Main indications for the use of ECMO assistance.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5149",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Empirical Modeling and Its Applications",title:"Empirical Modeling and Its Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Empirical modeling has been a useful approach for the analysis of different problems across numerous areas/fields of knowledge. As it is known, this type of modeling is particularly helpful when parametric models, due to various reasons, cannot be constructed. Based on different methodologies and approaches, empirical modeling allows the analyst to obtain an initial understanding of the relationships that exist among the different variables that belong to a particular system or process. In some cases, the results from empirical models can be used in order to make decisions about those variables, with the intent of resolving a given problem in the real-life applications. This book entitled Empirical Modeling and Its Applications consists of six (6) chapters.",isbn:"978-953-51-2494-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2493-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5779-3",doi:"10.5772/61406",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"empirical-modeling-and-its-applications",numberOfPages:148,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e644de90262c3f61a092a0bd4a8b683a",bookSignature:"Mamun Habib",publishedDate:"July 20th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5149.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9529,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:29,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 30th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 31st 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 24th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 5th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"12501",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Md. 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His Ph.D. research was in the field of Supply Chain Management. \nHe has 13-year experience in the field of teaching for graduate and postgraduate students, as well as in training, consultancy and research. At present, he is supervising some Ph.D. students at UUM, Malaysia. He is GSB (Graduate School of Business) Ph.D. Dissertation Committee member of Assumption University, Thailand, Ph.D. Advisor at Institute for Technology and Management (ITM) – University, India and University of the Assumption, Philippines, External examiner of Birla Institute of Technology (BIT) – Deemed University, India and National Institute of Technology (NIT), India. He also involved with online learning programme at University of Roehampton (UoR), London, UK and Asia e University (AeU), Malaysia as International Ph.D. Reader.\n\nAs a researcher, Dr. Habib published about 70+ research papers, including Conference Proceedings, Journal articles, and book chapters/books. Books have been published from USA, UK, Germany, Croatia, and India. Also, he serves as the Editor-in-Chief/Lead Guest Editor/Editor/Editorial Board Member/Reviewer of more than 20 journals, particularly Scopus and ISI Indexed Journals. \nHe delivers lecture as Keynote Speaker at various international conferences, namely BPSCM Conference 2012, India; 3rd LSCM Conference 2013, Bali, Indonesia; 2nd ICIE Conference 2013, India; 7th ICIEM Conference 2013, China; 1st ICIDSC Conference 2014, Malaysia; 8th MASS Conference 2014, China; 2014-15 COES&RJ Conferences, Singapore; 2015 IRED Conferences, Thailand and Malaysia; 2nd ICAEM 2015, China; IRP Conference 2015, Malaysia; ASCA 2015, Thailand.\nHe also serves as General Chair, Program Chair, Technical Chair, Organizing Committee Member, Technical Committee Member, Track Chair, Session Chair as well as Reviewer of numerous international conferences, particularly IEEE ICMIT’2010 (Singapore), 2012 (Indonesia), 2014 (Singapore); IEEE ITMC’2011 (San Jose, CA, USA), 2012 (Dallas, TX, USA); IEEE IEEM’2011 (Singapore), 2012 (Hong Kong), 2013 (Thailand), 2014 (Malaysia), 2015 (Singapore); INFORMS IEOM’2012 (Istanbul, Turkey), 2014 (Indonesia), 2016 (Malaysia); IEEE 2013 IIE Conference (Turkey); APMS 2013 (Pennsylvania, USA); MASS 2015 (China); 2015 IRED Conference (Thailand, Malaysia); 2015 ASCA Conference (Thailand), etc. He received Best Track Chair Award at IEOM’2012 Conference.\nHis core research areas are supply chain management, production & operations management, operations research, research methodology, engineering management, technology management, and educational management. Finally, Dr. Habib is an active member of different professional organizations, including IEEE (Senior Member), IEOM (President, SCM Technical Division), IETI (Senior Member), IRED, IEB, AIMS, INFOMS, just to name a few.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Northern University of Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"607",title:"Mathematical Modeling",slug:"numerical-analysis-and-scientific-computing-mathematical-modeling"}],chapters:[{id:"50592",title:"Empirical Modeling of the Total Electron Content of the Ionosphere",doi:"10.5772/62837",slug:"empirical-modeling-of-the-total-electron-content-of-the-ionosphere",totalDownloads:1338,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the appearance of such satellite systems as GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and others, the total electron content TEC measured by means of navigational satellites became a key parameter characterizing a state of the ionized space. In turn, functioning of navigational and telecommunication systems needs models of TEC for an estimation of accuracy of positioning, for the short-term and long-term prediction of this parameter. In this Chapter, empirical models of the total electron content are presented. The new result is their comparison. It is shown that the majority of them provide an adequate accuracy and reliability. As the basic application of TEC measurements, the problem of determination of maximum concentration NmF2 of the ionosphere with use of its equivalent slab thickness τ is considered. It is shown that existing models of τ are not global and do not provide sufficient accuracy in determining NmF2. An approach for new global model is offered.",signatures:"Olga Maltseva and Natalia Mozhaeva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50592",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50592",authors:[{id:"179064",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",surname:"Maltseva",slug:"olga-maltseva",fullName:"Olga Maltseva"}],corrections:null},{id:"50806",title:"The Empirical Models to Correct Water Column Effects for Optically Shallow Water",doi:"10.5772/63149",slug:"the-empirical-models-to-correct-water-column-effects-for-optically-shallow-water",totalDownloads:1406,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Seagrass as one of the blue carbon sinks plays an important role in environment, and it can be tracked remotely in the optically shallow water. Usually the signals of seagrass are weak which can be confused with the water column. The chapter will offer a model to simulate the propagation of light. The model can be used to improve the accuracy of seagrass mapping. Based on the in situ data, we found that the appropriate wavebands for seagrass mapping generally lie between 500–630 nm and 680–710 nm as well. In addition, a strong relationship between the reflectance value at 715 nm and LAI was found with a correlation coefficient of 0.99. The chapter provided an improved algorithm to retrieve bottom reflectance and map the bottom types. That would be meaningful for management and preservation of coastal marine resources.",signatures:"Chaoyu Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50806",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50806",authors:[{id:"83514",title:"Dr.",name:"Chaoyu",surname:"Yang",slug:"chaoyu-yang",fullName:"Chaoyu Yang"}],corrections:null},{id:"50524",title:"Least Squares Method and Empirical Modeling: A Case Study in a Mexican Manufacturing Firm",doi:"10.5772/63151",slug:"least-squares-method-and-empirical-modeling-a-case-study-in-a-mexican-manufacturing-firm",totalDownloads:1619,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Empirical modeling (EM) has been a useful approach for the analysis of different problems across a number of areas/fields of knowledge. As is known, this type of modeling is particularly helpful when parametric models due to a number of reasons cannot be constructed. Based on different methodologies and approaches (e.g., Least Squares Method, LSM), EM allows the analyst to obtain an initial understanding of the relationships that exists among the different variables that belong to a particular system or a process.",signatures:"Raúl Hernández-Molinar, Roberto Sarmiento-Rebeles and César F.\nMéndez-Barrios",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50524",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50524",authors:[{id:"180787",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Sarmiento",slug:"roberto-sarmiento",fullName:"Roberto Sarmiento"},{id:"180874",title:"Dr.",name:"Raul Ignacio",surname:"Hernandez",slug:"raul-ignacio-hernandez",fullName:"Raul Ignacio Hernandez"},{id:"185991",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",surname:"Mendez-Barrios",slug:"cesar-mendez-barrios",fullName:"Cesar Mendez-Barrios"}],corrections:null},{id:"50422",title:"Applied Hydrological Modeling with the Use of Geoinformatics: Theory and Practice",doi:"10.5772/62824",slug:"applied-hydrological-modeling-with-the-use-of-geoinformatics-theory-and-practice",totalDownloads:2358,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Water resource management and catchment analysis are crucial aspects of the twenty-first century in hydrological and environmental sciences. Linked directly with studies and research about climate change effects in global resources (e.g., diminution of rainfall dynamic), as well as continuously growing extreme natural phenomena with catastrophic results (e.g., floods and erosion), hydrological modeling has become a key priority in modern academic research goals. On a national or lower administrative level, the need for coping with natural disasters—affecting mainly human life, property, local economy, infrastructure, etc.—and the need to design management plans and projects for sustainable exploitation of natural resources set hydrological modeling in high demand by government organizations and local authorities. Thus, hazard assessment and risk evaluation modeling have become a strategic aim and an extremely useful tool for stakeholders, decision-makers, and scientific community.",signatures:"Christos Chalkias, Nikolaos Stathopoulos, Kleomenis\nKalogeropoulos and Efthimios Karymbalis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50422",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50422",authors:[{id:"16474",title:"Dr.",name:"Efthimios",surname:"Karymbalis",slug:"efthimios-karymbalis",fullName:"Efthimios Karymbalis"},{id:"27223",title:"Prof.",name:"Christos",surname:"Chalkias",slug:"christos-chalkias",fullName:"Christos Chalkias"},{id:"179269",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Kleomenis",surname:"Kalogeropoulos",slug:"kleomenis-kalogeropoulos",fullName:"Kleomenis Kalogeropoulos"},{id:"179648",title:"MSc.",name:"Nikos",surname:"Stathopoulos",slug:"nikos-stathopoulos",fullName:"Nikos Stathopoulos"}],corrections:null},{id:"50672",title:"Critical Loss Analyses in Korean Liquor Mergers",doi:"10.5772/63225",slug:"critical-loss-analyses-in-korean-liquor-mergers",totalDownloads:1340,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The SSNIP(Small but Significant Nontransitory Increase in Price) test is a well-known conceptual framework of market definition for competition policies in most countries. Critical loss analysis is a practical method that implements the principle of SSNIP test in a quantitative way to determine whether the relevant market for an antitrust case should be enlarged or not. The method and empirical results have been successfully adopted in defining markets relevant to Korean merger cases in soju and beer industries (Moohak-Daesun in 2002 and Hite-Jinro in 2005), providing useful references for the Korean Court and Fair Trade Commission. This paper introduces the actual applications of critical loss analyses in these cases and remarks on several issues brought in the course of applications.",signatures:"Jeon Seonghoon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50672",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50672",authors:[{id:"178482",title:"Prof.",name:"Seonghoon",surname:"Jeon",slug:"seonghoon-jeon",fullName:"Seonghoon Jeon"}],corrections:null},{id:"50567",title:"A Comparison between the Presence and Absence of Regulation in the Spanish Electricity Market",doi:"10.5772/62953",slug:"a-comparison-between-the-presence-and-absence-of-regulation-in-the-spanish-electricity-market",totalDownloads:1471,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There is an important gap in the literature on the promotion of competition in electricity markets in what pertains to the analysis of two different streams: the absence and presence of regulation. Accordingly, the main objective of this study is to analyze the interactions among market power indexes, marginal costs, and bidding strategies in the two mentioned scenarios, for comparative purposes. The methodology used is based on panel cointegration methods. The results point to the significant inclusion of different bidding strategies in the retail market: (i) fuel prices exercise a differential impact on the power plants’ marginal costs, (ii) the marginal costs have a significantly positive effect on quantity sold and on net quantity, and (iii) the market power measures under regulation have a significantly positive long-term impact on the quantity sold and a negative impact on net quantity supplied in wholesale market. Although there is some literature on this issue, the main novelty of this article is the discussion of the regulatory implications that could have been adopted in order to control and mitigate the market power, to encourage new investments in new technologies, and to recover sunk costs with the transition to a competitive market.",signatures:"Victor M. F. Moutinho, António C. Moreira and Jorge H. 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In this regard, theoretical models have been presented; the most famous of which was the BCS theory that can only describe conventional superconductors. With the discovery of new class superconductors, the superconducting mechanism became a new challenge in the field of condensed matter physics. This unexpected discovery opened a new area in the history of superconductivity, and experimental researchers started trying to find new compounds in this class of superconductors. These superconductors are often characterized by the anisotropic character in the superconducting gap function with nodes along a certain direction in the momentum space. Since the pairing interaction has an important role in the superconducting gap structure, its determination is very important to explain the basic pairing mechanism.In this regard, this book includes valuable theoretical and experimental discussions about the properties of superconductors. 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Hashim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"60938",title:"Electric Vehicles Integrated with Renewable Energy Sources for Sustainable Mobility",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76788",slug:"electric-vehicles-integrated-with-renewable-energy-sources-for-sustainable-mobility",body:'The transport sector is the main responsible of the air pollution in European cities, as it produces almost a quarter of all the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. There has been a decrease in the emissions since 2007, but they are still remaining higher than in 1990. Road transport, in particular, was considered responsible for more than 70% of GHG emissions from the transport sector in 2014 as it can be observed in Figure 1 [4].
