5]. The physicochemical properties of PAHs make them highly mobile in the environment, allowing them to distribute across air, soil, and water bodies where their presence is ubiquitous. PAHs are widely distributed in the atmosphere. The PAHs entering the atmosphere can be transported over long distances before deposition through atmospheric precipitation onto soils, vegetation or water [5].
The adsorption of PAHs onto particulate phases can also be affected by the humidity. Moreover, PAH adsorption also depends on the types of suspended particulates (e.g., soot, dust, fly ash, pyrogenic metal oxides, pollens, etc.) and the amounts of dust in the air influence PAH concentrations in the particulate phase [5].
PAHs are known to be toxic and carcinogenic [6]. They are metabolized in the body through oxidation by P450 enzymes and may produce carcinogenic metabolites. These metabolites have been shown to induce lung and skin tumors in animals [7]. People can be exposed through polluted air from urban or industrial environments, tobacco smoke, and diet [6]. The carcinogenicity of the PAHs usually increases with increased number of aromatic rings and higher molecular weight, while low molecular weight PAHs are more acute toxic [7]. Many hundreds of PAHs exist in the environment, but the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has listed 16 as “Consent Decree” priority pollutants chosen because, because of the likelier risk to be exposed to them, the high amount of information about them, and that they are believed to be more harmful [7] (Table 1).
Some characteristics and carcinogenic classification for PAHs.
The partition of PAHs between gas and particulate phases in the atmosphere fundamentally depends on the vapor pressure, temperature, atmospheric pressure, and the concentration [8, 9]. PAHs having two rings exist in the gas phase, PAHs having three and four rings are in both phases and PAHs having five rings or more exist in the particle phase [10].
The standard methods to measure PAHs in ambient air are active samplers, and these equipment use a pump to draw the air into the sampler, through the filter and the following adsorbent.
The samplers have a sampling module which often consists of two compartments: a filter and a solid adsorbent to collect the particle associated and the gas phase pollutants, respectively. The filter, often teflon, glass or quartz fiber, is placed in the inlet of the sampler [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. The solid adsorbent normally consists of a polyurethane foam (PUF) plug or a sorbent tube with XAD-2 or Tenax depending on the target pollutants and the capacity required; the adsorbent also retains pollutants that volatilize from the particles on the filter during sampling.
The other alternative is passive samplers, in contrast to active samplers, not in need of a pump and electricity to collect pollutants. Instead, the collection is based on a free flow of pollutants from the air to the collecting medium. Most of the existing passive samplers are designed for gas sampling of semi-volatile organic compounds and based on high capacity sampling against a linear sampling rate for long durations such as weeks or months. Polyurethane (SPMDs), XAD-resin based samplers and membrane samplers are such examples [16, 17, 18].
In conclusion, sampling equipment can be active or passive, must be compatible and consistent with the analysis method and the monitoring objectives.
Given the complexity of environmental matrices, specialized analytical procedures are required for the determination of PAHs. The analytical procedures must include different stages for extraction of compounds from complex samples, purification and detection techniques for multicomponent mixtures that consist of compounds with a wide range of molecular weights, volatilities and polarities.
The extraction of PAHs from airborne particulates is mainly done through methods based on the use of solvents [19]. Being soxleth and ultrasound techniques the most commonly used for extracting soluble organic matter [20]. Subsequently, other solvent-based methods have been developed, accelerated solvent extraction and microwave extraction, both methods have the characteristics that use less solvent and extraction time [21, 22]. Finally, solid phase microextraction (SPME) was adapted for the extraction of PAHs associated with airborne particles, specifically for those of low molecular weight (less than four rings). The main characteristic of this method is that it uses very small amounts of solvents compared to the other extraction techniques mentioned [23]. Table 2 shows a summary of the main techniques for the extraction of organic compounds from environmental matrices, some characteristics and applications.
