Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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Defined as the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals, this discipline has been renewed by the incorporation of multiple actors, professions, knowledge areas and it has also been impacted and promoted by multiple technologies, particularly - the information technology. As a changing field of knowledge, Public Health requires evidence-based information and regular updates. Current Topics in Public Health presents updated information on multiple topics related to actual areas of interest in this growing and exciting medical science, with the conception and philosophy that we are working to improve the health of the population, rather than treating diseases of individual patients, taking decisions about collective health care that are based on the best available, current, valid and relevant evidence, and finally within the context of available resources. With participation of authors from multiple countries, many from developed and developing ones, this book offers a wide geographical perspective. 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Rodriguez-Morales received his Medical Doctor (MD) degree from the Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, and his Master of Sciences in Protozoology/Parasitology (MSc) from the Universidad de Los Andes, Trujillo, Venezuela. He received his Diploma in Tropical Medicine & Hygiene (DTM&H) from the Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru, and the University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society for Tropical Medicine & Hygiene (FRSTMH), London, United Kingdom; a Fellow of the Faculty of Travel Medicine (FFTM) of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow (RCPSG), Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom; and a Fellow of the American College of Epidemiology (FACE), USA. He is a Doctor of Sciences honoris causa (HonDSc) from the Universidad Privada Franz Tamayo (UniFranz), Cochabamba, Bolivia. Prof. Rodriguez-Morales is the President of the Travel Medicine Committee, Pan American Infectious Diseases Association, and the Vicepresident of the Colombian Infectious Diseases Association (2019-2021). He is a Member of the Council (2020-2026) of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). He is Professor and Senior Researcher of Colciencias (2015-2021), at the Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira and Fundación Universitaria Autónoma de las Américas, Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. 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This book explores cooperative, competitive, leader-follower games and the free-rider problem - as well as games with the aim of maintaining friendships or team work. The reader will be presented with a wide range of practical applications of game theory.",isbn:"978-1-78923-898-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-897-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-691-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72482",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"game-theory-applications-in-logistics-and-economy",numberOfPages:130,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1505777b52bab72af52d9aa2fd7268b4",bookSignature:"Danijela Tuljak-Suban",publishedDate:"September 26th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6756.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:3525,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 19th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 12th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 11th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 30th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 28th 2018",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"172905",title:"Dr.",name:"Danijela",middleName:null,surname:"Tuljak-Suban",slug:"danijela-tuljak-suban",fullName:"Danijela Tuljak-Suban",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172905/images/6414_n.gif",biography:"Dr. Danijela Tuljak-Suban is an Assistant Professor of Operational Research at the Faculty of Maritime Studies and Transport of the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. \nShe holds a doctorate in Maritime and Transport Science from the Faculty of Maritime Studies and Transport and an M.Sc. in Mathematics from the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, University of Ljubljana. \nDr. Tuljak-Suban lectures on subjects related to Mathematics, Statistics, Operation Research and Applied Mathematics in the field of maritime transport.\nHer research is mainly focused on the applications of operational research and fuzzy reasoning regarding vehicle routing problems (VRP) in maritime transport, especially in the hub and spoke systems, optimisation of inventory models, application of multi criteria decision making in logistics and the application of game theory in transportation. She has many references in fields relating to her research interests.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"468",title:"Game Theory",slug:"game-theory"}],chapters:[{id:"60587",title:"Dipping Headlights: An Iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma or Assurance Game",slug:"dipping-headlights-an-iterated-prisoner-s-dilemma-or-assurance-game",totalDownloads:474,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"237273",title:"Dr.",name:"Torkel",surname:"Bjørnskau",slug:"torkel-bjornskau",fullName:"Torkel Bjørnskau"}]},{id:"60809",title:"Game Theory Application in Smart Energy Logistics and Economy",slug:"game-theory-application-in-smart-energy-logistics-and-economy",totalDownloads:530,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"240063",title:"Dr.",name:"Baseem",surname:"Khan",slug:"baseem-khan",fullName:"Baseem Khan"}]},{id:"62516",title:"The Game Theory: Applications in the Wireless Networks",slug:"the-game-theory-applications-in-the-wireless-networks",totalDownloads:832,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"258432",title:"Dr.",name:"Deyu",surname:"Lin",slug:"deyu-lin",fullName:"Deyu Lin"},{id:"259049",title:"Prof.",name:"Quan",surname:"Wang",slug:"quan-wang",fullName:"Quan Wang"},{id:"261098",title:"Dr.",name:"Pengfei",surname:"Yang",slug:"pengfei-yang",fullName:"Pengfei Yang"}]},{id:"63373",title:"Infinite Supermodularity and Preferences",slug:"infinite-supermodularity-and-preferences",totalDownloads:404,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"248905",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianbo",surname:"Zhang",slug:"jianbo-zhang",fullName:"Jianbo Zhang"},{id:"248908",title:"Prof.",name:"Alain",surname:"Chateauneuf",slug:"alain-chateauneuf",fullName:"Alain Chateauneuf"},{id:"248910",title:"Prof.",name:"Vassili",surname:"Vergopoulos",slug:"vassili-vergopoulos",fullName:"Vassili Vergopoulos"}]},{id:"62918",title:"Coordination Concerns: Concealing the Free Rider Problem",slug:"coordination-concerns-concealing-the-free-rider-problem",totalDownloads:461,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"255396",title:"Prof.",name:"Penelope",surname:"Hernandez",slug:"penelope-hernandez",fullName:"Penelope Hernandez"},{id:"255397",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Alventosa",slug:"adriana-alventosa",fullName:"Adriana Alventosa"}]},{id:"62116",title:"Happy Family of Stable Marriages",slug:"happy-family-of-stable-marriages",totalDownloads:428,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"14847",title:"Prof.",name:"Gershon",surname:"Wolansky",slug:"gershon-wolansky",fullName:"Gershon Wolansky"}]},{id:"60490",title:"Stochastic Leader-Follower Differential Game with Asymmetric Information",slug:"stochastic-leader-follower-differential-game-with-asymmetric-information",totalDownloads:402,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"147959",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingtao",surname:"Shi",slug:"jingtao-shi",fullName:"Jingtao Shi"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177730",firstName:"Edi",lastName:"Lipovic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177730/images/4741_n.jpg",email:"edi@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2169",title:"Game Theory Relaunched",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cb5f736047f76c11d171761ff8b7443f",slug:"game-theory-relaunched",bookSignature:"Hardy Hanappi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2169.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145817",title:"Prof.",name:"Hardy",surname:"Hanappi",slug:"hardy-hanappi",fullName:"Hardy Hanappi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
Natural rubber (NR) latex collected from the Hevea trees exists as a colloidal suspension (Verhaar, 1959). The amount of latex obtained on each tapping is about 300 mL. The tapping is usually done once every 2–3 days for 9 months each year. Usually, the collected latex is treated with formic acid to coagulate the suspended rubber particles within the latex (Gazeley et al., 1988). After having been pressed between rollers to consolidate the rubber into 0.6-micrometre in thickness slabs or thin crepe sheets, the rubber is air-dried or smoke-dried for shipment. These rubbers are known as air-dried sheet (ADS) and ribbed smoked sheet (RSS), respectively. The treatment of latex with NaHSO3 is used to produce rubber of pale color, termed pale crepe. The other forms of rubber as block rubber are known as Standard Malaysian Rubber (SMR) or Standard Thai Rubber (STR), which are mainly graded by dirt content.
\n\t\t\t
Fresh latex from the Hevea tree contains 30–35% rubber. After collection, the latex is stabilized with NH3 and transported from the plantation to a factory where it undergoes continuous centrifugation to produce a concentrated NR latex containing ~60% rubber. For long-term preservation of concentrated latex, the NH3 content is usually raised to 0.6–0.7%; this is referred to as high-ammonia preserved concentrated latex. Low-ammonia preserved concentrated latex contains only 0.2–0.3% NH3 plus tetramethyl thiuram disulfide (TMTD), as a bactericide.
\n\t\t\t
Rubber particles in latex show a wide range of diameter, from 0.01 to 5 μm, with the majority being 0.1–2 μm diameter (Pendle & Swinyard, 1991). The latex is composed of the rubber phase, Frey–Wyssling particles, serum, and the bottom fraction (Archer et al., 1969; Jacob et al., 1993). Protein has been considered to be an essential component of NR for its characteristic properties. Recently, several proteins in NR were found to cause type I allergic responses that led to life-threatening anaphylactic reactions. In 1991, the FDA stipulated that rubber products made from NR latex (e.g., gloves and condoms) should be treated to remove extractable proteins. Deproteinization of latex was carried out by using a proteolytic enzyme in the presence of surfactants to reduce the extractable proteins to less than their detection limit (Sakaki, et al., 1996; Nakade, et al., 1997). It is remarkable that the physical properties of deproteinized NR (DPNR) are almost equivalent to those of ordinary natural rubber; moreover, the dynamic properties such as resilience and rebound are improved as a result of increasing the content of rubber hydrocarbon after deproteinization. These findings support the idea that the protein component of NR is not essential to produce its outstanding and characteristic properties.
\n\t\t\t
Commercially available solid NR contains neutral lipids (2.4%), glycolipids and phospholipids (1.0%), proteins (2.2%), carbohydrates (0.4%), ash (0.2%), and other compounds (0.1%) (Sentheshanmuganathan, 1975; Nair, 1987). Free fatty acids in solid rubber are composed of mainly long-chain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids such as stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids (Crafts et al., 1990; Arnold & Evans, 1991). Recently, it was presumed that rubber chains also contain long-chain fatty acids, presumably occurring as phospholipids covalently linked to the chain-end (Eng et al., 1994a). While saturated fatty acids induce the crystallization of rubber chain, unsaturated fatty acids – which are present in NR as a mixture – act as a plasticizer of rubber and accelerate synergistically with saturated fatty acids on the crystallization of rubber chains (Kawahara et al., 1996; Nishiyama et al., 1996). These linked and mixed fatty acids were presumed to bring about outstanding mechanical properties through rapid crystallization of natural rubber. Highly purified NR can be obtained by removing proteins, blended fatty acids, and linked fatty acids (lipids). This can be achieved by the deproteinization of the latex, acetone extraction of the resultant deproteinized solid rubber, and transesterification of acetone-extracted rubber with sodium methoxide in toluene solution (Eng et al., 1994a; Tangpakdee & Tanaka, 1997a). It is remarkable that transesterified NR showed stress-strain properties of unvulcanized rubber (termed ‘green strength’) similar to synthetic cis-1,4-polyisoprene (Figure 1).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 1.