GHG emissions from transport by mode in 2014 [
In December 2015, 195 countries including Canada acceded to the Paris Agreement, an additional international measure to more increase efforts to address climate change through a reduction of global GHG emissions, and restriction of the global average temperatures to below 2°C. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, this is based on understanding that 2°C is the maximum allowable emissions threshold, after which irreversible climate harm would have occurred. All efforts must consequently be on deck to resolutely instigate to lower GHG emissions in order to avoid unsustainable climate conditions from occurring [1, 2, 3]. Considering that nations have different sectors contributing to their respective GHG emission profiles, each is anticipated to accomplish its obligation by engaging diverse procedures. For example, Canada, which signed its official commitment in April 2016, must somehow reduce GHGs by 30% below 2005 levels by 2030, and this turns to reducing emissions between 200 and 300 megatonnes from projected levels.
The European Commission has adopted a low-emission mobility strategy, a global shift towards a low-carbon, and circular economy since 2016. The European strategy for the transport sector consists in an irreversible shift to low-emission mobility, as it is mandatory to reduce air pollutants critical for our health. GHG from transport will have to be at least 60% lower than in 1990 and be firmly on the path towards zero. The strategy integrates a broader set of measures to support Europe’s transition to a low-carbon economy and supports jobs, growth, investment and innovation. The strategy will benefit European citizens and consumers—by improving the quality of the air, reducing the levels of noise, lowering the levels of congestion and ameliorating the safety [4].
The measures to be taken to accomplish air purification will include:
leveraging digital technologies, implementing affordable pricing and promoting the move to decrease emissions from transportation, in order to enhance the efficiency of the transport system;
encouraging and accelerating a revolutionary shift to internal combustion engines, and alternative sources of energy for transportation having lower emission levels and which use alternative fuels such as hydrogen, innovative biofuels and renewable synthetic fuels, and electricity;
accelerating the conversion in the direction of low- and zero-emission vehicles.
A critical determinant of the success of these strategies is the consistent support of local authorities. These authorities may offer incentives to people to use vehicles with low-emission based on their employing alternative energy sources. They may also encourage the use of other methods of conveyance, including biking and walking, public transport and car-sharing/pooling arrangements, which effectually decrease polluting emissions. In addition to the European Fund for Strategic Investment, EUR 70 billion is offered for transport under the European Structural and Investment Fund, comprising EUR 39 billion for funding the change to low-emission mobility, of which EUR 12 billion for low-carbon and sustainable city mobility only. A fund of EUR 6.4 billion is offered for low-carbon mobility projects in the research programme Horizon 2020.
In the last decade, EVs have become in some way widespread, principally because of their negligible flue gas emissions and lesser reliance on oil. It is estimated that by 2022, EVs will be over 35 million in the World. However, a critical problem associated with EVs is that their high penetration raises branch and transformer congestion and heavy electricity demand to the power grid. One efficient approach to relieve the effect is to integrate local power generation such as RESs into the EV charging infrastructure [5, 6, 7, 8].
There is a lack of systematic studies considering the interaction and integration of EVs with renewable RESs, the power grid, the charging infrastructure and the strategies to decrease air pollution, all together. This chapter seeks to investigate the integration of EVs with RESs for sustainable mobility in greatly reducing GHG emissions.
The structure of this chapter is as follows: in Section 2, a description of solutions for reducing CO2 emissions in road transportation is provided. Section 3 discusses in detail the EV interaction and integration with RESs including wind energy, solar energy, the electrical network integration with the management of distribution grid, and electric vehicle coordination; while the conclusion is presented in Section 4.
Road transportation generates about one-fifth of the EU’s overall emissions of CO2, the principal GHG. Although these emissions reduced by 3.3% in 2012, they are nevertheless 20.5% greater than that generated in 1990. Transport is the main sector in the EU where GHG emissions are still increasing. Europe can achieve its long-term transition to a low-carbon economy if it transforms its road transport sector. EVs powered with electricity from RESs can diminish future air pollutant emissions, including GHGs from road transport. It is found that 15% of the EU CO2 emissions are generated by light-duty vehicles and falling each year as the automotive industry works to achieving EU emission targets. Member states are required to disseminate relevant information to drivers. The car and van targets for 2015 and 2017, respectively, were attained in 2013.
EU legislation obliges member states to certify that appropriate figures are delivered to users in order to guide drivers’ choices of vehicles with low fuel consumption and that vehicles must display labels indicating a vehicle’s fuel efficiency and CO2 emissions.
Trucks and buses are accountable for 25% of CO2 emissions from road transport in the EU and for approximately 6% of total EU emissions. In spite of some amelioration in fuel consumption efficiency in recent years, these emissions are continually growing, essentially owing to increasing movement of road cargo. To mitigate these issues, the European Commission is currently developing an elaborate plan to decrease CO2 emissions from heavy-duty vehicles.
It is noteworthy that fuel quality is an essential factor in decreasing GHG emissions that emanate from transportation. EU regulation imposes that the GHG concentration of vehicle fuels to be reduced by up to 10% by 2020.
Electricity instead of oil for vehicle propulsion will contribute to achieve the European Union targets on CO2 emissions reduction. The electricity needed could be produced by various renewable and carbon-free energy sources. In fact, the EVs have a three times higher efficiency than internal combustion engine vehicles. Moreover, they emit no tailpipe CO2 and other pollutants like nitrogen oxides (NOx), non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) and particulate matter (PM). Furthermore, they are really silent and do not produce any vibration. The future optimisation of EVs is focused on technological optimization and market development. On the technology side, the main efforts are on the reliability and durability of batteries and supercapacitors, on the reduction of battery weight and volume, on improving their safety and on reducing their cost. Other technological challenges regard improving hybrid electric powertrains, charging infrastructure and plug-in solutions.
The European Commission promoted a Europe-wide electromobility initiative known as Green eMotion. In this plan, EUR 41.8 million invested by 42 partners both public and private within the energy sector and supported with 24.2 from the European Commission with the goal of exchanging and developing knowledge and experience, and enabling the deployment of EVs in the market. However, currently, there are other ongoing and challenging projects with focus on mobility, in particular eMobilita (electromobility in urban transport: a multi-dimensional innovation (socio-economic and environmental effects)) [9], NEMO (hyper-network for electromobility) [10] and OSEM-EV (optimised and systematic energy management in electric vehicles) [11].