Techniques | Characteristics | Analytes | References |
---|---|---|---|
Soxhlet | It has been so far applied for organic compound extraction from solid matrices due to its high extraction efficiency | PAHs, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), among others | [29, 30, 31] |
Ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) | Ultrasound energy has also been widely used for the leaching of organic and inorganic compounds from solid matrices | Pharmaceutical Endocrine disruptor compounds (EDCs), perfluorochemicals (PFCs), antibiotics, tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBPA) PAHs, phthalate esters (PEs), PCBs, nonylphenols (NPs), nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEOs) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products | [32, 33, 34, 35] |
Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) | Pressure is applied to allow the use of extraction solvents or mixtures at temperatures higher than their normal boiling point. The increase on the extraction temperature can promote higher analyte solubility by increasing both solubility and mass transfer rate | Perfluorinated acids (PFAs), perfluorosulfonates (PFSs) and perfluoroctanesulfonamide PAHs | [36, 37] |
Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) | Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) uses microwave energy to heat the sample-solvent mixture. This technique reduces the extraction times and the extractant amount for the extraction of organic compounds from solid matrices | PAHs in airborne particles, 17-estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), 17-ethinyl estradiol (EE2) | [38, 39] |
Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) | Supercritical fluid extraction is an alternative extraction method with the advantages of reduced solvent consumption and extraction time compared with the classical extraction techniques. Carbon dioxide is commonly used as fluid and methanol is added as organic modifier when polar compounds are extracted | PAHs in marine sediment | [40, 41] |
Solid Phase Microextraction (SPME) | It is used specifically for the extraction of low molecular weight organic compounds, from liquid, air and solid matrix | PAHs or polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) | [42] |
Classification of the main extraction techniques, characteristics and applications.
PAHs extracts from airborne particulate matter represent a very complex matrix in trace amounts, which contain saturated hydrocarbons, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur heterocompounds, among others, what difficult the identification of the PAHs identification in environmental samples [24, 25, 26]. After liquid extraction, a cleanup procedure is recommended to eliminate some interferences that can affect the PAHs detection in the chromatographic analysis. The most common cleanup procedures are as follows: liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) and solid phase extraction (SPE) with silica gel and/or C18 cartridges [27, 28].
Traditionally, the analysis of PAHs in environmental samples has been carried out by gas chromatography (GC), rather than liquid chromatography (LC), and this is due to its greater selectivity, resolution and sensitivity. GC-MS is one of the most powerful analytical tools available for the chemical analysis of complex mixtures. The use of mass spectrometry enhances the capabilities of gas chromatography; the specific information provided in the mass spectrum makes the mass spectrometer a highly selective detector that can be used for qualitative analysis and structural determination.
Mass spectrometry is undoubtedly one of the most widely used for the analysis and characterization of chemical compounds due to its high sensitivity and resolution capacity. Then, when it is coupled to the chromatographic techniques, it is particularly useful in the identification and quantification of organic substances of interest, which are in trace concentrations in environmental samples, it is highly valued mainly for its high sensitivity, that is, it is feasible to quantify those substances contained in a sample quantity of the order of mg.
One of the main disadvantages of mass spectrometry is the conditions used for the generation of stable ionized species and their adequate detection. This process can be a limitation to clearly observe the molecular ion and, therefore, perform a detailed analysis of the chemical structure. In the literature, a significant number of ionization methods have been reported, which depend on the physicochemical properties of the system in question. However, ionization is not the only limitation in mass technique; there are previous problems such as the distinction of different structures when analyzing complex mixtures. Therefore, the use of chromatography as a separation technique is essential for environmental samples such as those obtained in the ambient air, while after the ionization is the analyzer that is where the ionized species are separated and detected, they are also of great importance for analysis.
The criteria considered the most relevant in mass spectrometry are as follows: sensitivity, resolution, stability and selectivity; that depending on the level we need to reach each one of these, there are several types of coupled mass spectrometry equipment arrangements, so their choice depends mainly on the different chemical systems and the scope of the analysis. In the case of air samples such as gases and respirable suspended particles, the unambiguous quantification and identification of the analyte are the main objectives; therefore, the standardization and prior validation of the method used are essential, so it is necessary to carry out several preliminary tests with specific equipment arrangements in order to achieve reliable results.
The mass spectrometer is among the most sensitive chromatographic detectors, having a detection limit below the picogram level, through the use of selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. PAHs are easily resolved using standard GC columns without a requirement for derivatization. Most separations can be achieved in less than 30 min using capillary columns such as 30 m × 0.25 mm i.d. and 0.25 μm film thickness, 5% phenyl polysiloxane type phases. The use of a narrow bore, thin film column allows an increase in chromatographic resolving power, coupled with a reduction in analysis time.