Green strength of purified natural rubbers and synthetic cis-polyisoprene.
\n\t\t\t
The effect of linked and blended fatty acids in NR was confirmed by the preparation of a model cis-1,4-polyisoprene grafted with small amounts of stearic acid at the 3,4 unit after introducing hydroxyl group selectively at 3,4 units by a hydroboration reaction. The C18 grafted cis-1,4-polyisoprene mixed with linoleic acid showed a crystallizability similar to that of NR (Kawahara et al., 2000). These findings suggest that the structure of chain-end groups in NR confers major characteristic properties of natural rubber.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Molecular structure of both chain-ends of natural rubber
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.1. Initiating terminal of the rubber molecule
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t13C-NMR spectroscopy of low-molecular weight natural rubber, obtained by fractionation, shows the signals corresponding to the trans methyl and methylene carbons, suggesting the presence of trans-isoprene units in the structure of NR (Figure 2) as similar to those of rubber from goldenrod leaves (Tanaka et al., 1983). However, the signals due to a dimethylallyl group are not detected in the case of Hevea rubber. The absence of trans-isoprene units in the cis-trans sequence suggests that the trans-isoprene units are in the trans-trans linkage, but not derived from isomerization of cis-isoprene units (Eng et al., 1994a).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 2.
NMR spectra of low-molecular weight fraction of Hevea rubber and rubber from Goldenrod.
\n\t\t\t\t
As shown in 1H-NMR spectra (Figure 3), the trans-isoprene units in NR show the methyl proton signals corresponding to two-trans-polyprenol (Eng et al., 1994b). The absence of a dimethylallyl group in NR suggests that the initiating species for rubber formation in Hevea is a derivative of trans-trans-farnesyl diphosphate (FDP) modified at the dimethylallyl group or ordinary trans-trans-FDP, which is selectively modified after polymerization (Tanaka et al., 1996; Tanaka et al., 1997; Tanaka & Tangpakdee, 1997). The former assumption is consistent with the finding that the methyl proton of the trans-isoprene unit in the ω\'-trans-trans group shows a similar chemical shift as that of the dimethylallyl-trans-trans arrangement (Eng et al., 1994b; Tanaka et al., 1996). This suggests that the ω′-group has a structure similar to that of the dimethylallyl group, and shows a similar magnetic shielding effect on the subsequent trans-isoprene unit.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 3.
NMR spectra of low-molecular weight fractions of transesterified natural rubber, two-trans-polyprenol-16 and three-trans-polyprenol-12.
\n\t\t\t\t
The dimethylallyl group is not detected even in the low-molecular weight rubber isolated from seedlings (Tangpakdee et al., 1996), or even long-chain polyprenols in Hevea (Tangpakdee & Tanaka, 1998a). However, it is difficult to ignore the possibility that FDP directly initiates polymerization, because it was reported that FDP stimulates in vitro rubber formation upon incubation with isopentenyl diphosphate (IDP) and washed rubber particles (Archer & Audley, 1987; Audley & Archer, 1988; Madhavan et al., 1989; Cornish & Backhaus, 1990). Under the same conditions, [1-3H]neryl diphosphate was incorporated into rubber molecules (Audley & Archer, 1988). Recently, a high yield of rubber formation was reported for in vitro rubber synthesis by incubation of the bottom fraction of freshly tapped latex with IDP (Tangpakdee & Tanaka, 1997a). The resulting rubber showed no dimethylallyl group, whereas the rubber obtained in the presence of IDP and FDP clearly showed the dimethylallyl group and trans-isoprene units as shown in Figure 4 (Tangpakdee et al., 1997). This suggests that FDP will be the initiating species of rubber formation in Hevea tree. The fact that newly formed rubber contains no dimethylallyl group is additional evidence supporting the presence of ω\'-trans-trans group at the initiating terminal arising from unidentified initiating species.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 4.
NMR spectra of in vitro NR formed on incubation of fresh bottom fraction (BF) and FDP (above) and in vivo rubber (below).
\n\t\t\t\t
At the present, the ω–terminal group of low molecular weight and polyprenol fractions from NR was analyzed using high-resolution 13C- and 1H-NMR and 2D-COSY techniques (Mekkriengkrai, 2005). Very recently, the presence of the dimethylallyl group and two trans-isoprene units at the ω-terminal was observed in polyprenol from Hevea shootings and fresh bottom fraction as well as the lowest molecular weight fraction of washed rubber particles (WRP) obtained by washing the cream fraction from fresh latex with surfactant. This finding suggests that the initiating species of rubber biosynthesis is trans, trans-FDP as in the case of two-trans polyprenol. This ω–terminal was not detected in the high molecular weight fractions of WRP and low molecular weight fractions of the ordinary NR and DPNR, suggesting the occurrence of a modification at the dimethylallyl residue. Thus, it can be concluded that the structure of dimethylallyl group at the ω–terminal of the ordinary NR is modified by some enzymatic or chemical reactions. Figure 5 shows the presumed mechanism of ruber formation mediated by an enzyme based on hypothesis of Ogural et al. (1997). It has been postulated that the methyl group in dimethylallyl diphosphate is connected to a phenylalanine of the FQ (phenylalanine-glutamine) motif which is found not only in all prenyl diphosphate synthases but also in tRNA-dimethylallyl transferase, to hold this molecule in the direction necessary for a condensation reaction with IDP. This suggests that some reactions can proceed to modify the dimethylallyl group according to the removal of the ω–terminal from the pocket of the enzyme, which may result in the formation of various dimethylallyl group derivatives.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 5.
Presumed role of enzyme on initiation and chain elongation steps.
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\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.2. Terminating chain-end of rubber molecule
\n\t\t\t\t
The primary alcohol or their fatty acid ester groups is a popular structure of the α-terminal group in many naturally occurring polyisoprenes such as the rubbers from Lactarius mushrooms and leaves of goldenrod and sunflower, even though rubber as well as polyprenols were presumed to be synthesized by the addition of IDP. This is owing to the fact that diphosphate group can be hydrolyzed to hydroxyl group or transesterified to fatty acid ester. However, signals corresponding to these structures at the α-terminal are not detected in the 13C- and 1H-NMR spectra of natural rubber. On the other hand, long-chain fatty acid ester groups are clearly observed, even after purification by deproteinization and acetone extraction (Eng et al., 1994a) (Figure 6).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 6.
NMR spectrum (aliphatic region) of low-molecular weight fractions from deproteinized natural rubber.
\n\t\t\t\t
The long-chain fatty acid ester group was found to be about two moles per one rubber molecule, by 13C-NMR and FTIR analysis (Eng et al., 1994a; Tangpakdee & Tanaka, 1997a; Tanaka, Y. et al., 1997). In addition, the 1H-NMR spectrum of low-molecular weight rubber from 1-month-old Hevea seedlings shows the signals corresponding to –CH2OP and glyceride (Tangpakdee & Tanaka, 1997a). These groups can be removed by transesterification or saponification. These findings suggest that most of the chain-ends of NR consist of a phosphate group belonging long-chain fatty acid ester (Tangpakdee & Tanaka, 1997a; Eng et al., 1994a), which corresponds to phospholipids as follows (Figure 7):
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 7.
Presumed structure of NR linear chain (Tangpakdee & Tanaka, 1997a).
\n\t\t\t\t
The new information of structure of α-terminal group in NR was analyzed recently by selective decomposition of the branch-points followed by structural characterization by using high resolution 1H-, 13C- and 31P-NMR, FTIR, and GPC techniques as well as diluted solution viscometry for highly purified NR (Tarachiwin et al., 2005a, 2005b). The selective decomposition of branch-points was carried out by using lipase, phosphatase, and phospholipases A2, B, C, and D. The 1H-NMR spectrum of acetone-extracted deproteinized NR (AE-DPNR) at 750 MHz (Figure 8) shows not only the signals derived from phospholipids, but also two small triplet signals due to mono- and diphosphate groups (Tarachiwin et al., 2005a). Figure 9 shows the 1H-NMR spectra of AE-DPNR, lipase-treated AE-DPNR and phosphatase-treated DPNR. It is remarkable that these signals did not disappear even after lipase, phosphatase and phospholipase treatments of AE-DPNR. Lipase can decompose fatty acid ester of acylglycerol including phospholipids at C1 and C3 positions as shown in Scheme 1, while phosphatase decomposes only monophosphate ester linkage. The presence of mono- and diphosphate signals after lipase and phosphatase treatments clearly indicates that these phosphate groups are directly linked to rubber molecule.
\n\t\t\t\t
Scheme 1.
Decomposition positions of lipase on the acylglycerol (left) and phospholipase on L-α-phosphatidylcholine (right).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 8.
NMR spectrum of acetone-extracted DPNR.
\n\t\t\t\t
The phospholipids, which are the origin of long-chain fatty acid esters, are presumed to be linked to phosphate groups mainly by hydrogen bonding with a minor portion by ionic linkage (Tarachiwin et al., 2005a).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 9.
NMR spectra of acetone-extracted DPNR, lipase-treated DPNR and phosphatase-treated DPNR.