The potential of RESs to power EVs can help reduce pollution, with a considerable decarbonisation effect and improve resource efficiency. Surely, it varies a lot by country, based on the level of the infrastructures and on the demand for additional electricity. It is likely that additional electricity generation will be needed in the European Union to cater for the extra demand arising from approximately 80% share of EVs in 2050. According to the recent report, it is estimated that the European electricity consumption from electric cars will shoot from roughly 0.03 in 2014 to 4.5% by 2030 and approximately 9.5% by 2050. It is highly argued that additional power production is the ultimate way of meeting the other electricity demand resulting from the high rates of EVs ownership. Moreover, the extra electrical energy needs to be incorporated in the infrastructural system of Europe. Currently, it is quite impossible to tell, how much electricity is required and what type of production can be sufficient to cover the current electricity demand. However, once certainty has been attained, the increasing demand for electricity generation is likely to have an enormous impact on the overall power system in Europe. It is estimated that the electricity consumption needed by an 80% share of EVs in 2050 will differ between 3 and 25% of total electricity demand across the member state of EU. According to the department of dynamic management, an additional electrical capacity of about 150 GW will be required to charge the traditional electric car. In general, the increased number of EVs will automatically need an additional generation of electricity. As for the nations with a similar share of renewable energy, the management strategies may differ in the attempt of accommodating the charging of the increased number of electric cars. Importantly, the core principles of management strategies depend on the nation’s types of renewable energy as well as conventional power generation systems. For instance, states characterised by high solar energy production capacity for which the preferred charging peak will be during the day will have to adopt different power management strategies from countries which only depend on wind, combined solar or wind electricity production. In addition, it will be necessary for regions with weak network infrastructure to add grid reinforcement or rather implement specific smart charging approaches to ensure efficiency as well as flexible electricity production and distribution infrastructure. The main benefit related to increasing the number of EVs is that it significantly minimises direct emissions of CO2 as well as air pollutants from road transport. Nonetheless, these positive impacts could be partially offset due to additional emissions caused by increased amount of electricity needed as well as continued use of fossil fuel in the power industry. That is to say, lower emissions of CO2 and air pollutants determined by a substantial increase of EVs could cause higher emissions by the electricity generation when it is based on fossil fuel combustion and when the reduction in electricity demand is not made in other sectors.
Overall, the avoided CO2 emissions in the road transport sector should outweigh the higher emissions from electricity generation. In countries with high shares of fossil fuel power plants, electric vehicle demand could, however, lead to higher CO2 emissions. Ecologically, the significance of electrically driven automobiles in cases of EV aggregator may not wholly be accomplished. As a case example, 80% portion of electrically operated vehicles in about 2050 can help reduce the unswerving exhaust emissions released by each contaminant by roughly a figure higher than 80% as compared to the levels in 2010. Nevertheless, concerning carbon dioxide gas, the total reduction of nitrogen oxides, as well as PM, may to some extent offset the further releases of the toxic pollutants resulting in the electric power production sectors. The reduction depends on the type of contaminant, for instance, 1% for NOx while 3% for PM10 (PM10 refers to the particulate nature of matter). Unfortunately, the situation is different for sulphur compounds. Furthermore, sulphur oxides are released into the environment in various ways, for example, through the exhaust fumes from the fuel driven automobiles and the use of coal as a source of energy. These emission entries will additionally result in further pollution whose results will exceed by 5% the mitigation capacity designed by the road transport department. Notably, the extra abatement strategies of the highly concentrated SO2 emissions are a need that cannot be negotiated.
The main disparity regarding air contaminants resulting from road transport segment and the power production is directly incomparable based on their corresponding effects on humanity. Systematically, these impacts rely on a more prominent extent on locality, the intensity as well as types of emission sources. Pollution from automobiles happens at the ground level and usually, in such areas as residential, workplaces, offices among others. In comparison, contamination is significant within the cities, municipalities as well as towns. A considerable portion of the population is exposed to pollution. Contrastingly, power plants are built outside the cities/towns where there is sparse population. Since there is low-exposure, there is a change in the release of contaminants, for instance, from roads to power generation sector, which is a very significant environmental concern for public health.
A considerable portion of chargeable cars primarily on the European highways in the future is anticipated to have consequences on electricity production as well as distribution infrastructures. In the process of incorporating extra electricity need, it is worth considering that road and energy sectors should be firmly joined. Besides, the decisions regarding policies as well as investments across these two sectors should be integrated. Chargeable automobiles are just another way through which not only the European continent but also the entire world can make positive steps forwards towards the achievement of a more sustainable as well as resource-efficient economy as well as carbon-free transportation structure. The replacement of the conventional cars with electricity-driven ones is a significant means of reducing emissions, but this relies on which source of electricity to rejuvenate the vehicles. Causes may include; renewable sources, fossil fuels and also nuclear. Therefore, blindly substituting the conventional cars is not a perfect solution to the transport-related issues, for instance, rapid congestions as well as demand for road transportation. It is evident that proper systems of the transport are urgently required, and this may encompass additional expansion of renewable energy like biofuels. In a nutshell, a deviation in the public means of transportation as well as the underlying structures. Undoubtedly, this approach will help accomplish the EU obligation to ensure an eco-friendly economy [12].
The growing wind power and solar photovoltaic (PV) installed capacity has initiated high-requirements on power balance control and power quality in several regions in Europe [13, 14, 15].
Large offshore wind farms tend to direct a high-power capacity at a single location. Notably, the magnitude of the power fluctuation can reach extremely high values due to wind speed variations. For instance, the 10-min average wind power profile from the 160 MW wind farm Horus Rev. is depicted. Within 11 days, the normalised wind power generation differs from zero to approximately 100% production. Wind power fluctuations are visible at different time scale such as short (intra hour) and long (several hours) [6, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28]. Furthermore, wind power and PV are known as non-dispatchable energy sources since the active power production is variable over time [6, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. The transmission system operator (TSO) plays a significant role in ensuring the balance between consumption and production at all times including at intra-hour time scale.
Importantly, the research has majorly focused on the potential contribution of EVs to facilitate the integration of RESs in the power system. The research topic has been developed within the paradigm of the smart grid, and it is centred on the EVs potential of establishing mutual benefits to both the electric power system with RES and future EV users. The term “smart grid” refers to the operation of the power system using communication, control technology, power electronics technologies as well as storage technologies to balance production and consumption at all levels [18]. Regarding this vision, an EV is in a position to act as a controllable load or as storage, charging or discharging part of its battery capacity back to the grid, conferring to the vehicle to grid (V2G) notion, as stated by Kempton and Letendre [19].
If the charging of EVs is uncoordinated, their impact on the grid is equivalent to a large electric load resulting in higher power systems peak-load and to distribution grid congestion issues [20]. To avoid such scenarios, the study has researched on what impacts EV coordinated charging can have in correlation with RES production. To be precise, the research has focused on the solutions using EVs for the provision of ancillary services for wind integration as well as energy storage for PV integration.
Using EVs in power systems together with wind power has been reported to be ideally suited for the provision of ancillary services [18]. According to Kempton et al. [21, 22], EVs should be coordinated for high-value services including ancillary services that often reduces the operating cost to EV owner in the short-term period. The EV owners are likely to experience lower price despite a higher initial value compared to the ICE cars. Pillai and Bak-Jensen [23] examined the benefits of ancillary services provisions by EVs in the western Danish power system. They mainly checked at the disposition of secondary reserves, load frequency; control (LFC), which is assessed through simulation models. The authors explain how EVs can efficiently control power mismatch resulting from the variability of wind power, therefore eliminating the use of conventional power plants. Galus et al. [24] developed a similar idea where large amounts of clustered EVs, as well as household apparatus, can be used to offer secondary reserves, LFC in the power system. Regarding the simulation results, it is observable that vehicles batteries are subject to extensive energy excursion, which tends to pass from empty to full state of charge. The report by Hay et al. [25] analyses the opportunity of using EVs for regulating power: it is believed that in order to reduce the excessive use of automatic reserves [26] and in order to re-establish the availability of these, it is necessarily essential to increase the purpose of regulating power in Denmark. The authors affirm that using EVs to offer monitoring power in Denmark is one of the most effective solutions for substituting the reduced reserve power generated from conventional power plants in the future. The research also looked at micro-grid applications. In [27, 28], Lopes et al. discuss how EV load coordination can be used in stabilising the system frequency in micro-grid with wind power by using a droop control strategy. It was discovered that the penetration level of wind power could be increased even more by using a coordinated EV load. In a different study, EVs and power systems are believed to be perfect as controllable loads in simulation environment; however, the research failed to address the possible hindrances like EV control requirements as well as EV elements response during moments of coordination.
The research on the usage of solar power through EVs is significantly diversified as compared to various studies focusing on wind power and EVs. Substantially, it is possible to generate electricity PV at both medium and low voltage levels within the power systems. Besides, this alternative additionally motivates the concept of incorporating the PV generation with EVs [6]. As evident from the analysis conducted by Bessa and Matos [29], utilising EVs in the process of distributing grids using PV is considered an alternative to storing energy instead of controllable loads vis-à-vis the suggestions made by various scholars. Additionally, research reveals that during the daytime when the solar radiation is at the peak, solar power can be easily stored in the car batteries for future usage. In this field, several contributions, for instance, the idea of “green” charge [29] has enabled people to understand the significance of maximising the cost of EVs throughout the irradiation period. On the contrary, Birnie [30] also recognised another application. The scholar introduced a concept in which EVs can be charged during the day at the parking areas situated, for instance, within the workplaces. In addition, EVs can be re-energised entirely during the working periods to realise the solar-to-vehicle (SV2) approach. Furthermore, the research also illustrates that energy generated in each parking area is essential in the extra generation of adequate electricity for transportation requirements for the EVs operator.
Although grids may have high penetration capacity of PV, they may too have lower voltages. In such situations, the primary constraint is linked to variations of voltage magnitudes along the feeders. Moreover, such discrepancies can be noticed particularly within the periods of high production as well as the conditions of low load [31, 32, 33, 34]. Unsurprisingly, these events are likely to occur regularly, but on areas majorly the places of residence that have highly concentrated roof-top PVs. Conversely, many studies have examined various alternatives in the mitigation of voltage capacity, for instance, the grid reinforcement [32], approaches to reactive power control [34, 35, 36, 37, 38], harmonised active power curtailment [33], as well as permanent storage of energy [39].
Research exposes that the application coordinated EV load within the feeders using high PV penetration has not been satisfactorily analysed.
The need for a transition to a more sustainable energy system leads to a deep change in the energy, building and transports sector. Power installation from RESs is becoming more and more relevant, new mobility schemes, namely car sharing, are growing more popular and particular attention is paid to energy efficiency in buildings. Moreover, each of these aspects is related to another important concept that is energy storage. The greatest change in the energy sector has occurred due to the development of distributed (or diffused) generation (DG). According to DG consists of the totality of power plants having a nominal power lower than 10 MW and connected to the distribution network. DG plants exploit primary energy sources—in the majority of cases renewable—which are distributed on the territory (thus the name distributed generation) and that could not otherwise be exploited in a traditional centralised plant; they supply local loads and they can be operated in a co-generative mode. In an urban district, examples of DG are PV panels and solar collectors mounted on top of buildings.