GC-MS method has been used to all or some subset of the US Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) 16 priority PAHs. Single quadrupole GC-MS has offered the opportunity to increase selectivity for these analytes over that of classical detectors, such as UV and fluorescence detectors in high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and electron capture detector (ECD) and flame ionization detector (FID) detectors in GC. This has allowed for limited optimization of sample preparation procedures to increase time to result [43, 44].
Quadrupole mass analyzers are widely used in many areas of environmental analysis. Although popularly referred to as quadrupole mass spectrometers, the mass-resolving properties of such devices are really much more similar to those of a tunable variable hand pass mass filter. Only ions within a narrow mass region (generally <1 amu) are allowed to pass through the device.
Quadrupole mass analyzers have several advantages such as no requirement for very high vacuum (>10–7 Torr) and their relatively fast and simple operation for high-throughput analysis. Disadvantages include low transmittance, a low m/z cutoff, and low (generally unit) resolution. Electron impact (EI) is well established and is the most common method of ionization in gas chromatography (GC) [45]. The molecules exiting the gas chromatograph are bombarded by an electron beam (70 eV), which removes an electron from the molecule resulting in a charged ion.
EI mode produces single charged molecular ions and fragment ions, which are used for structure elucidation.
The generated mass spectrum plots the signal intensity at a given m/z ratio (Figure 1).
Mass spectrum for methanol obtained by electronic impact [
Mass spectrometric methods are particularly suited for analysis of PAHs, because these compounds are semi-volatile and occur as complex mixtures; electron ionization (EI) and chemical ionization (CI) with quadrupole or magnetic sector mass spectrometers have been effectively used to determine PAHs. Although distinguishing between the isomeric forms of PAHs using EI is difficult because the isomers tend to produce common intermediates that give identical losses upon high-energy ionization or collisional activation [46].
For example, when trying to distinguish between compounds with the same or similar molecular weight, the GC-MS coupling is difficult, given its low resolution, Figures 2 and 3 show the separation of chrysene and triphenylene and mass spectrum respectively. The quantification of chrysene is often biased due to its coelution with triphenylene (the compounds with m/z 228 also contain fragments of m/z 226). Another case is the separation of the isomers of benzo(b, k, j)fluoranthene (252 m/z).
Examples for PAHs separations with similar molecular weight [
Mass spectrum for chrysene and triphenylene [
As seen in the previous examples, the mass spectrum with a single quadrupole is limited to distinguish among compounds that have structural isomers, since it only considers a single identification criterion, in fact they show a similar mass to charge fragmentation patterns (Figure 4). Recently, the coupling gas chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-QqQ) was developed. Comparing triple quadrupole analyzer (QqQ) with single quadrupole analyzer, the product ion is more specific than the ion in the simple MS spectrum because the tandem configuration offers the only alternative of selecting the precursor ion of each compound by the first quadrupole and filtering it into the collision cell, with the consequent elimination of the remaining fragments and consequently the decrease in noise (Figure 5). Then that mass to charge pattern obtained by the second spectrometer, which is derived from the collision of the parent fragment, this usually has a unique pattern mass to charge daughter that provides invaluable structural information of the substance, which decreases the probability of false positives and facilitates the unequivocal identification of the target compound. It is clear that the coupling substantially solves the difficulties of simple couplings and can significantly improve the reliability of the determination by offering lower noise levels and additional identification criteria. Several reports show the utility of different arrays of mass spectrometers coupled to gas and liquid chromatographs used for the PAHs and their derivatives analysis. Among the most used is the triple quadrupole GC–MS/MS system, which provides detection and quantification levels equivalent to parts per trillion.
Triple quadrupole mass analyzer (QqQ) [
Chromatogram 14 PAHs by GC-QqQ (own authorship).
For instance, the unequivocal identification of B(
Mass to charge (m/z) transitions (a) and (b).