\n\t\t\t\t
It is well known that four kinds of phospholipases can decompose selectively the linkages in a phospholipid. For example, the reaction site of L-α-phosphatidylcholine is shown in Scheme 1. The treatment of DPNR latex with phospholipases A2, B, and C resulted in the decrease of molecular weight and marked shift of the high-molecular weight peak to the low-molecular weight peak as well as narrowing the molecular weight distribution (MWD), while phospholipase D showed no change. This result demonstrates the presence of phospholipids in rubber molecules, which participate the formation of branch-points (Tarachiwin, 2004). The change of MWD and decrease in the molecular weight of DPNR after the treatment of lipase and phospholipases A2, B, and C signify that the acylglycerol group and phosphate in phospholipids are directly concerned with the formation of branch-points in NR at the α-terminal.
\n\t\t\t\t
It was reported that most phospholipids resist solubilization in polar and non-polar solvents by the formation of micelle and inverse micelle structures, respectively (Murari et al., 1982). The polar group in phospholipids has been reported to be participated in inter- and intramolecular hydrogen bonding that restricted the mobility of the phosphate group. (Alenius et al., 2002) These findings suggest that branch-points in NR are predominantly formed by hydrogen bonding between polar groups of phospholipids. However, the formation of branch-points by ionic linkage cannot be neglected. The formation of crosslinking by ionic linkages between negatively charges of phospholipids with divalent cation is plausible, since the process has been implicated in many membranes associated events (Hübner & Blume, 1998).
\n\t\t\t\t
The presence of Mg2+ ions in FL-latex is expected to form ionic linkages between rubber molecules. The addition of ammonium sulfate ((NH4)2SO4) in NR-latex for removing Mg2+ ions slightly decreased the molecular weight and polydispersity index. This indicates that Mg2+ ions have less effect on the branching formation than hydrogen bonding. Therefore, the α-terminal group of NR was postulated to consist of two kinds of functional group, i.e., monophosphate and diphosphate groups, which are linked with phospholipids via hydrogen bonding as a predominant linkage and some parts via ionic linkage as shown in Figure 10.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 10.
Presumed structure for the α-terminal group for NR (Tarachiwin et al., 2005a).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.3. Structural change of rubber molecule in rubber tree
\n\t\t\t\t
Rubber tapped from the first opening mature tree, also known as virgin tree, contains a solvent-insoluble fraction formed via carbon–carbon linkages that are referred to as ‘hard-gel’, as high as 80–90% of whole solid rubber. This gel fraction showed the structure and cross-linking density corresponding to the rubber cured with peroxide. In contrast, the residual solvent-soluble fraction (the ‘sol fraction’) is of low molecular weight and formed by oxidative degradation. Both the 1H- and 13C-NMR spectra of the sol fraction of the rubber from virgin tree show prominent signals due to epoxide and hydroperoxide, as well as aldehyde (\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTangpakdee & Tanaka, 1998\n\t\t\t\t\tb; Sakdapipanich et al., 1999a). It is remarkable that the 13C-NMR signals due to methyl protons of trans-isoprene units in the initiating terminal were not detected in the sol fraction of virgin tree. The absence of both, the dimethylallyl group and the trans-isoprene units in the rubber from virgin tree, indicates that the oxidative degradation of rubber chains occurs by loss of trans-isoprene units at the initiating terminal.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.4. Structure of branch-points, gel and storage hardening
\n\t\t\t\t
It is well known that commercial high ammonia latex (HA-latex) increases the mechanical stability during storage, but it is always accompanied with the increase in the gel content as high as 60% after storage for a long period. The gel fraction in commercial HA-latex is assumed to be due to the reaction of branched chains to form three-dimensional chains. A slight increase in the gel content was also observed from DPNR-latex, although the rate is very slow compared to that of commercial HA-latex (Kawahara, 2002a). Accordingly, the gel formation in DPNR latex is not due to proteins, but by some reactions of the functional α-terminal group or by radical crosslinking reaction.
\n\t\t\t\t
NR contains both soft-gel and hard-gel (Tangpakdee & Tanaka, 1997b). The content of soft-gel fraction in NR decreases by deproteinization with a proteolytic enzyme or can be partly decomposed in solution by the addition of small amounts of a polar solvent into a good solvent and almost completely solubilized by transesterification. These suggest that branch-points are originated mainly from functional groups at ω- and α-terminals. The molecular weight between the crosslinks (Mc) of the gel fraction in NR was 2-3 times of the number average molecular weight (Mn) value suggesting the presence of 2-3 rubber chains per crosslink, although the measurement is based on many assumptions.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 11.
Presumed structure of gel and sol phases in NR after transesterification.
\n\t\t\t\t
Based on these findings, it is possible to illustrate the structure of gel and sol phase in NR as shown in Figure 11. Two types of branch-points are presumed in rubber chain, the formation of branchings by both types of branch-points results in the formation of crosslinked chains. Here, one to two chains are assumed to be between the crosslink-points. The sol fraction may be a branched polymer having no three-dimensional branching. It is remarkable that all the branch-points containing ester linkages of fatty acid and/or phosphates can be decomposed by transesterification and the resulting rubber chains cannot form three-dimensional branched-chains because of only one type of the residual branch-points in the rubber chains.
\n\t\t\t\t
It is noteworthy that a part of the gel fraction in commercial HA-latex cannot be solubilized by transesterification or saponification (Tarachiwin et al., 2003). This hard-gel has been presumed to be formed by radical reactions between rubber chains and tetramethylthiuram disulfide (TMTD), which is normally used as bactericide preservatives, in latex together with zinc oxide (ZnO). As shown in Figure 12, the addition of TMTD and ZnO into HA- and DPNR-latices resulted in a rapid increase in the gel content. The resulting gel fraction was hard-gel insoluble in toluene even after chemical or enzymatic treatments mentioned above. This suggests that TMTD and ZnO can be another factor to increase the gel content during storage of latex (Tarachiwin et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 12.
Gel content in commercial HA-latex and DPNR-latex, prepared from HA-latex, with and without TMTD and ZnO (Tarachiwin et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\t\t
Another example of hard-gel formation is observed for the rubber obtained from virgin Hevea trees, which have not been collected latex by tapping for a long period. It is known that the latex obtained from virgin Hevea trees shows very poor properties. This may be concerned with the fact that the rubber from virgin trees contained the gel fraction as high as 80% (\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTangpakdee & Tanaka, 1998\n\t\t\t\t\tb). The gel fraction showed almost the same structure as the crosslinked rubber prepared from FL-latex in the presence of peroxide. This gel fraction cannot be solubilized by enzymatic or chemical reactions (\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTangpakdee & Tanaka, 1998\n\t\t\t\t\tb). The Mc value of the gel fraction was about 3×103, showing that the gel is highly crosslinked rubber. It is remarkable that the sol fraction in the latex from virgin tress was very low-molecular weight rubber containing aldehyde and epoxide groups derived by oxidative degradation (\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTangpakdee & Tanaka, 1998\n\t\t\t\t\tb). This finding indicates clearly the occurrence of radical reactions in rubber trees during storage as latex for a long period before taking out the latex by tapping. This was further confirmed by the analysis of the molecular weight and gel content after the first tapping of virgin Hevea trees as shown in Figure 13. The gel content decreased gradually by successive tapping after the first tapping and recovered to the same level as the ordinary FL-latex after 6 days. A similar tendency was observed for the molecular weight. The molecular weight of soluble rubber fraction increased to the ordinary values after tapping for 6 days. These findings indicate the occurrence of radical reactions on rubber chains in rubber tree during storage, to form carbon-carbon crosslinking and partly oxidative degradation products in laticiferous cells. This also suggests a possible role of rubber as a scavenger of hydroxyl radicals in latex (\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTangpakdee & Tanaka, 1998\n\t\t\t\t\tb).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 13.
Change of molecular weight and gel content of NR after the first tapping of virgin tree.
\n\t\t\t\t
Recently, as mentioned above, the structure of α-terminal group of NR was proposed to consist of two kinds of functional group, i.e., monophosphate and diphosphate groups, which are linked with phospholipids via hydrogen bonding as a predominant linkage and some parts via ionic linkage (Tarachiwin et al., 2005a, 2005b). Here, it is postulated that the branch-points in NR are formed by aggregation of the phospholipids which are linked to phosphate or diphosphate groups at the α-terminal. Phospholipids are presumed to aggregate together to form a micelle structure mainly via hydrogen bonding between polar groups in phospholipids molecules, as shown in Figure 14.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 14.
Proposed structure of branch-points in NR.
\n\t\t\t\t
The storage-hardening (SH) phenomenon in solid NR has long been recognized to be a factor affecting the processing properties such as Mooney viscosity and Wallace plasticity during storage. These phenomena affect directly to the variability of NR in several aspects including processing properties (Sekhar et al., 1958, 1960). The change in the properties of NR during storage was presumed to be due to the cumulative effects of crosslinking and chain-scission, varying with the environmental conditions (Gan, 1997). It has been postulated that the hardening proceeds through the reactions between the rubber chains and so-called abnormal groups assumed to exist on rubber molecules such as epoxide (Sekhar et al., 1958), carbonyl (Sekhar et al., 1960; Subramaniam, 1976), and lactone (Gregory & Tan, 1976).
\n\t\t\t\t
The physical properties during long-term storage as real condition for selected commercial Standard Thai Rubber (STR), i.e. STR XL, STR 5L and STR CV60 as high-graded NR, were investigated. Each zone of commercial NR after SH was also subjected to examination. STR 5L showed clearly increase in Mooney viscosity, MR30, gel content and initial plasticity (P0) which higher than those of STR XL. This result suggested that STR 5L showed the highest inconsistency in physical properties. The increasing in viscosity and gel content of STR 5L and STR XL samples suggest the occurrence of crosslink structure during storage. STR CV60, known as viscosity-stabilized NR sample, also showed increasing in Mooney viscosity, gel content, P0, and high plasticity retention index (PRI) value during long storage. These findings indicate that SH occurred in the rubber samples even in carefully controlled production procedure. As for the different zones of samples, there is no clear relation about the gel content with respect to storage time, indicating that depth or positions of specimen in a certain rubber bale had not affected to the storage-hardening phenomenon.