One of the drawbacks of DG is the high specific investment cost mainly due to the fact that, being medium or small plants, scale economy cannot be applied. Nevertheless, this can be faced thanks to a suitable incentive strategy. The real problem is the difficulty in predicting and controlling the power produced and put on the distribution network. So the distributed generation, together with other distributed energy resources such as EVs and energy storage, is the main driver for the shift to a new paradigm in the management of the grid: the passage to a smart grid.
Smart grid is defined as a modern electric power grid infrastructure that guarantees the reliability of the system and the security of supply, allowing to face problems related to the distributed power generation from RESs and to control the load, promoting energy efficiency and involving the passive final users. In order to do so, integration of the electrical grid with information and communication technology (ICT) is needed.
The availability of electricity is of crucial importance for all human activities. Therefore, continuity and security of the supply service are necessary. Since nowadays electrical energy cannot be stored at low-cost and in large quantities, electrical systems must guarantee a constant equilibrium between production and consumption. This means that the power generated has to correspond exactly to the one requested at any time interval. The electrical network is ruled in a way to ensure that this balance is respected despite any possible disturbance, from load fluctuations to faults determining the unavailability of some grid elements. The structure of the electrical grid is investigated in the paragraph below.
In a traditional network configuration, power generation occurs mainly in big, centralised power plants. The energy produced is put on the transmission network at high voltage (HV network, 132–220–400 kV), then it is transformed into medium voltage (MV network, 15–20–23 kV) through primary substations and eventually it is converted in secondary substations into Low Voltage (LV network, 230–400 V) and distributed to the final users. Domestic and commercial users are generally connected to the LV network while the majority of industrial users are connected to the MV network.
HV grid is designed to transfer bulk power from major generators to areas of demand; it has a network structure to ensure different alternative paths for the power flow in case some of its elements are unavailable owing to a fault. In Italy, for example, the transmission network has reached a high automation level, leading to a good reliability and security of supply. The transmission grid is ruled by the transmission system operator (TSO) which in Italy is Terna.
On the other hand, MV and LV grids have a radial structure. To be more precise, even if in MV grids different possible paths are available for the power flow, these grids are operated in a radial way. Distribution networks (MV and LV grids) are managed by the distribution system operator (DSO). Distribution networks have originally been conceived to transfer power just in one direction: from the substations to the final customer. This model is appropriate as long as only loads, with the exception of a very few generators, are connected to distribution networks so that they can be regarded as passive. Due to recent large spreading of distributed generation, mainly from renewables, this model needs to be re-visited.
At present, generators are connected to the distribution network according to the fit and forget approach. In the fit phase, the DSO checks that technical rules for connection to the grid are respected and that the generator’s functioning does not create any problem in any credible operational scenario. The capability of the distribution grid to accept a certain amount of diffused generation is called hosting capacity. The nodal hosting capacity (NHC) methodology is utilised to determine how much DG can be connected to a given network respecting performance limits. Typically, the operating limits are as follows: rapid voltage changes, short circuit currents, reverse power flow and line thermal limits. The DSO deals with the generator as a negative load, since; it puts power on the network instead of withdrawing it. So, the DSO is forgetting it because it cannot control the generator during its operation: The generator can introduce power into the grid at any moment depending on the will of the producer or on the availability of the energy resources. Therefore, it is possible to identify three main issues related to the actual distribution network. First of all, the DSO is obliged to limit DG connection in order to keep the control of the grid, reducing the power that could be installed through DG. A way to overcome this issue would be allowing the generators to collaborate to the management of the grid. The second drawback is related to the behaviour of DG in case of faults or contingencies. If there is an anomaly in the measured values of frequency and voltage at the connection point, DG is disconnected even if the problem is not related to the distribution network but to the transmission one. This results in the sudden unavailability of the power produced by DG which could have dangerous consequences for the safety of the overall electrical power system.
Last but not least, reverse power flow can occur if the installed DG grows. It means that the power does not flow anymore only from the substations to the users but vice-versa. Thus, the updating of protection and regulation systems is necessary. Provided all this, a transition to a new management of the electrical network and of the entire power system is needed; we refer to this new model as smart grid. The aim is to move from a system in which power production is centralised and controllable while consumption is completely random, so the responsibility for the balance between generation and consumption is entirely on the production side, to a system in which part of the generation is non-programmable, but this can be counterbalanced by a controllable portion of consumption. The idea is to move from a passive grid to an active one in which there is a bi-directional exchange between producers and users as it shown in Figure 2.
Comparison between the (a) actual and the (b) future electric system.
So, besides all the technical aspects regarding protections and regulations, in order to face the changes brought in by DG, the involvement of the final user has a fundamental role because he/she has to become responsible for part of the load control.
While EVs expend power, they can likewise send out energy to the grid as ‘mobile energy’ units of storage. An expansion in electric vehicle reception may mean greater adaptability for the framework to react to supply as well as demand. The vitality providers will offer the “vehicle-to-grid” administration to purchasers of the EVs. For this situation, reserve funds from vehicle-to-grid administrations could take care of the yearly expense of charging an electric auto. The proprietor of the auto should introduce a unique charger at home and the provider will deal with the auto’s battery. The energy providers will naturally exchange power from the auto’s battery to the grid amid peak times when costs are most noteworthy, possibly giving money related come back to the proprietor. The auto’s battery will be charged amid off-peak times when costs are least. This improvement shows that vehicle-to-grid administrations could be utilised as a part of different nations amid peak hours to discharge stored power onto the grid and reduce charging costs. Adjusting the supply as well as demand of power with electric autos additionally could bring about maintaining a strategic distance from exorbitant moves up to the grid, for example, putting resources into new power plants. In this way, transportation expenses and power bills could reduce with vehicle-to-grid administrations. As more clients embrace EVs, vehicle-to-grid administrations ought to be considered to help level out power supply as well as demand. This alternative might be particularly helpful in urban communities that have embraced electric transports for public transportation. These electric transports could give power to the grid when not being used, diminishing expenses for the city as well as clients. Some alert ought to be taken as more EVs are associated with the grid. Huge spikes popular for power could cause anxiety that could influence soundness, productivity, and working expenses of the grid. Subsequently, the effect of charging an electric vehicle is subject to where it is situated on the grid and the season of day it is charged.
Utilities plan to utilise disseminated assets, for example, sustainable power source generation, storage and demand reaction, to incompletely control charging effects of EVs. Keen grid innovations, for example, progressed metering foundation could demonstrate accommodating in dealing with the charging of EVs. Such gadgets permit charging stations to be incorporated with time-based rates that support off-peak charging. They likewise enable utilities to examine charging station utilisation and charging practices to illuminate speculation choices. Moreover, calculations that successfully plan the charging and releasing of EVs are vital for the grid to work proficiently. Be that as it may, growing such calculations is troublesome because of the irregularity and vulnerability of future occasions. More electric vehicle charging stations in advantageous areas are important to adjust request on the grid and increment accommodation. On the off chance that an electric vehicle needs to charge amid a lengthy, difficult experience trip, it would need to stop at the closest charging station. The nearest charging zone may not be along the driver’s way, conceivably expanding power utilisation and diminishing convenience. Microgrids could likewise support unwavering quality while charging EVs in an area or work zone. Small community areas with disseminated assets, for example, solar-power oriented, wind as well as storage would decrease the strain on our power grid. Maybe circling capacity into nearby microgrids would additionally improve power versatility. As clients receive EVs, it is vital to consider all the potential advantages these autos could give to the grid. The grid could turn out to be more adaptable amid peak times for less cost and costly foundation updates could be kept away from with vehicle-to-grid administrations.
Providing supplementary services from EVs is a very plausible option in case the process involves large fleet vehicles [40]. As revealed by Kempton et al. [40] in the year 2001, only one EV can neither unswervingly make it electricity market nor establish transactional engagements with electrical institutions because of the power constraints. The authors, therefore, suggested an aggregator technology, which may serve the purpose of intermediation between the automobiles, the utility organisations as well as the energy market. Figure 3 vividly demonstrates the aggregator frameworks alongside other forms of the framework [41, 42].
Simplified EV coordination framework: transmission system operator (TSO), distribution system operator (DSO), electric market and charging stations for EVs.
In almost every circumstance, the EV aggregator produces essential signals for coordinating the EV fleet based on the data shared between the supply the energy market, TSO as well as the DSO.
There are multiple reasons behind the deployment of EV aggregators. Firstly, under current market conditions small loads individual participation is prohibited. Also, it permits easiest interaction with the DSO for troubleshooting. With an appropriate strategy, it can lead to a reduction of the risk of forecast errors of the EV load.
As PV penetration increases in LV grid, controlling the EV load can lead to an improvement in the feeder operation and a decrease in the need to invest in infrastructure upgrades of the grid. In grids with such high penetration, there are constraints to keep in mind. Customers will evaluate improvements with respect to dependability, quality, and price. We expect a major change in the near future in the voltage quality improvement, which will aim to reduce long-term variations in voltage magnitude that arise in a decentralised RES generation context. We know from theory, that EV load coordination can facilitate keeping a local balance between production and consumption, which can reduce under and over-voltages.
Planning rules are currently being revised so as to allow for greater RES penetration by European energy suppliers. The options include [43]: (a) redirecting the power route to decrease circuit distance; (b) improvement of the upstream transformer volume; (c) improvement with MV/LV transformer with automatic voltage control; (d) improvement of the grid circuit thermal capacity, (e) improvement of the grid’s rated voltage level; (f) setting up of additional reactive power compensation; (g) erection of new substations; and (h) modifications to the grid architecture.