Scheme of the gas chromatography bidimensional (GC × GC): peaks eluting from the first dimension column enter the second dimension column through the modulator [
For these characteristics, recently the GC-QqQ has been proposed for the quantification of the PAHs and its derivatives. Its characteristics have proved to be useful for example in the determination of nitro-PAHs in PM10 particles obtained with low sample volume (16.7 lpm). This implies a lower mass of the compound per gram of particle collected per day, and without an exhaustive treatment and sample purification need as those that are followed for particles obtained from high volume samplers (1.3 m3/h). An analytical method was recently developed for the simultaneous determination of 14 nitro-PAHs (2-nitrofluorene, 9-nitroanthracene, 9-nitrophenanthrene, 3-nitrophenanthrene, 2-nitroanthracene, 3-nitrofluoranthene, 1-nitropyrene, 2,7-dinitrofluorene, 7-nitrobenzo [a]anthracene, 6-nitrochrysene, 1,3-dinitropyrene, 1,8-dinitropyrene, 1,6-dinitropyrene, and 6-nitrobenzo[a]pyrene) in PM10 by GC-QqQ in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. The method performance evaluation showed that the technique is quite reliable, since it provides high repeatability with relative standard deviation <10% and with detection limits between 0.25 and 10 ng/mL. This was also facilitated its application to only half of the filter containing the sample, in this way the remaining part served to complement the chemical characterization of the sample [50]. In the MRM mode, as the name implies, in the first quadrupole (Q1) one or multiple precursor ions of the analyzed substance were are filtered, which react by fragmenting in the collision cell (Q2), until arriving at the second quadrupole (Q3), where the ions product of the quantification and qualification are filtered. The results of this type of analysis are highly specific and sensitive because they provide unique structural information of the molecule that leads to its identification and unambiguous distinction between other substances contained in the sample [50].
Gas chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry has also been successfully applied for the determination of precursor PAHs. Although they are found in environmental levels between one and two orders of magnitude higher than their derivatives, they are trace concentrations substances, which are similarly affected by the different interferences that may come in the samples and by the matrix effect in the extracts. Therefore, the organic extract must be purified before its analysis by GC-MS [51]. However, it was shown that when samples obtained with high volume equipment are analyzed, the extraction is sufficient, and the purification of the extract can be dispensed with before its analysis by GC-MS/MS [52].
Another coupling proposed for the analysis of the nitro-PAHs and oxy-PAHs derivatives is the ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-tandem mass spectrometer (UHPLC-(+)-APCI-MS/MS). In addition to the stated advantage of the tandem arrangement, this alternative technique aims to contribute to reducing the thermal degradation that has been consistently reported for those oxy-PAHs classified as quinones in the injection port of the GC. Thus, facilitating their simultaneous analysis with the nitro-PAHs, and taking advantage of the improvements in the sensitivity and selectivity in the determination in organic and aqueous extracts obtained from PM2.5 and PM10 particles. It has also been found that chemical ionization at atmospheric pressure (APCI), and photoionization at atmospheric pressure provides high ionization efficiency for oxy-PAHs, while electrospray ionization efficiency is usually lower [53]. In a pioneering study, it was shown that liquid chromatography atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-tandem mass spectrometer (LC-APCI-MS/MS) is feasible for the determination of oxy-PAHs and can contribute to the simplification of sample preparation by reducing it to an extraction and evaporation step [54]. Consistently, in a study of the simultaneous analysis of 5 nitro-PAHs—1-nitropyrene (1-NPYR), 2-nitrofluorene (2-NFLU), 3-nitrofluoranthene (3-NFLUANTH), 9-nitroanthracene (9-NANTH), 1,5-dinitronaphthalene (1,5-DNNAPHT)—, 3 oxy-PAHs-2-fluorenecarboxaldehyde (2-FLUCHO), and 5,12-naphthacenequinone (5,12-NAPHTONA), it showed that the LC/MS arrangement provides a high degree of sensitivity and selectivity for the determination of these substances. In fact, it was demonstrated that it allowed the feasibility of its application to real samples. However, it was only possible to reliably report environmental levels of four of eight of these substances, at atmospheric concentrations between 0.01 and 240.62 ng/m3, equivalent to 0.3 and 30 mg/g, respectively [56] (Table 3).
Location | Compounds | Equipment | Ionization mode | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Industrial area of Taranto, Italy | Nitro-PAHs in airborne, PM10 | GC/MS triple quadrupole | EI+ | [48] |
Seoul, Korea | PAHs in PM2.5 airborne particles | GC-GC-TOFMS | ESI+, APPI+ | [55] |
Buenos Aires, Argentina | Oxy-PAHs and nitro-PAHs airborne, PM2.5 and PM10 | UHPL-MS/MS triple quadrupole | APCI+ | [53] |
Zaragoza, Spain | PAH associated to the airborne particulate matter, PM10 | GC/MS triple quadrupole | EI+ | [51] |
Application of the GC/MS coupling for the analysis of PAH and its derivatives.