\n\t\t\t\t
In the past several years, branching and crosslinking formations in NR has been postulated to derive from chemical reactions of abnormal groups (Sekhar et al., 1958; Sekhar et al., 1960; Subramaniam, 1976; Gregory & Tan, 1976). However, it has been reported that these abnormal groups in NR are not major factors for branching and gel formations (Yunyongwattanakorn, 2005). The effect of non-rubber components on the gel formation and SH of NR after accelerated storage-hardening test (ASHT) in phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5) has been investigated (Yunyongwattanakorn et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\t\t
SH phenomenon of solid NR is presumed to occur via reactions between some non-rubber components and abnormal groups in rubber chains. The main non-rubber constituents in NR are composed of proteins and lipids. The SH behavior under high and low humidity conditions using P2O5 and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was analyzed for the various purified NR samples (Yunyongwattanakorn et al., 2003). The NR obtained from centrifuged fresh NR latex (CFNR) and deproteinized NR latex (DPNR) showed significant increase in the hardening plasticity index (PH) value during storage under low humidity conditions, while that of the transesterified NR (TENR) and transesterified DPNR (DPTE-NR) was almost constant during storage, as shown in Figure 15. The low PH value and no gel content in TENR was observed indicating that TENR had not much branch-points enough to form gel phase. The lack of branch-points in both transesterified rubber samples might be the main reason for the constant PH value, even when using the strong drying agent. The above findings suggest that the fatty acid ester group plays the most importance role in the SH of rubber under low humidity conditions.
\n\t\t\t\t
After keeping samples under high humidity conditions, the fresh NR (FNR), CFNR and DPNR showed decrease in the PH value, while that of the TENR and DPTE-NR showed low PH value and decreased with increasing the storage time, as shown in Figure 16. This implies that the rubber containing no fatty acid groups tended to cause auto-oxidation. It was also observed that the PH value of all rubber samples decreased as the storage time increased, indicating that the SH was inhibited under high humidity.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 15.
Change in the hardening plasticity index (PH) of the rubber samples after storage in P2O5 under vacuum; (A) FNR, (B) CFNR, (C) DPNR, (D) TENR and (E) DPTE-NR.
\n\t\t\t\t
The gel phase in rubber samples after SH is soft-gel originated by micelle formation between phospholipids molecules. This finding confirmed by the decrease in gel content of stored FNR after the addition of 2% v/v ethanol into rubber solution and complete decomposition of the gel fraction after transesterification (Yunyongwattanakorn, 2005).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 16.
Change in the hardening plasticity index (PH) of the rubber samples after storage under high humidity under vacuum; (A) FNR, (B) CFNR, (C) DPNR, (D) TENR and (E) DPTE-NR.
\n\t\t\t\t
Significant increase in the plasticity, gel content and molecular weight between the crosslinks (Mc) when the samples were kept under low humidity condition suggested an important role of the humidity on gel formation during SH. The proposed structure of gel formation during ASHT based on all of findings mentioned above was schematically illustrated in Figure 17. The proteins and phospholipids at the chain-ends of rubber molecules may interact with water under ambient condition, thus the water may disturb the formation of branching points by hydrogen bonding.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 17.
Proposed structure of gel of NR after storage hardening.
\n\t\t\t\t
When water is removed from the rubber, with a drying agent such as phosphorus pentoxide or sodium hydroxide, proteins and phospholipids at the terminals of rubber chain may have a chance to form branching points by hydrogen bonding. Since both functional groups of NR are active, the gel fraction can be formed during storage due to the reaction between the functional groups of NR chains. Therefore, the formation of gel in NR during SH is presumed to compose of two types of branching points; the first one is expected to originate from phospholipids, which are associated to rubber chains and/or free phospholipid molecules. The phospholipids are associated together by the formation of micelle structure mainly via hydrogen bonding between polar groups in phospholipids molecules as reported (Tarachiwin et al., 2005a, 2005b). The other crosslinking point is due to proteins, which can be formed via hydrogen bonding.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Color substances and obnoxious odor in natural rubber
\n\t\t\t
It is accepted that NR gives naturally occurring color, which restrict many applications such as light-color products. Therefore, characterization of color substances presenting in NR is very useful to develop the certain methodology to eliminate them completely or partly from NR in the future. Recently, \n\t\t\t\t\tSakdapipanich and co workers (2006\n\t\t\t\t) have tried to purify and characterize the color substances extracted from various fractions of Hevea rubber latex by certain methods, using high-resolution structural characterization techniques. It was found that the content of color substances extracted from fresh latex (FL), rubber cream, bottom fraction (BF), Frey Wyssling (FW) particles and STR 20 were different. Based on the high-resolution spectroscopic analyzes, it was found that the color substances extracted from NR were composed of carotenoids, tocotrienol esters, fatty alcohol esters, tocotrienols, unsaturated fatty acids, fatty alcohols, diglyceride and monoglyceride. The results will be useful for rubber-technologist to identify the origin to make obnoxious color in natural rubber, especially in some applications which are restricted by such the color.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.1. Color substances in natural rubber
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
3.1.1. Enzymatic browning
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Enzymatic browning is the discoloration resulting when monophonic compounds of plants or shellfish in the presence of atmospheric oxygen and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) are hydroxylated to o-diphenols and the latter are oxidized to o-quinones. PPO is also known and reported under various names (tyrosinase, phenolase, catechol oxidase, catecholase, monophenol oxidase, o-diphenol oxidase and o-phenolase) based on substrate specificity. Then, quinones may condense and react non-enzymatically with other phenolic compounds, amino acids, proteins or other cellular constituents to produce colored polymer or pigments (Iyidogan & Bayindirh, 2004), as shown in Figure 18 (Lee & Whitaker, 1995).
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 18.
Enzymatic browning of o-diphenols by o-diphenol oxidase (o-DPO).
\n\t\t\t\t\t
PPO was earlier reported to be present in both lutoid and Frey-Wyssling particle (Wititsuwannakul et al., 2002). It was found that the latex PPO activity in lutiods was 5 to 34 folds higher than that of the Frey-Wyssling particles (Table 1).
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rubber clone
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
PPO activity (nkat/ml latex)a\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lutiod
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Frey-Wyssling
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
RRIM 600
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7.33
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.21
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
GT 1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9.21
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.65
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
KRS 21
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.34
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.77
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
a Minimal PPO activity was detected in C-serum and rubber fraction.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Distribution of PPO activity in the ultracentrifuged fresh latex.
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\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
3.1.2. Non-enzymatic browning
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Non-enzymatic browning resulted from the following reactions is possibly concerned as the discolorations of NR.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tLipid oxidation\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The important lipids involved in oxidation are the unsaturated fatty acid moieties, oleic, linoleic and linolenic. The rate of oxidation of these fatty acids increases with the degree of unsaturation. The mechanism of lipid oxidation is illustrated in Figure 19 (http://www.agsci.ubc.ca).
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 19.
Lipid oxidation mechanisms.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tMillard reaction\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Millard reaction involves the reaction between carbonyl compounds (reducing sugars, aldehydes, ketones and lipid oxidation products) and amino compounds (lysine, glysine amine and ammonia proteins) to produce glycosyl-amino products, followed by Amadori rearrangement. An intermediate step involves dehydration and fragmentation of sugars, amino acids degradation, etc. A final step involves aldol condensation, polymerization and the formation of colored products.
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\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
3.1.3. Enzymatic browning prevention
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The principles of browning prevention have not changed with time and are essentially the same as those applying to the inhibition of any tissue enzyme, i.e.:
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Inhibition or inactivation of the enzyme
Elimination or transformation of the substrate(s)
Combination of both above
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The examples of chemical agent for browning prevention are sulfiting agents, aromatic compounds, such as 4-hexylresorcinol, tropolone (2-hydroxy-2,4,6-cycloheptatrien-1-one), kojic acid (5-hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)-γ-pyrone), etc., glucosidated substrates, proteolytic enzymes, carbohydrates, peptides, carbon monoxide, hypochlorite, and miscellaneous browning inhibitors. The enzymatic browning prevention can be also performed by physical treatments, i.e. blanching, ultrafiltration, sonification, supercritical carbon dioxide.
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\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.2. Obnoxious odor in natural rubber
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tFulton W. S. (1993) has studied the problems of odor during rubber processing. It was found that coagulation and subsequent conversion of coagulum into bale rubber affects the smell of natural rubber. The field grade material tends to have a stronger smell than rubber prepared by the deliberately controlled coagulation of latex. The main constituents of the effluent gases from the rubber industry are low-molecular weight volatile fatty acid, which can be effectively removed by water scrubbers with efficiencies of 92-99%.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tIsa Z. (1993) has studied how to control the mal-odor in Standard Malaysia Rubber (SMR) factories. The mal-odor from SMR factories is mainly attributed to the obnoxious volatile components, which are present in the exhaust gases discharged into the air through a chimney during the drying stage of SMR processing. The volatile compounds are originally produced from the microbial breakdown of the non-rubber components during the storage of scraps and cup lumps prior to processing. Before to the characterization by gas chromatography, the exhaust gases were collected by adsorption on charcoal adsorption tube. It was found that the volatile compounds in the exhaust gases were low molecular-weight volatile fatty acids such as acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid and valeric acid. The mal-odor can be reduced by a water-scrubber system.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tHoven V. P. and coworkers (2003) have determined the volatile organic components of various grades of solid rubber by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) using direct sampling collection of head space technique. It was found that about fifty components, with molecular weight in the range of 40-200 amu, were identified. They can be classified into four groups, as follows: (1) compounds having low polarity; aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons; (2) compounds having moderate polarity; aldehydes, ketones; (3) compounds having high polarity; volatile fatty acids; (4) derivatives containing nitrogen or sulfur. The components discovered in all samples were ethylamine, benzylhydrazine and low molecular-weight volatile fatty acids, which are acetic acid, propionic acid, isobutyric acid, butyric acid, isovaleric acid and valeric acid. The obnoxious odor of all NR samples is mainly originated from low molecular-weight volatile fatty acids, whose quantity depends upon the odor intensity and the quality of NR latex. In 2004, Hoven V. P. and coworkers have incorporated odor-reducing substances into STR 20 and RSS 5 by physical mixing prior to vulcanization. It was found that according to the GC analysis and olfactometry test, the obnoxious odor from STR 20 and RSS 5 can be significantly reduced by physical mixing of chitosan, zeolite 13X and carbon black. Benzalkonium chloride and sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) did not exhibit the desired odor-reducing properties as a consequence of their thermal degradation during vulcanization. The ability to adsorb physically and/or chemically with the volatile fatty acids as well as their reinforcing effect indicates that chitosan and carbon black are strong candidates for odor reduction of NR.