Above are the grid reinforcement options. Recently, automatic power curtailment is being looked at within DSOs, if RES induced voltage variations were to exceed the allowable bounds. To do so, requires linking all units in a communication infrastructure network, which may not be convenient to owners and might imply compensating them for the inconvenience. Extensive research has been made into reactive power methods for LV grids, showing some limitations in the effectiveness of reducing voltage rise [46, 48, 49, 50]. In view of the case of PV, most PV units previously connected in LV grids work with unit power factor. Furthermore, the high R/X ratio (imaginary part of impedance divided by the real part of impedance) of LV cables creates challenging the efficiency of these techniques. By providing reactive power contribution by all PV units, there can be visible voltage rise reduction in a feeder [50]. Besides, active power solutions can be utilised as an alternative one.
For the interest of knowledge, Fell et al. [43] explained that an EV aggregator is vital requirement in the coordination of the grid-connected operations of several EVs to achieve the regulation needs or standards by the TSO. It is noteworthy that, the meaning of EV aggregator is also recognised by Brooks and Cage [44]; in this regard, the priority of EV aggregator is to check the driving needs of the operators. Some authors have suggested a strategy that allows the user to communicate their operation needs to the aggregator. Consequently, the aggregator works by processing the information about the driving data. Considering the convenience of all the operation profiles of the user, the aggregator produces a “virtual power plant” in which the number of the automobiles anticipatedly plugged plus the accumulated power as well as the levels of energy. Moreover, the estimation can be done per hour. Equally, Bessa et al. [45] also invented a procedure that can as well be used to optimise and support aggregator in enhancing the engagement of the day-ahead (also known as spot market) as well as subordinate reserves sessions. Further analysis was conducted a 2-year simulation on the Iberian market and concluded that; the agent of aggregation with augmented bidding is likely to reduce the costs of charging more than the coordinated system of billing. Secondly, in case the payment regarding the reserve capacity is convenient, then it is financially expedient to regulate EV participation. Lastly, if there is no reserve capacity compensation, the idea of optimised bidding can as well pay off. Prediction of the EV loads as well as approximating the qualms is essential in problem-solving. Lopes et al. [46] applied the concept y describing the architecture through which EVs are accumulated on a micro-grid as well as multi-grid ideas. Again, the aggregator in this context functions as interplay between the users of EVs and the energy market. In this case, these concepts are like to offer frequency regulation. Researchers Galus and Anderson [47]; introduced a different idea on an aggregator. They asserted that an aggregator is not a corporation but an intangible computational unit that monitors and evaluates a control are: Adequately, it is a smart interface amid the electrical utilities and the EV. Harmonisation of EV is easy to detect if there is the likelihood of responding to the propagated indications. Therefore, the need of EV to react to the secondary services as well as technological shortcomings arising from EV coordination process is addressed by Galus and Anderson [47].
In this subsection, the concept of synergies between undispatchable generation sources and controllable loads, utilising in particular PV distributed generation and EV batteries, is presented. In the smart grid environment, increasing further PV generation, would involve storage systems to modulate power injections. In this situation, EVs (V2G) are more advantageous that conventional energy storage (batteries) within smart grids.
The potential of using RESs as alternative to conventional fuels such as fossil fuels, to power EVs can help reduce pollution with a considerable decarbonisation effect and enhance resource efficiency. Alternatively, sustainability targets are however in advance: more RES volume is expected such as share of renewable energy of 45% in the electricity sector by 2030, which is just currently 21%, and further sustainable transport has to be realised. Consequently, there is a requirement to integrate both elements in the best cost and effective manner.
Figure 4 shows per unit (p.u.) based graphs of the load demand profile (maximum peak load demand) and PV generation (Watt-peak installed PV capacity) against vehicles mobility patterns profile (maximum shares of vehicles in motion. Under unrestricted charging, it is clear that no interdependence can be drawn between the penetration impact of both EV and PV. It can be seen that, that there is no interdependence between the penetration impact of both EV and PV, given that the EV vehicles are charged in unrestricted manner. Actually, it is anticipated that EV generated load peaks should happen during the evening commute home. Besides, the EV demand peak corresponds with periods of little to no energy generation from PV sources, or in best situation to a minimal level throughout the summer when the days are extended.
Load demand profile against typical EV load and PV generation profiles as a function of time of day.
A greater penetration level of DER along with a mitigation of the intermittent effects of high penetration of PV generation could be facilitated with more flexibility in EV demand. Such synergy requires the transferring of the EV demand peak in order to prevent bottleneck and high electricity prices during peak demand as well to relieve the excess of PV power generation. It is essential to emphasise that the tracked objective is principally focused on risk mitigation instead of minimising operational expenditures. Note that lacking to alleviate risk could be costly (e.g. forfeit from regulator, energy not delivered or damaging, the standing of the utility company). Smart consumer and smart home comprises funds committed to create the required interfaces and utilities for prosumers interactions and communications with the appropriate objects (i.e. energy aggregators, utilities, DSOs, etc.). This essentially implicates direct funds in terms of white goods; smart meters in addition to the evaluation of prosumers commitment and sensitivity to diverse incentives. Virtual power plants amalgamation is probably the best attractive form regarding the synergies between EV and PV. Its operation is systematically reliant on other divisions.
Such funds concentrate on physical and market aggregation among distributed generation and controllable loads creating jointly a virtual power plan. A virtual power plant assessed to a conventional RES offers numerous benefits principally: greater inertia (aggregated sources), controllability (through storage or demand side management) permitting the option to interact and assist as a market participant whichever by delivering auxiliary amenities or bidding in energy market. The established design and the energy management approach are in agreement with the usual current and anticipated standards in terms of interoperability potential and functionalities. The evaluated EV charging comprises uncontrolled and synchronised charging approaches. The recommended plan intends to empower effective and harmonious communication among the diverse players within the DEMS (decentralised energy management system) domains. For the smart grid and the deregulated energy markets, it is anticipated to get a variety of players exploiting different equipment’ suppliers. These performers require to be effectively interconnected and synchronised with interoperable solutions, directing to significant executions costs payable to the sheer number of procedures and involved equipment, functions or applications to be integrated.
EVs represent one of the best promising technologies for green and sustainable transportation systems. The high penetration of EVs will have positive effects and benefits such as lesser fossil fuel reliance, significant reduction of GHG and toxic pollutant emissions, as well as the capability to contribute in the integration of renewable energy into existing electric grids. This chapter reviewed the latest advances related to the interaction and integration of EVs with RESs such as wind energy, solar photovoltaics and EV coordination for sustainable mobility in significantly reducing air pollution. Some key concerns and possible solutions were also discussed in detail. The successful implementation of the coupling EV-RES technology includes and requires the full contribution of government, power utilities, EV and aggregators manufactures, policy-makers and owners. It is expected that this study can assist all involved parties to better understand the challenges and issues and contribute further to this field.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Cardiac surgeons and/or cardiac anaesthesiologists after cardiac operations prevalently use the ECMO in its VA-ECMO configuration for cardio-circulatory failure [1, 2]. Recently, ECMO in its veno-venous configuration is becoming widely used in ICU by intensivists to treat severe form of respiratory failure (ARDS) [3, 4] after the recent successes obtained with the use of ECMO in the A(H1N1) influenza epidemic [5, 6], linked to the results of CESAR Trial [7].
\nAt the same time, the practice of echocardiographic investigation in intensive care units by the intensivists combined the echocardiographic method to haemodynamic monitoring, favouring the use of echocardiography for the assessment of haemodynamic and respiratory instability [8].
\nThe patient who needs extracorporeal support is thus evaluated by the echocardiographer who establishes the timing of the support, the need for support, and the contraindications to the support and follows the phases of cannulation and functioning of the extracorporeal support [9].
\nECMO is a rescue therapy used to provide cardiac and/or respiratory support for critically ill patients in whom maximal conventional medical management failed [3, 4]. VV-ECMO provides adequate oxygenation and removal of carbon dioxide in isolated refractory respiratory failure, while VA-ECMO is used when support for cardiac and /or respiratory failure is needed [1] (Table 1).
\nEchocardiography (ECHO) plays a pivotal role in the management of critical patients, particularly those supported with ECMO [9, 10, 11]. ECHO can be used to not only evaluate function and diagnose diseases requiring ECMO but also to detect all cardiac complications or vascular diseases that may arise following ECMO [12, 13].
\nThe central role of ECHO is important to identifying various diseases such as cardiac /undiagnosed valve lesions and left ventricular (LV) dysfunction, which could be the cause of severe haemodynamic instability, as well as to exclude them to avoid ECMO support [11].
\nThe detection of aortic dissection represents an absolute contraindication in VA-ECMO, whereas a moderate to severe aortic valve regurgitation (AVR) is a relative contraindication in VA-ECMO, because the LV afterload increase, determining by ECMO itself, leads a worsening in AVR. ECHO provides information on aortic atherosclerosis and then guides the intensivist to decide the suitable cannulation sites (central versus peripheral) or the technique (surgical versus percutaneous) [13]. ECHO also helps to evaluate the right heart morphology for any structural abnormality, which could prevent the positioning of venous cannula for VV-ECMO or VA-ECMO [14].
\nIn addition, as stated above, ECHO has a key role during ECMO cannulation. First, it guides the correct placement of the ECMO cannulae [15]. TTE may not be able to guide ECMO cannulation because of limited spatial resolution, and therefore transoesophageal echocardiography (TOE) represents the examination of choice to guiding the insertion. Echocardiographer and intensivist have to work together in order to correct the final position of the cannulae [15]. In VV-ECMO the position of the tips of the venous cannulae is essential for the correct functioning of the ECMO. Indeed, the drainage cannula must be positioned just before the entrance of the inferior vena cava (IVC) in the right atrium (RA), while the tip of the return cannula must be positioned in the central part of the RA just before the tricuspid valve but far away from the inter-atrial septum [16].
\nHowever, the echocardiographic evaluation is also essential for the identification and management of specific complications that may arise during ECMO support and may determine its malfunction. For the problems related to TTE resolution, also involving to the patient’s respiratory pathology, the TOE is preferred to make it clear any possible complication [17]. ECHO allows a rapid evaluation not only of the positioning of the cannula but mainly of the cardiac filling, of the cardiac function, and of the cardiac tamponade [16, 17]. Detection of cardiac tamponade and evaluation of the significance of pericardial effusion or collection may be difficult in patients supported with ECMO because the heart is in a partially bypassed state.