The widespread use of capillary columns in the 1980s improved significantly the separation power of complex mixtures. This positioned gas chromatography as the technique of choice whenever analyzing volatile substances. However, it soon became clear that in some fields, the separation capacity offered by a single chromatographic column was not sufficient. For example, in the case of the oil industry, environmental applications or aroma analysis, whose separations are highly complex, often result in a chromatogram with a large portion of unresolved components [57]. Mass spectrometry can be used to resolve some of the complexity, but large concentration differences and structural isomers can complicate the spectral interpretation and data analysis. Some chromatographic resolution can be improved with an efficient, long, narrow bore, thin-film capillary column, but increased analysis time and decreased sample loading. This situation has been improved with the implementation of multidimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC). Multidimensional gas chromatography increases resolution by using two separate columns with two different stationary phases. One form of GC × GC is heart-cutting. After a preliminary evaluation of the sample, a portion of the unresolved GC effluent is reoriented to a different column before detection. Heart-cutting is a simple way to obtain a better separation of a complex mixture but just a portion of the one-dimensional separation can be improved with the second-dimension column. A high-frequency modulator is utilized by the comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) for diverting the whole one-dimensional effluent onto a second-dimension column [58, 59] (Figure 7).
For instance, phenanthrene and anthracene are two important PAHs that can be used in order to assess whether material is petrogenic or pyrogenic in origin. Selecting mass 178 which is the molecular mass of the PAHs in question using the software allows isolated assessment (Figure 8).
Example of the application of the GC × GC for the separation and identification of structural isomers [
As seen in the GC × GC, saving time in sample preparation, instrumental analysis, has the ability to analyze an extensive range of complex samples with the simultaneous target and nontarget detection, which makes it a powerful technique for the elucidation of complex matrices; however, it is expensive.
PAHs are one of the families of organic compounds associated with the airborne particles that have generated the most concern. Currently, there is evidence of the multiple impacts that these compounds have on human health and the environment. The exposure time to which humans are exposed, the concentration levels of PAHs in the air, as well as the phase in which they occur; that is to say gas or particle, and the size of the particles with which they are associated. All these parameters must be measured and determined by the appropriate methods of sampling, extraction, and analysis. In the last 20 years, analytical methodologies and equipment development have experienced significant advances; all this has allowed the advance of more selective and less destructive extraction procedures; in the same way, the purification methods of complex samples have been improved, but perhaps where greater progress has been made, has been in the instrumental analysis by coupling online extraction procedures, use of different detectors and the implementation of specialized software.
The main feature in the evolution of sampling systems has been the reduction of artifacts, through the use of adequate adsorption materials, as well as the mechanisms of PAHs uptake for both the gaseous and particulate phases. Regarding the extraction process, the greatest progress has been made in the reduction in the amount of solvents, compared with the traditional system (Soxleth). To reduce the multiple interferences of the extracts obtained from the airborne particles and to increase the sensitivity in the detection of the PAHs, several purification schemes have been implemented based mainly on the use of solid phase extraction cartridges. Finally, the chromatographic techniques are those that have experienced the greatest advances, starting with the GC–MS coupling. However, this configuration does not allow to distinguish between compounds that have structural isomers. What caused the coupling of several quadrupoles (QqQ) in the same equipment, thus increasing the resolution. Finally, the inclusion of two-dimensional chromatography GC
There is no doubt the advance in the technology used for the analysis of PAHs in airborne particle matter in recent years. However, these new technologies require a high initial investment, in addition to highly qualified personnel, for this reason, before making the decision to acquire any of these new technologies, many aspects must be analyzed, for example if the equipment is going to be used for routine analysis, if the analytes to be studied can be extracted and detected with a simpler system, etc.