\n\t\t\t\t
Recently, \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSakdapipanich and Insom (2006\n\t\t\t\t\t) have elucidated the mechanisms producing the components of obnoxious odor derived from various solid rubbers using a combination technique between head-space sampling and GC-MS. It was found that volatile components of STR XL were mainly comprised of hydrocarbons, which were probably derived from lipid oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids or triglycerides. In the case of STR 5L, the small amounts of volatile fatty acids derived from carbohydrate fermentation were detected. They were also liberated from STR 5, STR 20, cup lump and RSS. Finally, in the case of skim crumb rubber, sulfur-containing compounds derived from decomposition of proteins existing in NR were observed.
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\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4. Skim rubber
\n\t\t\t
Skim latex is a material resulting from the production of concentrated latex in the centrifugation process. After centrifuging the fresh field latex, 5-10% of total rubber, together with an enhanced proportion of the non-rubber constituents in the original latex, remains in the serum phase or skim latex (Bristow, 1990). The skim latex is composed of small rubber particles in range of 0.04 μm to 0.4 μm with the mean particle diameter of about 0.1 μm, while those of large rubber particles in concentrated latex is from 0.1 μm to 3 μm with a mean diameter of 1 μm, as shown in Figure 20. The skim rubber obtained from skim latex shows a unimodal distribution with a peak top between the high and low-molecular weight peaks in the MWD of ordinary rubber, centered around 1.0 ×106 g/mol, (Sakdapipanich et al., 2002a) as shown in Figure 21.
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\n\t\t\t\tRecovery of skim rubber from skim latex \n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
The residual rubber from skim latex is normally recovered by the addition of sulfuric acid. This method can separate skim rubber out from skim latex as coagulum like To-fu. Skim rubber contains 70-85% rubber component. It is known that there are a number of proteins contaminate in skim rubber. Normally, there are hydrocarbon, 5-10% acetone-soluble fatty materials and 10-20% proteins, compared with an average of 95% hydrocarbon, 3% fatty materials and 2% proteins in the case of smoked sheet prepared from fresh field latex. (Nithi-Uthai, 1998)
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Figure 20.
Particle size distribution of concentrated and skim latices.
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Figure 21.
Molecular weight distribution of the rubber from concentrated and skim latices.
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In addition to the sulfuric acid coagulation, there are several other methods such as
\n\t\t\t
Auto-coagulation of skim latex by de-ammoniating to less than 0.1% and leaving for spontaneous coagulation within 5 days (Smith, 1969). The drawbacks of this method are that it required extensive coagulation-tank capacity to handle large quantities of the resulting coagulum and the obtained dry rubber foul smell.
Accelerated auto-coagulation of skim latex by partly de-ammoniation of skim latex and addition of 0.1% di-octyl sodium sulfosuccinate and 1% CaCl2 to skim latex (John & Weng, 1973). This treatment can coagulate the skim latex within 2 days.
The addition of enzyme to skim latex before coagulation with acid was also carried out. This process can reduce the nitrogen content in the skim latex to about 0.6-3.5% due to the decomposition of proteins by enzyme. Thus, after enzymolysis, the proteins attached to rubber particles are removed and the possible remaining stabilizer on the particle surface is fatty acid soaps (Nithi-Uthai, 1998; Morris, 1954).
Skim NR latex was recovered as concentrated skim latex by using deproteinization and salting-out techniques (DP/S) (Sakdapipanich et al., 2002b). The increase in skim rubber content is owing to the recovery of small rubber particles in the skim latex.
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\n\t\t\t\tStructure of skim rubber\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
In the last decade, it was disclosed that skim rubber contains low or no ester content compared to concentrated rubber, i.e., 0.03 per rubber chain. This implies that the rubber molecules from skim rubber are not terminated by phospholipids as could be detected in the concentrated rubber molecules (Sakdapipanich et al., 1999b). Based on the previous results, it was observed that skim rubber showed insignificant increase in gel content during storage while the gel content of fresh and concentrated rubber increased up to 30% and 60%, respectively. Furthermore, in the case of concentrated rubber, the Mw and Mn values decreased after transesterification, the reaction which decomposes gel and branching in natural rubber, by about 20% and 35%, respectively. However, no significant change of these values was observed in skim rubber. This suggests that skim rubber composed of linear rubber molecules, which differ from concentrated rubber.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t1H-NMR spectra of fractionated skim rubber and 1-month old seedlings, as shown in Figure 22, revealed that skim rubber showed three major signals at 1.78, 2.10, and 5.18 ppm, which are assignable to -CH3, -CH2, and =CH of cis-1,4 isoprene units, respectively. The rubber from 1-month old seedlings showed additional signals around 4.0-4.3 ppm and 1.2 ppm, which have been assigned to terminal -CH2O and long methylene sequence -(CH2)n- of fatty acids (\n\t\t\t\t\tTangpakdee, 1998\n\t\t\t\t). The absence of both signals in fractionated skim rubber clearly indicates that skim rubber contains no phospholipid linked to rubber chain. Phospholipid groups including long-chain fatty acids were found to play an important role to form branched structure (Tarachiwin et al., 2005c). Thus, the 1H-NMR results provide confirmation that skim rubber is composed of linear rubber molecules.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 22.
NMR spectra of (A) 1-month old seedlings and (B) fractionated skim rubber.
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\n\t\t\t\tPhysical properties of skim rubber\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
The difference in rubber constituent in skim latex is the important parameter related to green strength of natural rubber. Figure 23 shows the green strength of concentarated, skim rubber, synthetic polyisoprene (IR) and transesterified-deproteinized rubber (Nawamawat, 2002). The concentrated rubber is composed of branched molecules, which linked together by hydrogen bonding via protein and ionic crosslinks cased by phospholipid groups. The latter branch points have been attributed to the high green strength of NR and induced the crystallization of the rubber on straining (Kawahara et al., 2002b). It was reported that the nitrogen and ester contents were dramatically decreased after deproteinization followed by transesterification of concentrated rubber, i.e., DPTE (Tangpakdee & Tanaka, 1997). DPTE composed of linear rubber molecules was found to show very low green strength comparable to that of concentrated rubber. Moreover, it was found that skim rubber showed similar green strength to DPTE as well as synthetic IR (Figure 23). Synthetic IR contains no functional terminal group, especially phospholipid group (Gregg & Macey, 1973), which is similar to that in the case of skim rubber. The Mooney viscosity and Mooney relaxation data of skim rubber were also found to be lower than that from concentrated rubber. Thus, this indicates that the skim rubber is softer and lower elasticity than concentrated rubber (Sakdapipanich et al., 2002). The low tensile strength and Mooney viscosity might lead to the benefit of skim rubber on the low energy consumption during processing, which are perfectly different from concentrated rubber.
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Figure 23.
Green strength of concentrated rubber, skim rubber, synthetic polyisoprene (IR) and DPTE.
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\n\t\t\t\tApplication of skim rubber\n\t\t\t
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In the previous work, the application of the skim rubber is used in many fields. For example, the small amounts of skim rubber act as cure-rate boosters, which can replace the secondary accelerators in some applications. In physical processing characteristics, the skim rubber is resembled compounded materials rather than elastomeric gum (Blackey, 1996). This is due to the preponderance of non-elastomeric substances in the material. The increases in hardness and state of curing correlate well with the nitrogen content, due to the physical effect of proteinous substances. The skim rubber can be controlled by a suitable choice of accelerator. About 20-25 parts of skim rubber can be blended with conventional rubber to give a high level of vulcanizate properties retention and reduced variability. The skim rubber was found to give better adhesion between a brassed metal and contiguous skim rubber (Schofeld, 1995). The rubber-metal adhesion and adhesion retention can be obtained by adding copper sulfide to the conventional rubber skim stock composition and followed by vulcanization to yield the end product. In addition, skim rubber was also studied for its use as urea encapsulant in the controlled release application (Tanunchai, 1999).
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Recently, it was revealed the effective method using saponification reaction to remove the impurities, especially proteins and lipids, from skim rubber. It was also found that this highly purified skim rubber showed good solubility with no any gel formation, which is a merit on adhesive application (Nawamawat, 2002). The pressure-sensitive adhesive made from high-purified skim rubber also showed good tack and adhesion properties, good transparent and absence of protiens, which might cause allergy (Nawamawat, 2002). Thus, the highly-purified skim rubber can be further developed for more valuable as medical and surgical tape.