\nIn conclusion, ECHO is mandatory during the start of ECMO, cannulae insertion, haemodynamic monitoring, and detection of complications during weaning [16, 17, 18].
\nIn many cases, cannulation can be performed without ultrasound guidance. However, the use of ultrasound can help to reduce the rate of complications associated with cannulation such as haematoma, retroperitoneal haematoma, vascular damage, cardiac tamponade, and ischemia of the lower leg [19]. In the paediatric patient, the eco-guided cannulation has been shown to reduce complications, especially the need for surgical placement [20, 21].
\nThe ultrasound evaluation of the diameter of the vessels to be cannulated, especially the femoral artery, allows to choose the right size of the cannula, avoiding vascular occlusions distal to the cannulation point, with consequent ischemia, for example, of the lower limb [15, 19]. Cannulation can be carried out echo-guided or echo-assisted, i.e. only by identifying the insertion point. Today the ultrasound shows a greater sensitivity and specificity compared to radiography in identifying the exact point of arrival of the cannulae. The exact position of the femoral arterial cannula allows to optimise the flow, as well as the exact position of the venous cannula in IVC, above the hepatic vein, and contributes to an excellent drainage, clearly optimising hepatic drainage [22] (Figure 1). The echocardiography, after the positioning of the cannulae, must be performed to highlight early cardiac tamponade and problems of acute dilatation of the ventricles [14, 16, 23]. The use of colour Doppler also highlights problems of distal perfusion in the lower limb, such as having to provide with dedicated shunts.
\nCannulation scheme in VV-ECMO. The red arrows indicate the reinfusion of oxygenated blood, the purple arrow indicates the recirculating blood, and the light blue arrows indicate the drainage of the venous blood. SVC, superior vena cava; IVC, inferior vena cava; TV, tricuspid valve; RA, right atrium.
Before dilating vein for venous cannulation, it is necessary to make sure that guide wires, percutaneously inserted, are positioned inside the heart or large vessels. Only after ultrasound confirmation, physicians can proceed to advance the cannulae on these wires. However, it is necessary to discriminate the real images from the echocardiographic artefacts generated by these wires and cannulae, before proceeding to the final position of the cannulae. In the peripheral configurations of ECMO, especially in the VA-ECMO, we must assist with ultrasound the placement of the venous cannula in the middle of the right atrium in order to obtain an optimal drainage [13, 14] (Figure 2). With TOE, the bi-caval projection is able to orient perfectly on the optimal position of the venous cannula (Figure 3). Although the ultrasounds cannot indicate the level of the arterial cannula tip, which reaches the iliac artery from the femoral artery, they can confirm that the guide wire used in percutaneous arterial cannulation is located in the lumen of the aorta, before the femoral artery dilatation, reducing the risk of extra-arterial placement of the cannula.
\nBi-caval view of the TOE: the drainage cannula from the IVC is visible in the middle atrium (arrow light blue).
Bi-caval view to the 3D TOE: the drainage cannula from the IVC can be seen in the middle atrium (arrow light blue).
Therefore, summing up, it is essential to visualise in real time the positioning of the guide wires in the caval districts (IVC and SVC) with the middle oesophageal bi-caval projection to the TOE [11] (Figures 2
(A) Drainage cannula in IVC (light blue arrow) and (B) colour Doppler showing the flow in the cannula.
Compared to the classic configuration of the VV-ECMO which provides a double cannulation, the development of newer devices, such as the Dual Lumen Bi-Caval catheter (Avalon®,
In the treatment of severe respiratory failure (severe ARDS), VV-ECMO is a valid option [31]. It can be considered a bridge to the healing of the lung, allowing the therapies to act effectively. Moreover, unlike the VA-ECMO it does not present problems of oxygenation north-south (harlequin syndrome). All this is valid if cardiac function is maintained normal and able to effectively support the systemic circulation. Therefore, before a VV-ECMO is established, a complete evaluation of both the patient’s echocardiographic and haemodynamic parameters is essential [11, 16]. Echocardiography, both TTE and TOE, must ensure a correct evaluation of the right ventricular function and evaluate the degree of tricuspid insufficiency and the estimate of pulmonary artery pressure, potentially altered parameters in the course of ARDS, and sepsis [32].
\nVV-ECMO could improve the performance of the right ventricle and the whole heart. There is an irrelevant modification of the right preload, an increase in the left load due to a reduction in pulmonary pressure with a further increase in SvO2, and the saturation of the coronary blood. Approximately 20–25% of patients with ARDS develop an acute cor pulmonale (ACP) with right ventricular dilatation, inter-ventricular septum shift, left ventricular hypo-diastolic status, and pulmonary hypertension [32, 33]. This clinical picture is also typical of the right ventricular failure induced by the septic state. Echocardiography helps to choose the right timing for extracorporeal support and allows to follow the evolutionary state (improvement) of the right performance following VV-ECMO support: reduction of pulmonary pressure, increase in right contractility (increased systolic excursion of the tricuspid annular plane (TAPSE)), and improvement of the cardiac output (CO) [11, 16, 34].
\nTTE echocardiographic evaluation in patients with ARDS may present some resolution problems; therefore, normally the TOE is used, also because of low invasiveness as the patients are already intubated and sedated.
\nThe presence of pulmonary hypertension and sepsis can create the conditions for a rapid deterioration of cardiac function, so that can worsen from initial presence of respiratory failure to cardiorespiratory insufficiency. Through echocardiographic and haemodynamic monitoring, we can anticipate the worsening of the clinical picture and establish a cardiorespiratory support (VA-ECMO).
\nThe right ventricle echocardiographic assessment in the ECMO patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) plays a key role to reduce complications and to improve the outcome [11, 14, 16, 31].
\nIt is simple to understand the role of ECHO in the risk stratification of patients undergoing VV-ECMO. In fact, ARDS requires an initial aggressive ventilatory treatment that brings to haemodynamic instability [33]. Patient presents high CVP associated to fluid accumulation in the pleural and abdominal spaces. ECHO shows a dilatation of the right ventricle with associated pulmonary hypertension. This clinical picture is described as ACP [8, 32, 33]. To minimise the impact of the positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) on right ventricular haemodynamic, physicians have choice a right balance between the PEEP value and cardio-circulatory stability. The therapeutic request is the protective ventilation aimed at reducing right ventricular failure related to an increase in the afterload of the right chambers [8, 33]. The aim of the treatment is the reduction of pulmonary arterial hypertension to reduce enlargement of right ventricle and consequent shift of the inter-ventricular septum. Unfortunately, despite implementation of protective lung ventilation, ACP still remains until 25% [32, 33, 34]. VV-ECMO represents a real solution to support both the lung and the right ventricle [35, 36].
\nThe improvement of gas exchange and the reduction of airway pressures both contribute at the reduction of pulmonary vascular resistance with consequent hemodynamic improvement.
\nThe daily evaluation of echocardiography in this case is mandatory.
\nBecause the high acoustic impedance is caused by high PEEP values, TTE cannot be straightforward, and TOE is preferred.
\nA recently published summary paper on the management of ECMO recommends that physician training in echocardiography be part in the ECMO patient care team [37].
\nHowever, the role of echocardiography in ECMO is not widely accepted and is still poorly described in the literature.
\nThe echocardiographic examination of the right ventricle requires a long axis and a short axis view to evaluate the size of the cavity with the relationship of the left ventricle and the kinetics of the septum. The examination can be completed by the Doppler of the right ventricular outflow and tricuspid regurgitation when present, to measure the systolic pressure of the pulmonary artery. The measurement of the TAPSE, simple and useful from prognostic point of view, avoids measuring the fractional area change (FAC) of the right ventricle more complicated. Right ventricle TDI (tissue Doppler imaging) is useful to evaluate diastolic and systolic functions [38].
\nModerate to severe right ventricular dilatations, defined as a ratio greater than 0.6 and as a ratio greater than or equal to 1, are associated with paradoxical septum motion at the end systole complicating the left ventricular function [8, 39, 40].
\nPulmonary hypertension is usually associated with tricuspid regurgitation, but it also depends on right ventricular systolic function, and its value can be very low when associated with low CO [38, 39]. The right ventricular remodelling in ARDS patients is represented by the thickness of free wall, related to the increase in afterload [40]. Most important is also the detection of a PFO that can complicate the oxygenation of ARDS patients [39] (Figures 5 and 6). The displacement of septum due to right ventricular dilatation causes the left ventricular hypo-diastolic status, with a consequent low CO syndrome related to the difficult preload of the left ventricle. This is considered an ECHO evaluation of right ventricular function in pre-ECMO stage.
\nBi-caval view in which an aneurysm of the inter-atrial septum is seen.
Colour Doppler bi-caval view in which you see the shunt through the PFO.
The purpose of the VA-ECMO is to support cardio-circulatory function in patients with heart failure refractory to medical therapy [1, 36]. Based on the INTERMACS class it belongs to, VA-ECMO can be used in major risk classes, not only as bridge to recovery or bridge to destination therapy (left ventricular assist device (LVAD) or heart transplantation (HTx)) but also as bridge to decision [41] (Table 2). In addition, the VA-ECMO can be used in haemodynamic support to refractory cardiac arrest that can result in patient recovery or be used as a procedure for donation of splanchnic organs in non-beating heart [42, 43].
\nMain indications for the use of ECMO assistance.
Possible uses of VA-ECMO.
Compared to other mechanical cardiac assistance devices, ECMO has the advantage.
\nof reduced costs and the possibility of being set up easily and quickly on the outside.
\nof the operating room (intensive care unit, cardiac catheterization theatre, or emergency departments) and also during cardiopulmonary resuscitation manoeuvres [43]. However, it is an invasive assistance technique with major problems such as the short duration of assistance, the possible increase of infections, bleeding and thrombosis, and the increase of the afterload of the left ventricle.