The authors wish to thank PRODEP (Program for the Development of Teachers), for the support in the financing of this publication.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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We first provide the fundamentals of the technique for both downlink and uplink channels and then discuss optimizing the network capacity under fairness constraints. We further discuss the impacts of imperfect receivers on the performance of NOMA networks. Finally, we discuss the spectral efficiency (SE) of the networks that employ NOMA with its relations with energy efficiency (EE). 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This technique is called power over fiber (PoF). Besides the advantages of optical fiber (immunity to electromagnetic interferences and electrical insulation), the employment of a PoF scheme can eliminate the energy supplied by metallic cable and batteries located at remote sites, improving the reliability and the security of the system. Smart grid is a green field where PoF can be applied. Experts see smart grid as the output to a new technological level seeks to incorporate extensively technologies for sensing, monitoring, information technology, and telecommunications for the best performance electrical network. On the other hand, in telecommunications, PoF can be used in applications, such as remote antennas and extenders for passive optical networks (PONs). PoF can make them virtually passives. We reviewed the PoF concept, its main elements, technologies, and applications focusing in access networks and in smart grid developments made by the author’s research group.",book:{id:"5914",slug:"optical-fiber-and-wireless-communications",title:"Optical Fiber and Wireless Communications",fullTitle:"Optical Fiber and Wireless Communications"},signatures:"Joao Batista Rosolem",authors:[{id:"202012",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao",middleName:"Batista",surname:"Batista Rosolem",slug:"joao-batista-rosolem",fullName:"Joao Batista Rosolem"}]},{id:"12860",doi:"10.5772/13309",title:"Energy Issues and Energy Aware Routing in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks",slug:"energy-issues-and-energy-aware-routing-in-wireless-ad-hoc-networks",totalDownloads:4612,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"15",slug:"mobile-ad-hoc-networks-protocol-design",title:"Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks",fullTitle:"Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks: Protocol Design"},signatures:"Marco Fotino and Floriano De Rango",authors:[{id:"3066",title:"Dr.",name:"Floriano",middleName:null,surname:"De Rango",slug:"floriano-de-rango",fullName:"Floriano De Rango"},{id:"14362",title:"PhD.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Fotino",slug:"marco-fotino",fullName:"Marco Fotino"}]},{id:"8496",doi:"10.5772/8009",title:"A Case Study of an RFID-based System for Pilgrims Identification and Tracking",slug:"a-case-study-of-an-rfid-based-system-for-pilgrims-identification-and-tracking",totalDownloads:5733,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"3341",slug:"sustainable-radio-frequency-identification-solutions",title:"Sustainable Radio Frequency Identification Solutions",fullTitle:"Sustainable Radio Frequency Identification Solutions"},signatures:"Mohamed Mohandes",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52822",title:"Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) for 5G Networks",slug:"non-orthogonal-multiple-access-noma-for-5g-networks",totalDownloads:14896,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"In this chapter, we explore the concept of non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) scheme for the future radio access for 5G. 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We demonstrate that the networks with NOMA outperform other multiple access schemes in terms of sum capacity, EE and SE.",book:{id:"5480",slug:"towards-5g-wireless-networks-a-physical-layer-perspective",title:"Towards 5G Wireless Networks",fullTitle:"Towards 5G Wireless Networks - A Physical Layer Perspective"},signatures:"Refik Caglar Kizilirmak",authors:[{id:"188668",title:"Dr.",name:"Refik Caglar",middleName:null,surname:"Kizilirmak",slug:"refik-caglar-kizilirmak",fullName:"Refik Caglar Kizilirmak"}]},{id:"63215",title:"Smart Antenna Systems Model Simulation Design for 5G Wireless Network Systems",slug:"smart-antenna-systems-model-simulation-design-for-5g-wireless-network-systems",totalDownloads:2308,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The most recent antenna array technologies such as smart antenna systems (SAS) and massive multiple input multiple output (MIMO) systems are giving a strong increasing impact relative to 5G wireless communication systems due to benefits that they could introduce in terms of performance improvements with respect to omnidirectional antennas. Although a considerable number of theoretical proposals already exist in this field, the most common used network simulators do not implement the latest wireless network standards and, consequently, they do not offer the possibility to emulate scenarios in which SAS or massive MIMO systems are employed. This aspect heavily affects the quality of the network performance analysis with regard to the next generation wireless communication systems. To overcome this issue, it is possible, for example, to extend