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\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/29737.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/29737.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/29737",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/29737",totalDownloads:8926,totalViews:1588,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 11th 2011",dateReviewed:"August 2nd 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 14th 2012",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/29737",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/29737",book:{slug:"biotechnology-molecular-studies-and-novel-applications-for-improved-quality-of-human-life"},signatures:"Jitladda T. Sakdapipanich and Porntip Rojruthai",authors:[{id:"79461",title:"Dr.",name:"Jitladda",middleName:null,surname:"Sakdapipanich",fullName:"Jitladda Sakdapipanich",slug:"jitladda-sakdapipanich",email:"jstpuk@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Mahidol University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"122274",title:"Dr.",name:"Porntip",middleName:null,surname:"Rojruthai",fullName:"Porntip Rojruthai",slug:"porntip-rojruthai",email:"pui_roj@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Molecular structure of both chain-ends of natural rubber ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Initiating terminal of the rubber molecule",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Terminating chain-end of rubber molecule",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Structural change of rubber molecule in rubber tree",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Structure of branch-points, gel and storage hardening",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Color substances and obnoxious odor in natural rubber",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1. Color substances in natural rubber",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.2. Non-enzymatic browning",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.1.3. Enzymatic browning prevention",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2. Obnoxious odor in natural rubber",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Skim rubber",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAlenius\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTurijanmaa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPalosuo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tOccup. Environ. Med. 59, 419.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tArcher\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB. 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Technol.\n\t\t\t\t\t76\n\t\t\t\t\t1177\n\t\t\t\t\t1184 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B68",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTarachiwin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSakdapipanich\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUte\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKitayama\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBamba\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFukusaka\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKobayashi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTanaka\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005a\n\t\t\t\t\tBiomacromolecule 6(4), 1851-1857.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B69",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTarachiwin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSakdapipanich\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUte\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKitayama\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTanaka\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005b\n\t\t\t\t\tBiomacromolecule 6(4), 1858-1863.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B70",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTarachiwin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 Ph.D thesis, Mahidol University, Thailand.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B71",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVerhaar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1959\n\t\t\t\t\tRubb. Chem. Technol. 32\n\t\t\t\t\t1627\n\t\t\t\t\t1659 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B72",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWititsuwannakul\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChareonthiphakorn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPace\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWititsuwannakul\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tPhytochemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t61\n\t\t\t\t\t115\n\t\t\t\t\t121 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B73",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYeang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 4\n\t\t\t\t\t99\n\t\t\t\t\t104 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B74",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYeang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tArif\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYusof\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSunderasan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tSunderasan\n\t\t\t\t\t27\n\t\t\t\t\t32\n\t\t\t\t\t45 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B75",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYunyongwattanakorn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Ph.D thesis, Mahidol University, Thailand.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B76",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYunyongwattanakorn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTanaka\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKawahara\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKlinklai\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSakdapipanich\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tRubb. Chem. Technol. 76(5), 1228-1240.\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jitladda T. Sakdapipanich",address:null,affiliation:'
King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Thailand
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1. Introduction
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Today, the increase of requirements for indoor cooling demands improves thermal human comfort inside residential buildings, reduces the divergence between the energy supply and energy demand by the use of low-grade heat sources such as solar energy and industrial waste heat, lowers the CO2 emissions in the building sector due to the use of air condition systems, and finally reduces the peak of energy consumption of air conditioning processes generated by the use of conventional vapor compression system especially during summer period for the buildings and spaces that have high latent loads. All above reasons make the solar cooling that has been received much more attention as innovative, promising, efficient, and environmentally friendly air conditioning systems as alternative options for conventional air conditioning systems [1, 2]. The building sector is considered as a major contributor to energy consumption in the world. Numerically, 41.1% of the total energy in the United States in 2011 was consumed in the building sector, and this state is expected to increase to 42.1% in 2035 [3]. In Europe, buildings consumed for 39% of total energy consumption, which 26% is for residential buildings and 13% for commercial architectures [4]. In China, 25–30% of the total energy is consumed by civil and industrial buildings [5]. A same scenario in Australia which the building industry consumes 40% of the total energy produced [6]. According to the report issued by EU strategy on heating and cooling 2016, the energy consumption for cooling and heating in buildings demonstrated about 80%. Although less than 20% is presently exploited for cooling purposes, the domestic cooling building still has a high potential for growth. Moreover, the use of the innovative low-energy cooling technologies for heating and cooling will bring fuel savings of 5 Mtoe per year in 2030, corresponding to 9 million ton of CO2 [7]. Therefore, the annual energy for air-conditioning purposes for a room was increased considerably, which was 1.7 GWh in 1990 and it reached 44 GWh in 2010 [8]. The Mediterranean countries have saved 40–50% of their energy consumed for refrigeration and air-conditioning by using solar-driven air-conditioning system techniques [9, 10]. It is stated that the solar system was able to contribute up to 70% of total energy consumption for heating and air-conditioning for domestic buildings. Many solar cooling technologies such as solar absorption, solar adsorption, desiccant, and ejector systems have been studied by researchers. Among these technologies, solar absorption is the most widely used technology with 59% of the installed systems in Europe against 11% for solar adsorption and 23% for desiccant cooling [11]. Many investigations have been done on solar thermal-driven absorption refrigeration machines in the small range of refrigeration capacity (5–30 kW). Some of the investigation results have been published in [12, 13, 14]. A design guide for solar cooling systems is presented in [15].
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2. Classification of solar cooling technologies
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Solar cooling systems can be classified into two main categories according to the energy used to drive them: solar thermal cooling systems and solar electric cooling systems. In solar thermal cooling systems, the cooling process is driven by solar collectors collecting solar energy and converting it into thermal energy, and uses this energy to drive thermal cooling systems such as absorption, adsorption, and desiccant cycles; whereas in solar electric cooling systems, electrical energy that is provided by solar photovoltaic (PV) panels is used to drive a conventional electric vapor compressor air-conditioning system. Both types of solar cooling can be used in industrial and domestic refrigeration and air-conditioning processes, with up to 95% saving in electricity [16].
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2.1. Electricity-driven solar refrigeration systems
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In general, the solar electrical cooling system consists of two parts: photovoltaic panel and electrical refrigeration device. Photovoltaic cells transform light into electricity through photoelectric effect. The power generated by solar photovoltaic panel is supplied either to the vapor compression systems, thermoelectrical system, or Stirling cycle.
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2.1.1. Solar-powered vapor compression systems
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Photovoltaic powered refrigerators are an alternative option to produce cooling in remote areas of developing countries. Photovoltaic cell converts the incident solar radiation to DC power which can drive the compressor of vapor compression system. This system as depicted in Figure 1 consists of a DC compression refrigerator connected to controller, a battery to supply and store energy, and a photovoltaic (PV) generator which supplies the refrigerator and charges the battery with excess energy. The main advantage of this system compared to the other air-conditioning systems is that it does not require an outside fuel supply. In order to run the system at highest efficiency, the voltage should be close to the voltage produced at the maximum possible power.
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Figure 1.
A configuration of a PV solar-powered vapor compression systems.
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2.1.2. Thermoelectric cooling systems (the Peltier cooling system)
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Thermoelectric device utilizes the Peltier effect to make a temperature gradient by creating heat flux between two different types of semiconductors materials. Riffat and Qiu [17] defined the Peltier effect as presence of cooling or heating effect at junction of two different conductors due to electricity flow. The main principle of working thermoelectric cooling systems is shown in Figure 2 and follows these steps: an electric current flows across the joint of n- and p-type semiconductor materials by applying a voltage. When the current passes through the junctions of the two conductors, heat is removed at one junction and absorbs the heat from its surrounding space to create a cooling effect. Heat is deposited at the other junction. When a direction of the current is reversed, the air-conditioning system operates in the heating manner due to reverse of the heat flow direction. The main advantages of using thermoelectric cooling compared to vapor compression cycle are as follows: (a) compact and lightweight due to no bulky compressor units needed; (b) no moving parts; (c) environment friendly due to no hazardous gases; (d) silent operation; (e) high reliability in which a mean time between failures (MTBF) is more than 100,000 h; (f) precise temperature stability in which a tolerance of better than +/−0.1°C; and (g) finally cooling/heating mode option, which is fully reversible with switch in polarity and supports rapid temperature cycling. But on the other side, high cost and low efficiency are the main disadvantages.
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Figure 2.
Thermoelectric cooling configuration.
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2.1.3. Stirling systems
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The cooling cycle is split into four steps as depicted in Figure 3. The cycle starts when the two pistons are in their most left positions:
Process (a\n\n→\n\nb): Isothermal compression process and heat rejection to the surrounding. Initially, the left warm piston moves to the right while the cold piston is fixed. The isothermal compression process was occurred and the pressure rises, so the heat transfer Qa is taken to the surroundings at ambient temperature Ta.
Process (b\n\n→\n\nc): Constant volume. The two pistons move to the right at the same rate to keep the volume constant, so the volume between the two pistons is kept constant. The hot gas enters the regenerator with temperature Ta and leaves it with temperature TL. The heat is transferred to the regenerator material.
Process (c\n\n→\n\nd): Isothermal expansion process and heat addition from the external source. The cold piston moves to the right while the warm piston is fixed. The isothermal expansion was occurred and the pressure decreases, so the heat transfer QL is taken up. This is the useful cooling power.
Process (d\n\n→\n\na): Constant volume. The two pistons move to the left to keep the total volume constant.
The gas temperature rises from TL to Ta so heat is taken up from the regenerator material. This completes the cycle.
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Figure 3.
(a) Schematic diagram of a Stirling cooler; (b) four states in the Stirling cycle; and (c) PV-diagram of the ideal Stirling cycle.
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2.2. Solar thermal cooling systems
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2.2.1. Absorption systems
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The absorption refrigeration cycle is one of the oldest refrigeration technologies. Absorption refrigeration cycle operates under the same principle as the conventional vapor compression refrigeration cycle in the refrigerant side. The mechanical compressor in the conventional vapor compression refrigeration cycle is replaced by the thermal compressor in the absorption refrigeration cycle. The thermal compressor consists of absorber and generator. Figure 4 shows the general schematic of a single effect absorption cycle [18]. The absorption chiller cycle consists of the following steps:
The rich solution (rich on coolant) will be pumped from the absorber to the generator passing the solution heat exchanger (economizer).
Through the heat supply in the generator from a driving heat source (solar collectors), a part of the coolant will be driven out from the rich solution and flows to the condenser. After that, the remaining poor solution (poor on coolant) flows back to the absorber.
In the condenser, the refrigerant vapor from the generator condenses in the condenser. The heat of condensation must be rejected at an intermediate temperature level by the use of the cooling water supplied from a cooling tower.
The refrigerant condensate flows back to the evaporator at low pressure through an expansion device. The cycle of the coolant then repeats.