\nThe ultrasound evaluation is important before the implantation of the VA-ECMO. However, the conditions of the left ventricle, the degree of aortic insufficiency, and the presence of mitral and tricuspid valve insufficiencies must be carefully evaluated. The configuration of the VA-ECMO involves peripheral cannulations, already partially described, and central cannulations (right atrium and aorta) that can be performed in the cardiac surgery patient who has problems in weaning from the cardiopulmonary bypass.
\nIn patients with cardiogenic shock, echocardiographic examination is necessary to determine cause and indication for extracorporeal support [41] (Table 1). Even more, the echo exam can identify situations that may contraindicate the placement of circulatory assistance.
\nThe echo examination must be as complete as possible and must highlight the morphology and the systolic and diastolic functions of the ventricles, evaluate the valve continence and the presence of pericardial effusion, and seek, in greater detail, the cause of cardiogenic shock (i.e. regional or global dysfunction of the left ventricle) [39]. In the study of cardiac valvular function, the study of the aortic valve is fundamental since its regurgitation can create unfavourable conditions for the positioning of VA-ECMO, given the increase in the afterload that the VA-ECMO generates. Clearly aortic dissection is an absolute contraindication for VA-ECMO placement. In addition, the morphology and the structure of the right atrium and of the right heart in general must be carefully evaluated. In fact, the presence of leads (pacemaker or ICD), a prominent Chiari network, a PFO, a tricuspid valve prosthesis, they are all elements that can compromise or make atrial cannulation impossible [11].
\nThe echocardiographic examination must fundamentally focus on the systolic function of the left ventricle. The systolic function is evaluated with conventional parameters such as the size of the left ventricle (LV), ejection fraction (EF), mitral regurgitation dP/dt, and aortic velocity time integral (VTI) [39]. The blood flow of ECMO can be adjusted based on the overall assessment of ventricular systolic function and cardiac preload. Some authors have systematically studied the effect of the flow rate of oxygenation of the extracorporeal membrane on changes in cardiac parameters [44]. A decrease of flow from 4 to 0.7 L/min leads to a 22% increase in the E/E′ ratio (from 5.9 to 7.2; p < 0.001), an increase of 17% in EF (from 15 to 17.5%; 0.001), increase of 12 and 45% of VTI (from 8 to 11.6 cm; p < 0.001), and increase of 12% of the left ventricular tele-diastolic volume (from 95 to 108 ml, p < 0.001) [44, 45].
\nA serious problem in the ultrasound evaluation is the detection of an evolving pericardial effusion to the cardiac tamponade (Figure 7), due to the passage of wires or cannulae with rupture of the cardiac chambers [11, 14, 16]. Following anticoagulant therapy, necessary in VA-ECMO, the pericardial blood collection can become consistent at many hours from the positioning, and only a series of ultrasound analysis allows the recognition of this clinical situation.
\nPresence of abundant pericardial effusion (light blue arrow) at TTE.
Thrombosis is a major complication during VA-ECMO and can be catastrophic when cerebral embolism occurs [46, 47]. Factors predisposing thrombosis are related to the blood/circuit contact and its activation as well as to the turbulence linked to the lumen of the cannulae [48]. Thrombosis can be more or less evident at ultrasound, and a real pitfall is represented by spontaneous intracavitary echo contrast (smoke) [49]. The evaluation of the opening of the aortic valve guarantees a certain pulsatility to the flow and avoids the stasis linked to the stagnant flow on the closed valve and predictor of thrombosis [46, 47, 48, 49]. If the valve does not open, it is necessary to open the valve through changes in the flow of the VA-ECMO, the use of inodilator drugs, or the insertion of the intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP), which also favours the decompression of the left ventricle. Furthermore, in these cases it is necessary to optimise anticoagulation, which can be evaluated with specific point of care (thrombo-elastographic examination (TEG)) [50].
\nThe increase in the afterload generated by the VA-ECMO can promote mitral-aortic valve regurgitation, compromising myocardial oxygenation and favouring the left ventricular distension not good for cardiac functional recovery.
\nThe difficult management of the patient in VA-ECMO must be accompanied by a continuous echocardiographic evaluation, carried out at least two times a day and whenever there is an unforeseen haemodynamic instability. The study of cardiac function should allow to optimise the flows of the mechanical support and the concomitant therapies. The ECHO evaluation must precede the start of the ECMO, follow the initial support phase, evaluate the evolution of the cardiac function in the stabilisation phase, and evaluate the cardiac functional recovery dictating the weaning time from the extracorporeal support.
\nAt the start of the VA-ECMO, it is necessary to concentrate the attention on the venous drainage to be able to maintain the flow rate. Flow reduction may be due to obstructions (thrombus) or malposition of the cannula or hypovolaemia [11, 48]. A sudden reduction in perfusion pressure and low flow could lead to the search for aortic dissection or severe aortic valve regurgitation resulting in dilation of the left ventricle.
\nVA-ECMO is usually a medium-short duration assay, allowing the recovery of cardiac function or the bridge to other solutions (LVAD or HTx). At this time, echocardiographic monitoring is essential to monitor cardiac function recovery or lack of it.
\nOne of the major problems, especially in the peripheral configuration of the VA-ECMO, is the distension of the left ventricle, such as to increase the tele-diastolic pressure and compromise the functional recovery of the heart [51, 52]. During peripheral VA-ECMO, LV preload usually decreases, but the LV afterload increases, resulting in a distension of the left ventricle associated with failure to open the aortic valve. The flow thus becomes continuous and non-pulsatile with consequent stasis, tendency to thrombosis, and embolization. This situation compromises the recovery of the heart.
\nThe therapeutic strategy consists in venting the left ventricle [52] (Figure 8). The opening of the aortic valve can be done simply by trying to reduce the ECMO flow, but almost always you have to proceed with the IABP or better with the use of Impella® (ABIOMED, Inc., 22 Cherry Hill Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA) [53]. The most effective system is the cannulation of the left ventricular apex through a mini-thoracotomy, a procedure that can be performed under ultrasound guidance [52]. Echocardiographic monitoring has a key role in monitoring the distension of the left ventricle which leads to an increase in capillary pressure, interstitial pulmonary oedema, and bi-ventricular insufficiency. An alternative but less effective venting system is represented by an EndoVent in the pulmonary artery that, rather than detecting the left ventricle as it would take, reduces its preload [54]. Another solution for left ventricular decompression, in patients receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for myocardial failure, is represented by balloon atrial septostomy, used especially in paediatric patients [55, 56].
\nThe light blue indicates the presence of intraventricular vent for the unloading of the left ventricle.
Echocardiography, through the evaluation of trans-aortic flow, is a precious instrument to measure CO during ECMO support as all CO monitoring methods are affected by errors.
\nThe evaluation of distal perfusion is mandatory, and in most cases the distal hypoperfusion must be resolved by a retrograde perfusion cannula.
\nThe echocardiographic evaluation reaches its peak in determining the timing and the possibility of weaning from ECMO [57]. Clearly weaning is possible only if the recovery of cardiac function is associated, as is evident, with the resolution of the pathological conditions determining the use of the VA-ECMO. An indirect sign of recovery of cardiac function is the increase in systolic-diastolic blood pressure. The echocardiographic parameters, which may suggest a safe weaning from the VA-ECMO, are the aortic VTI > 10 cm, the absence of cardiac tamponade, the partial recovery of the EF%, but above all an increase of the Sa wave at the TDI (>6 cm/s) [57, 58].
\nDuring the weaning of the VA-ECMO, the flow of ECMO is reduced, and clinical, haemodynamic, and echocardiographic parameters are evaluated. ECMO flows are usually not reduced below 1–2 L/min, due to the increased risk of thrombosis (Figure 9) of the low-flow circuit [59, 60]. If the patient remains with stable haemodynamic at low flow, they can be ready to be disconnected from the support. Weaning and de-cannulation are delicate phases, and careful haemodynamic and echocardiographic evaluation is needed to identify and promptly deal with contingent problems.
\nTOE (4Ch view) of patient in VA-ECMO in which there is an extensive thrombotic formation of the left ventricle and of the left atrium.
The ultrasonography evaluation also allows the vascular evaluation after de-cannulation.
\nUltrasounds play a fundamental role in managing patients supported with ECMO, during all the different stages of assistance [10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 58], from indication to cannulation, monitoring, and weaning. Either during circulatory or respiratory assistance, ultrasounds are fundamental to evaluate the cardiac function of the patients, providing information that determines appropriate patient selection. They are also needed to choose the best vascular access sites, guide the insertion of cannulas, monitor progress, detect complications, and help in determining recovery and weaning of support [10, 14, 15, 16, 34].