the default features offered by one of the most used network simulators such as Omnet++ which provides a very complete suite of network protocols and patterns that can be adapted in order to support the latest antenna array systems. The main goal of the present chapter is to illustrate the improvements accomplished in this field allowing to enhance the basic functionalities of the Omnet++ simulator by implementing the most modern antenna array technologies.",book:{id:"6844",slug:"array-pattern-optimization",title:"Array Pattern Optimization",fullTitle:"Array Pattern Optimization"},signatures:"Vincenzo Inzillo, Floriano De Rango, Luigi Zampogna and Alfonso A. Quintana",authors:null},{id:"52919",title:"Waveform Design Considerations for 5G Wireless Networks",slug:"waveform-design-considerations-for-5g-wireless-networks",totalDownloads:3458,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In this chapter, we first introduce new requirements of 5G wireless network and its differences from past generations. The question “Why do we need new waveforms?” is answered in these respects. In the following sections, time‐frequency (TF) lattice structure, pulse shaping, and multicarrier schemes are discussed in detail. TF lattice structures give information about TF localization of the pulse shape of employed filters. The structures are examined for multicarrier, single‐carrier, time‐division, and frequency‐division multiplexing schemes, comparatively. Dispersion on time and frequency response of these filters may cause interference among symbols and carriers. Thus, effects of different pulse shapes, their corresponding transceiver structures, and trade‐offs are given. Finally, performance evaluations of the selected waveform structures for 5G wireless communication systems are discussed.",book:{id:"5480",slug:"towards-5g-wireless-networks-a-physical-layer-perspective",title:"Towards 5G Wireless Networks",fullTitle:"Towards 5G Wireless Networks - A Physical Layer Perspective"},signatures:"Evren Çatak and Lütfiye Durak‐Ata",authors:[{id:"19414",title:"Prof.",name:"Lutfiye",middleName:null,surname:"Durak-Ata",slug:"lutfiye-durak-ata",fullName:"Lutfiye Durak-Ata"},{id:"189749",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Evren",middleName:null,surname:"Çatak",slug:"evren-catak",fullName:"Evren Çatak"}]},{id:"54645",title:"Power‐Over‐Fiber Applications for Telecommunications and for Electric Utilities",slug:"power-over-fiber-applications-for-telecommunications-and-for-electric-utilities",totalDownloads:2636,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Beyond telecommunications, optical fibers can also transport optical energy to powering electric or electronic devices remotely. This technique is called power over fiber (PoF). Besides the advantages of optical fiber (immunity to electromagnetic interferences and electrical insulation), the employment of a PoF scheme can eliminate the energy supplied by metallic cable and batteries located at remote sites, improving the reliability and the security of the system. Smart grid is a green field where PoF can be applied. Experts see smart grid as the output to a new technological level seeks to incorporate extensively technologies for sensing, monitoring, information technology, and telecommunications for the best performance electrical network. On the other hand, in telecommunications, PoF can be used in applications, such as remote antennas and extenders for passive optical networks (PONs). PoF can make them virtually passives. We reviewed the PoF concept, its main elements, technologies, and applications focusing in access networks and in smart grid developments made by the author’s research group.",book:{id:"5914",slug:"optical-fiber-and-wireless-communications",title:"Optical Fiber and Wireless Communications",fullTitle:"Optical Fiber and Wireless Communications"},signatures:"Joao Batista Rosolem",authors:[{id:"202012",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao",middleName:"Batista",surname:"Batista Rosolem",slug:"joao-batista-rosolem",fullName:"Joao Batista Rosolem"}]},{id:"75267",title:"Wireless Power Charging in Electrical Vehicles",slug:"wireless-power-charging-in-electrical-vehicles",totalDownloads:694,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) technology can transfer electrical energy from a transmitter to a receiver wirelessly. Due to its many advantages, WPT technology is a more adequate and suitable solution for many industrial applications compared to the power transfer by wires. Using WPT technology will reduce the annoyance of wires, improve the power transfer mechanisms. Recently, the WPT gain enormous attention to charging the on-board batteries of the Electric Vehicle (EV). Several well-known car manufacturing companies start efforts to adopt WPT technology and enhance its features. Therefore, WPT can be achieved through the affordable inductive coupling between two coils named a transmitter and a receiver coil. In EV charging applications, transmitter coils are located underneath the road, and receiver coils are installed in the EV. The inductive WPT of resonant type is generally applied to medium-high power transfer applications like EV charging because it achieves better energy efficiency. In this chapter, various WPT technologies are discussed and tested in EV wireless charging applications. 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