In the evaporator, the refrigerant is vaporized at very low pressure to produce the cooling power by extracting heat from the low-temperature medium. The coolant vapor flows to the absorber.
In the absorber, refrigerant vapor is absorbed by the poor solution, which flows back from the generator passing the economizer and the throttle. Then, the heat of absorption and mixing is rejected by the cooling water stream supplied from a cooling tower. After that, the cycle of the solution will repeat again.
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Figure 4.
Schematic of the absorption chilling cycle [18].
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The two main pairs of refrigerant/absorbent that are widely used are water/lithium bromide (H2O/LiBr) and ammonia/water pair (NH3/H2O), where water is the refrigerant (coolant) and LiBr is the absorbent; while for the second pair, ammonia and water are the refrigerant and absorbent, respectively.
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List of advantages of using water/LiBr pair, which is the most common for solar air-conditioning application, is as follows:
uses nontoxic substances;
low working pressures; and
nonvolatile absorbent, i.e., there is no need of rectification of the refrigerant.
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However, there are disadvantages associated with the water/LiBr pair and are as follows:
Water cooling is required, which is commonly accomplished by a cooling tower. Cooling towers have the risk of legionella;
Systems have bigger sizes which are due to the large volume of the water vapor;
Risk of corrosion of the components; and
Risk of the crystallization of the solution at very low cooling temperatures.
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2.2.2. Adsorption systems
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Adsorption refrigeration cycle is similar to absorption refrigeration cycle. The main difference in the former is that the refrigerant is adsorbed on the internal surface of highly porous solid material instead of the refrigerant being absorbed by a liquid solution. In the adsorption refrigeration cycle, the solid sorbent and the refrigerant form the adsorption pairs such as activated carbon-ammonia, activated carbon-methanol, activated carbon-ethanol, silica gel-water, and zeolite-water.
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Adsorption is a physical or chemical process that is different from absorption, which is a chemical process. Just as there is an attraction between a liquid and a solid at a surface, there is also an attraction between a gas and a solid at a surface. Adsorption is a surface phenomenon which can be divided into physical adsorption (physisorption) and chemical adsorption (chemisorption). Physical adsorption generally resulted by the Van der Waals forces through physical process, and chemical adsorption usually achieved by valency forces through chemical process. The heat of adsorption is usually large in chemical adsorption and small in physical adsorption. Adsorbent substances can be retained to original properties by a desorption process under the application of heat.
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The adsorption refrigeration cycle consists of two sorption chambers, a condenser, and an evaporator, as illustrated in Figure 5. The adsorption cycle achieves a COP of 0.3–0.7, depending upon the driving heat temperature of 55–90°C.
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Figure 5.
Schematic of adsorption cycle solar cooling system.
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The working cycle of 5–7 min consists of the following four steps [19]:
In the first step, the adsorbed water is desorbed after the application of thermal energy (as example from solar energy). The collector becomes the generator (1).
In the second step, the desorbed refrigerant (water) is cooled and condensed to liquid in the condenser by rejecting the heat through the cooling water supplied from a cooling tower.
In the third step, the condensed water flows through the expansion valve to the evaporator, where it vaporizes under low partial pressure and low temperature in the evaporator while the useful cooling is produced, then heat is taken away from the chilled water.
In the fourth and final step, the vaporized water is adsorbed in the collector (2) until the silica gel is saturated, then it is switched to the second adsorber chamber.
The circuit is completed as the condensed water is fed back into the evaporator through a valve.
The functions of two sorption chambers are reversed by alternating the opening of the butterfly valves and the direction of the heating and cooling refrigerants. In this way, the chilling refrigerant is obtained continuously. The cycle then repeats.
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Advantages of adsorption chiller systems compared to absorption chiller systems [20, 21] are as follows:
The operating temperatures can be lower, e.g., 55–90°C as compared to 70–120°C for absorption chillers.
There is no low limit to the temperature reservoir.
There is no limitation for the low cooling water temperature, because there is no risk of crystallization problem as in the case of absorption chillers.
No risk of corrosion problem as in the case of absorption chillers, because there are heat sources with temperature close to 500°C that can be used directly.
The adsorption systems have flexibility in regeneration temperature and do not require frequent replacement of adsorbent.
The adsorption systems do not need a rectifier for the refrigerant or solution pump in comparison with absorption systems.
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The disadvantages of adsorption chiller systems include [22]:
Adsorption technology is more expensive than absorption technology.
The average COP of adsorption chillers is lower than the absorption chillers.
The adsorption chillers are both heavy weight and larger than the absorption chillers.
Heat recovery is very complex, because the adsorption system is intermittent system.
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Advantages of absorption and adsorption chiller systems compared to vapor compression systems:
Absorption and adsorption systems are environmentally friendly. The equipment uses completely harmless working fluids.
The maximum cooling load can be achieved with the maximum available solar radiation and hence potential of the refrigeration system.
Maintenance costs are lower due to fewer moving parts like solenoid valves and vacuum pumps. It is almost noiseless system, where there are not many moving parts, other than the solution pump in the absorption refrigeration systems.
Taking advantage of solar thermal plants in the sorption refrigeration technology even when there is no heat demand.
Operation costs are lower due to low electricity consumption in comparison with vapor compression systems.
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2.2.3. Desiccant systems
\n
The desiccant air-conditioning system utilizes the capability of desiccant materials in removing the air moisture content by sorption process. All materials that attract moisture at different capacities are called desiccant [4]. The desiccant cooling system can be a suitable selection for thermal comfort especially in climates with high humidity. Moreover, this technique allows us to utilize renewable energy or low-temperature gains from solar energy, waste heat, and cogeneration to drive the cooling cycle. The comparison between desiccant system and conventional systems is listed in Table 1. There are many required properties for any desiccant materials selected in open-cycle cooling based on [23]: (i) mechanical and chemical stability; (ii) large moisture capacity per unit weight; (iii) low heat of adsorption/absorption to regenerate; (iv) sorption rate; (v) large adsorption/absorption capacity at low water vapor pressures; (vi) cheap cost; (vii) sorption at low relative humidity; and (viii) finally ideal isotherm shape.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Parameter
\n
Conventional system
\n
Desiccant system
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Operation cost
\n
High
\n
Low
\n
\n
\n
Performance
\n
High
\n
Low
\n
\n
\n
Energy source
\n
Mainly electricity
\n
Low-grade energy
\n
\n
\n
Environmental safety
\n
Less
\n
High
\n
\n
\n
System care
\n
Less
\n
High
\n
\n
\n
Control over humidity
\n
Average
\n
Accurate
\n
\n
\n
Indoor air quality
\n
Less
\n
More
\n
\n
\n
System installation
\n
Simple
\n
More complicate
\n
\n
\n
Energy storage capacity
\n
Mainly not applicable
\n
Applicable
\n
\n
\n
Installation cost
\n
High
\n
Low
\n
\n
\n
System control
\n
Average
\n
Complicate
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
The comparison between desiccant system and conventional systems.
\n
Two configurations were described in detail below: ventilation and recirculation modes. The schematic of the ventilation mode representation is demonstrated in Figure 6a. On the conditioning side of the system (air processing side), warm and humid air enters the slowly rotating desiccant wheel and is dehumidified by adsorption of water (1–2). Since the air is heated up by the adsorption heat, a heat recovery wheel is passed (2–3), resulting in a significant precooling of the supply air stream. Subsequently, the air is humidified and thus further cooled by a controlled humidifier (3–4) according to the set-values of supply air temperature and humidity. In order to control the sensible heat factor, the remix air is introduced by the mix evaporatively cooled room air with the cooled and dried room make-up air (5–6). On the regeneration side of the system, the exhaust air stream of the rooms is humidified (6–7) close to the saturation point to exploit the full cooling potential in order to allow an effective heat recovery (7–8). After that, the sorption wheel has to be regenerated (8–9) by applying heat in a comparatively low temperature range from 50 to 75°C and to allow a continuous operation of the dehumidification process. Finally, the cold and humid air is exhausted to the atmosphere (9–10) and the cooling cycle is completed.
\n
Figure 6.
Schematic of desiccant cooling system in (a) ventilation mode and (b) recirculation mode.
\n
The recirculation mode representation is depicted in Figure 6b. It uses the same components as the ventilation mode except the process air side in the recirculation mode is a closed loop, whereas the regeneration air side is an open cycle where the outdoor air is used for regeneration.
\n
\n
\n
2.2.4. Ejector systems
\n
A solar-driven ejector cooling system consists of an ejector cooling cycle and a collector circuit. The main components of the system are collector array, generator, ejector, condenser, expansion valve, evaporator, and cycle pump. A schematic diagram of the solar ejector cooling system and its component is presented in Figure 7. The working principle of the ejector systems follows the below states [24, 25]:
\n
Figure 7.
Schematic presentation of the solar ejector cooling configuration.
\n
In the generator, the refrigerant is vaporized as a primary steam by utilizing the solar energy coming from the solar collector. This primary steam leaves the generator at a relatively high pressure and enters the supersonic nozzle of the ejector to accelerate it at supersonic velocity and creating low pressure at the nozzle exit section. This low pressure draws the secondary flow coming from the evaporator into the chamber. The primary and secondary streams are mixed in the mixing chamber. These mixing steams enter into diffuses where increases its pressure to the condensing pressure. The mixing stream discharges from the ejector to the condenser, where the stream is converted into liquid refrigerant by rejection heat to the surrounding. Some part of the liquid refrigerant pumps to the generator and the remaining liquid part leaves the condenser and enters the evaporator through expansion value.
\n
In expansion value, the refrigerant pressure is dropped and this refrigerant enters the evaporator to absorb heat from space that required to cool and the refrigerant is converted into vapor and enters to the ejector.
\n
\n
\n
2.2.5. Rankine systems
\n
One of the promising methods that utilize solar heat to produce mechanical work and then use it to drive a conventional vapor compression cycle is solar Rankine cooling systems. Two different configurations of solar Rankine cooling systems were suggested by different scholars [26]. One arrangement is using separate power and cooling system where the compressor of the vapor compression cycle is mechanically coupled with the expander of organic Rankine cycle. Another arrangement is an integrated system by the use of one joint condenser for both cycle coupled with the expander-compressor.