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\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
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Segmentation is a section of image processing for the separation or segregation of information from the required target region of the image. There are different techniques used for segmentation of pixels of interest from the image. Active contour is one of the active models in segmentation techniques, which makes use of the energy constraints and forces in the image for separation of region of interest. Active contour defines a separate boundary or curvature for the regions of target object for segmentation. The contour depends on various constraints based on which they are classified into different types such as gradient vector flow, balloon and geometric models. Active contour models are used in various image processing applications specifically in medical image processing. In medical imaging, active contours are used in segmentation of regions from different medical images such as brain CT images, MRI images of different organs, cardiac images and different images of regions in the human body. Active contours can also be used in motion tracking and stereo tracking. Thus, the active contour segmentation is used for the separation of pixels of interest for different image processing.",book:{id:"6692",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis"},signatures:"R.J. Hemalatha, T.R. Thamizhvani, A. Josephin Arockia Dhivya,\nJosline Elsa Joseph, Bincy Babu and R. 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There are millions of imaging procedures done every week worldwide. Medical imaging is developing rapidly due to developments in image processing techniques including image recognition, analysis, and enhancement. Image processing increases the percentage and amount of detected tissues. This chapter presents the application of both simple and sophisticated image analysis techniques in the medical imaging field. This chapter also summarizes how to exemplify image interpretation challenges using different image processing algorithms such as k-means, ROI-based segmentation, and watershed techniques.",book:{id:"8125",slug:"medical-imaging-principles-and-applications",title:"Medical Imaging",fullTitle:"Medical Imaging - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Yousif Mohamed Y. Abdallah and Tariq Alqahtani",authors:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah"},{id:"294009",title:"Dr.",name:"Tariq",middleName:null,surname:"Alqahtani",slug:"tariq-alqahtani",fullName:"Tariq Alqahtani"}]},{id:"69182",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89200",title:"The Application of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Neuropathic Pain",slug:"the-application-of-functional-magnetic-resonance-imaging-in-neuropathic-pain",totalDownloads:904,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In the past, neuropathic pain has been lacking in ideal imaging research methods, which not only limits our research on the pathogenesis of neuropathic pain but also seriously affects the prognosis of treatments. With the rapid development of fMRI technology, more and more scholars have begun to use fMRI technology in the study of neuropathic pain in recent years. This provides a new idea for revealing the underlining mechanisms of neuropathic pain and improving the clinical treatment concepts. In this chapter, we summarized the recent studies of fMRI in neuropathic pain so that readers can better understand the research status and future research directions.",book:{id:"8125",slug:"medical-imaging-principles-and-applications",title:"Medical Imaging",fullTitle:"Medical Imaging - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Zhi Dou and Liqiang Yang",authors:[{id:"302075",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zhi",middleName:null,surname:"Dou",slug:"zhi-dou",fullName:"Zhi Dou"},{id:"310181",title:"Dr.",name:"Liqiang",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"liqiang-yang",fullName:"Liqiang Yang"}]},{id:"60152",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75202",title:"Abnormal Tissue Zone Detection and Average Active Stress Estimation in Patients with LV Dysfunction",slug:"abnormal-tissue-zone-detection-and-average-active-stress-estimation-in-patients-with-lv-dysfunction",totalDownloads:966,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Detection of regional ventricular dysfunction is a challenging problem. This study presents an efficient method based on ultrasound (US) imaging and finite element (FE) analysis, for detecting akinetic and dyskinetic regions in the left ventricle (LV). The underlying hypothesis is that the contraction of a healthy LV is approximately homogeneous. Therefore, any deviations between the image-based measured deformation and a homogeneous contraction FE model should correspond to a pathological region. The method was first successfully applied to synthetic data simulating an acute ischemia; it demonstrated that the pathological areas were revealed with a higher contrast than those observed directly in the deformation maps. The technique was then applied to a cohort of eight left bundle branch block (LBBB) patients. For this group, the heterogeneities were significantly less pronounced than those revealed for the synthetic cases but the method was still able to identify the abnormal regions of the LV. This study indicated the potential clinical utility of the method by its simplicity in a patient-specific context and its ability to quickly identify various heterogeneities in LV function. Further studies are required to determine the model accuracy in other pathologies and to investigate its robustness to noise and image artifacts.",book:{id:"6692",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis"},signatures:"Sareh Behdadfar, Laurent Navarro, Joakim Sundnes, Molly\nMaleckar, Hans Henrik Odland and Stephane Avril",authors:[{id:"53776",title:"Dr.",name:"Laurent",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro",slug:"laurent-navarro",fullName:"Laurent Navarro"},{id:"233287",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephane",middleName:null,surname:"Avril",slug:"stephane-avril",fullName:"Stephane Avril"},{id:"243118",title:"Dr.",name:"Sareh",middleName:null,surname:"Behdadfar",slug:"sareh-behdadfar",fullName:"Sareh Behdadfar"},{id:"243119",title:"Dr.",name:"Mary M",middleName:null,surname:"Maleckar",slug:"mary-m-maleckar",fullName:"Mary M Maleckar"},{id:"243120",title:"Dr.",name:"Hans Henrik",middleName:null,surname:"Odland",slug:"hans-henrik-odland",fullName:"Hans Henrik Odland"},{id:"243121",title:"Prof.",name:"Joakim",middleName:null,surname:"Sundnes",slug:"joakim-sundnes",fullName:"Joakim Sundnes"}]},{id:"60741",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76428",title:"Image Segmentation",slug:"image-segmentation",totalDownloads:1246,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Image segmentation is one of the important and useful techniques in medical image processing. As the image segmentation technique results robust and high degree of accuracy, it is very much useful for the analysis of different image modalities, such as computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the medical field. CT imaging gives more importance than MRI because of its wider availability, inexpensive and sensitiveness. In most cases, CT offers information needed to make decisions during urgent situations.",book:{id:"6692",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis"},signatures:"Kumaravel Subramaniam Tamilselvan and Govindasamy\nMurugesan",authors:[{id:"232687",title:"Dr.",name:"K.S",middleName:null,surname:"Tamilselvan",slug:"k.s-tamilselvan",fullName:"K.S Tamilselvan"},{id:"245153",title:"Dr.",name:"G",middleName:null,surname:"Murugesan",slug:"g-murugesan",fullName:"G Murugesan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"67331",title:"Research in Medical Imaging Using Image Processing Techniques",slug:"research-in-medical-imaging-using-image-processing-techniques",totalDownloads:4302,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Medical imaging is the procedure used to attain images of the body parts for medical uses in order to identify or study diseases. There are millions of imaging procedures done every week worldwide. Medical imaging is developing rapidly due to developments in image processing techniques including image recognition, analysis, and enhancement. Image processing increases the percentage and amount of detected tissues. This chapter presents the application of both simple and sophisticated image analysis techniques in the medical imaging field. This chapter also summarizes how to exemplify image interpretation challenges using different image processing algorithms such as k-means, ROI-based segmentation, and watershed techniques.",book:{id:"8125",slug:"medical-imaging-principles-and-applications",title:"Medical Imaging",fullTitle:"Medical Imaging - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Yousif Mohamed Y. Abdallah and Tariq Alqahtani",authors:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah"},{id:"294009",title:"Dr.",name:"Tariq",middleName:null,surname:"Alqahtani",slug:"tariq-alqahtani",fullName:"Tariq Alqahtani"}]},{id:"65933",title:"The Ionizing Radiation Interaction with Matter, the X-ray Computed Tomography Imaging, the Nuclear Medicine SPECT, PET and PET-CT Tomography Imaging",slug:"the-ionizing-radiation-interaction-with-matter-the-x-ray-computed-tomography-imaging-the-nuclear-med",totalDownloads:1005,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The mechanism of the ionizing radiation interaction with matter is described for heavy charged particles, electrons and photons. Those effects causing energy loss of the radiation with sequential effects of absorption or attenuation are presented. The features of some characteristic detector systems with the relative electronics and the data acquisition system (DAQ) are presented. Those detectors are related with the medical imaging sensor systems. The characteristics of the medical imaging process of the X-ray and nuclear imaging with SPECT, PET and the combination of PET-CT are presented. The computed X-ray tomography, called CT, and the nuclear medicine tomography are presented, implementing the most of the previous parts, as they are defined in PET and SPECT imaging plus the combination of PET with CT the PET-CT.",book:{id:"8125",slug:"medical-imaging-principles-and-applications",title:"Medical Imaging",fullTitle:"Medical Imaging - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Evangelos Gazis",authors:[{id:"281707",title:"Prof.",name:"Evangelos",middleName:null,surname:"Gazis",slug:"evangelos-gazis",fullName:"Evangelos Gazis"}]},{id:"68830",title:"PET-CT Principles and Applications in Lung Cancer Management",slug:"pet-ct-principles-and-applications-in-lung-cancer-management",totalDownloads:1084,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Lung cancer is the most common malignant cancer throughout the world; the positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET-CT) combines both the metabolism information from PET and anatomy details from CT, which is the state of the art. This manuscript introduced the PET-CT and applications in lung cancer diagnosing, staging, and treatment. Several aspects including clinical features, classification, grading and pathology of the lung cancer, principles of PET-CT, and evaluation of diagnosing and treatment had been covered. Detailed demonstration of each cancer subtype, staging criteria, and classification was described. The content will benefit the clinical doctors as well as radiologists.",book:{id:"8125",slug:"medical-imaging-principles-and-applications",title:"Medical Imaging",fullTitle:"Medical Imaging - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Long Chen, Hua Sun and Yunchao Huang",authors:[{id:"278386",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Long",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"long-chen",fullName:"Long Chen"},{id:"280160",title:"Prof.",name:"Yunchao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"yunchao-huang",fullName:"Yunchao Huang"},{id:"280161",title:"Prof.",name:"Hua",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"hua-sun",fullName:"Hua Sun"}]},{id:"64352",title:"Endoscopic Dacryocystorhinostomy",slug:"endoscopic-dacryocystorhinostomy-1",totalDownloads:5890,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Epiphora, or abnormal tearing, occurs because of the blockage in the lacrimal drainage system, which impairs normal tearing channeling into the nose. It is essential that with proper history and examination including syringing and probing, a correct diagnosis is made. Syringing and probing are performed only in congenital and acquired nasolacrimal duct obstruction (NLDO). Dacryocystorhinostomy (DCR) is a procedure performed for the treatment of tearing (epiphora) due to blockage of the nasolacrimal drainage system. Endoscopic dacryocystorhinostomy (E-DCR) using telescopes has gained a lot of momentum among otolaryngologists, since the outcomes are comparable to the external approach. Advances in surgical technique and a better understanding of the anatomy have resulted in improvements in outcomes. The anatomy of the lacrimal system will be discussed in detail including the surgical indications and techniques of DCR. The advantages, results, and complications of surgery will be highlighted.",book:{id:"7255",slug:"endoscopy-novel-techniques-and-recent-advancements",title:"Endoscopy",fullTitle:"Endoscopy - Novel Techniques and Recent Advancements"},signatures:"Balwant Singh Gendeh",authors:[{id:"67669",title:null,name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}]},{id:"59741",title:"Active Contour Based Segmentation Techniques for Medical Image Analysis",slug:"active-contour-based-segmentation-techniques-for-medical-image-analysis",totalDownloads:3445,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:"Image processing is a technique which is used to derive information from the images. Segmentation is a section of image processing for the separation or segregation of information from the required target region of the image. There are different techniques used for segmentation of pixels of interest from the image. 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Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:249,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. 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This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. 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