\n
The main advantages of a second configuration are the use of a same working fluid in both loops to remove a leakage and mixing problems. Moreover, the integrated design is simpler but on the other side reduces the system flexibility.
\n
Figure 8 depicts a schematic for two widely solar Rankine cooling system arrangements. In the first loop of organic Rankine cycle, high-pressure liquid coming from the pump is vaporized inside the boiler (state 1) that absorbs the heat from solar collector. The vapor (state 2) enters the expander and produces a useful work which is used to drive a compressor of a conventional refrigeration cycle. The working fluid pressure from the expander outlet is same to the condenser pressure (state 3). After that, a rejection heat to the surrounding inside the condenser converts the working fluid to saturated fluid. Subsequently, a pressure of the working fluid is increased by using pump to enter a boiler as subcooled liquid (state 1).
\n
Figure 8.
Representation of a Rankine solar cooling system as (a) separate configuration for power and refrigeration cycles and (b) integrated configuration for power and refrigeration cycle.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Conclusion
\n
The executed investigations on the field of solar thermal-driven cooling systems and the gained results can be concluded as follows:
The investigations on solar thermal-driven systems show that solar thermal refrigeration systems are promised technologies, especially in the small and middle cooling capacity ranges.
The work temperatures have a big impact on the refrigeration capacity of the chiller.
The higher is the required chilled water temperature, the higher are the refrigeration capacity and the coefficient of performance (COP) of the absorption refrigeration machine.
The lower is the cooling water temperature; the higher are the refrigeration capacity and the COP of the absorption refrigeration machine.
There are a big potential for further research at this field to optimize the system operation and to reduce the specific costs (€/kW cooling capacity).
\n
\n\n',keywords:"cooling, air conditioning system, solar cooling, performance, absorption machines, adsorption machines",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/63159.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/63159.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63159",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63159",totalDownloads:1119,totalViews:640,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"February 21st 2018",dateReviewed:"July 25th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"January 16th 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter describes different available technologies to provide the cooling effect by utilizing solar energy for both thermal and photovoltaic ways. Moreover, this chapter highlights the following points: (i) the main attributes for different solar cooling technologies to recognize the main advantages, challenges, disadvantages, and feasibility analysis; (ii) the need for further research to reduce solar cooling chiller manufacture costs and improve its performance; (iii) it provides useful information for decision-makers to select the proper solar cooling technology for specific application. Furthermore, some references, which include investigation results, will be included. A conclusion about the main gained investigation results will summarize the investigation results and the perspectives of such technologies.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/63159",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/63159",signatures:"Salman Ajib and Ali Alahmer",book:{id:"6866",title:"Energy Conversion",subtitle:"Current Technologies and Future Trends",fullTitle:"Energy Conversion - Current Technologies and Future Trends",slug:"energy-conversion-current-technologies-and-future-trends",publishedDate:"January 16th 2019",bookSignature:"Ibrahim H. Al-Bahadly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6866.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19588",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim H.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Bahadly",slug:"ibrahim-h.-al-bahadly",fullName:"Ibrahim H. Al-Bahadly"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"247163",title:"Prof.",name:"Salman",middleName:null,surname:"Ajib",fullName:"Salman Ajib",slug:"salman-ajib",email:"salman.ajib@th-owl.de",position:null,institution:null},{id:"267665",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Alahmer",fullName:"Ali Alahmer",slug:"ali-alahmer",email:"a.alahmer@ttu.edu.jo",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Classification of solar cooling technologies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Electricity-driven solar refrigeration systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1. Solar-powered vapor compression systems",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2. Thermoelectric cooling systems (the Peltier cooling system)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3. Stirling systems",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2. Solar thermal cooling systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.1. Absorption systems",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.2. Adsorption systems",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.4. Ejector systems",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.5. Rankine systems",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Alahmer A, Wang X, Al-Rbaihat R, Alam KA, Saha BB. Performance evaluation of a solar adsorption chiller under different climatic conditions. Applied Energy. 2016;175:293-304\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Ajib S. An overview on solar thermal energy for cooling and air conditioning. Annals of Arid Zone. 2010;49(3 & 4):275-284\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Henning HM. Solar assisted air conditioning of buildings—An overview. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2007;27(10):1734-1749\n'},{id:"B4",body:'El-Samadony Y, Hamed AM, Kabeel AE. Dynamic performance evaluation of single bed desiccant dehumidification system. International Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy. 2013;2(1):18-25\n'},{id:"B5",body:'U.S. Department of Energy. 2011 Buildings Energy Data Book, Table 1.1.3. D & R International Ltd; 2012. Available: https://ieer.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/DOE-2011-Buildings-Energy-DataBook-BEDB.pdf [Retrieved 18th August, 2018]\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Boyano A, Hernandez P, Wolf O. Energy demands and potential savings in European office buildings; case studies based on energy plus simulations. Energy and Buildings. 2013;65:19-28\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Zhu S, Chen J. A simulation study for a low carbon consumption HVAC project using energy plus. International Journal of Low Carbon Technologies. 2012;7(3):248-254\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Baniyounes AM, Ghadi YY, Rasul MG, Khan MM. An overview of solar assisted air conditioning in Queensland’s subtropical regions, Australia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2013;26:781-804\n'},{id:"B9",body:'EU Commission. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament: The Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions—An EU Strategy on Heating and Cooling. Brussels; 2016;2:2016. Available: https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2016/EN/1-2016-51-EN-F1-1.PDF [Retrieved 18th August, 2018]\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Clausse M, Alam KC, Meunier F. Residential air conditioning and heating by means of enhanced solar collectors coupled to an adsorption system. Solar Energy. 2008;82(10):885-892\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Balaras CA, Grossman G, Henning HM, Ferreira CA, Podesser E, Wang L, Wiemken E. Solar air conditioning in Europe—An overview. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2007;11(2):299-314\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Hamdeh NH, Mu’Taz A. Optimization of solar adsorption refrigeration system using experimental and statistical techniques. Energy Conversion and Management. 2010;51(8):1610\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Ajib S, Günther W. Solar thermally driven cooling systems; some investigation results and perspectives. Energy Conversion and Management. 2013;65:663-669\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Kohlenbach P, Jakob U. Solar Cooling: The Earthscan Expert Guide to Solar Cooling Systems. 1st ed. Routledge; 12 August 2014\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Daniel Mugnier D, Neyer D, White S. The Solar Cooling Design Guide—Case Studies of Successful Solar Air Conditioning Design. Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn, Verlag für Architektur und Technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG; 2017. DOI: 10.1002/9783433606841\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Desideri U, Proietti S, Sdringola P. Solar-powered cooling systems; technical and economic analysis on industrial refrigeration and air-conditioning applications. Applied Energy. 2009;86(9):1376-1386\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Riffat SB, Qiu G. Comparative investigation of thermoelectric air-conditioners versus vapour compression and absorption air-conditioners. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2004;24(14-15):1979-1993\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Wang J, Shang S, Li X, Wang B, Wu W, Shi W. Dynamic performance analysis for an absorption chiller under different working conditions. Applied Sciences. 2017;7(8):797. DOI: 10.3390/app7080797\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Al-Rbaihat R, Sakhrieh A, Al-Asfar J, Alahmer A, Ayadi O, Al-Salaymeh A, Al_hamamre Z, Al-bawwab A, Hamdan M. Performance assessment and theoretical simulation of adsorption refrigeration system driven by flat plate solar collector. Jordan Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering. 2017;11(1):1-11\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Behbahani-nia A, Sayfikar M. Study of the performance of a solar adsorption cooling system. Energy Equipment and Systems. 2013;1(1):75-90\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Alsaqoor S, Alahmer A, Chorowski M, Pyrka P, Rogala Z. Performance evaluation for a low temperature heat powered for 3-beds with dual evaporators silica gel water adsorption chillers. In: 2017 8th International Renewable Energy Congress (IREC); IEEE; 2017. pp. 1-6\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Fasfous A, Asfar J, Al-Salaymeh A, Sakhrieh A, Al_hamamre Z, Al-Bawwab A, Hamdan M. Potential of utilizing solar cooling in the University of Jordan. Energy Conversion and Management. 2013;65:729-735\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Alahmer A. Thermal analysis of a direct evaporative cooling system enhancement with desiccant dehumidification for vehicular air conditioning. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2016;98:1273-1285\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Varga S, Oliveira AC, Diaconu B. Analysis of a solar-assisted ejector cooling system for air conditioning. International Journal of Low Carbon Technologies. 2009;4(1):2-8\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Zhang B, Lv JS, Zuo JX. Theoretical and experimental study on solar ejector cooling system using R236fa. International Journal of Low Carbon Technologies. 2013;9(4):245-249\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Zeyghami M, Goswami DY, Stefanakos E. A review of solar thermo-mechanical refrigeration and cooling methods. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2015;51:1428-1445\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Salman Ajib",address:"salman.ajib@hs-owl.de",affiliation:'
Department of Renewable Energies and Decentralized Energy Supplying, Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe, Germany
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tafila Technical University, Jordan
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
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In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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The IntechOpen timeline
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2004
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Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
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Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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2005
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IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
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2006
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IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
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2008
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Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
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2009
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Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
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2010
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Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
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IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
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2011
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Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
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IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
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IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
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IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
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2012
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Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
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IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
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2013
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IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
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2014
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IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
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IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
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2015
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Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
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40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
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Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
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2016
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IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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2017
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Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
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In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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The IntechOpen timeline
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2004
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Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
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Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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2005
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IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
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2006
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IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
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2008
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Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
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2009
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Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
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2010
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Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
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IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
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2011
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Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
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IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
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IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
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IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
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2012
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Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
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IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
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2013
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IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
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2014
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IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
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IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
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2015
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Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
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40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
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Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
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2016
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IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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2017
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Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
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