Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Air traffic is expected to almost double its current value in 20 years, which cannot be managed without the development and implementation of a safe air traffic management (ATM) system. In ATM, risk assessment is a crucial cornerstone to validate the operation of air traffic flows, airport processes, or navigation accuracy. This book tries to be a focal point and motivate further research by encompassing crosswise and widespread knowledge about this critical and exciting issue by bringing to light the different purposes and methods developed for risk assessment in ATM.",isbn:"978-1-78985-794-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-793-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-370-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85725",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"risk-assessment-in-air-traffic-management",numberOfPages:174,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"91e95c7c9fc0be27b80a269a9fa81d90",bookSignature:"Javier Alberto Pérez Castán and Álvaro Rodríguez Sanz",publishedDate:"March 18th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9420.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5359,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:24,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 8th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 17th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 16th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 4th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 4th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!0,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"222047",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez Castán",slug:"javier-alberto-perez-castan",fullName:"Javier Alberto Pérez Castán",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/222047/images/system/222047.jpeg",biography:"Javier Alberto Pérez Castán was born in 1989 in Huesca Spain. He has got a BSc degree from Aeronautical Engineering, MSc degree from Aerospace Engineering and PhD from Aerospace Engineering of Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. His expertise focuses on aerospace and procedure design, risk assessment and RPAS integration in ATM. Nowadays, Prof. Pérez Castán is a researcher and lecturer in Universidad Politécnica de Madrid and belongs to the Navigation Area Research Group (GINA).",institutionString:"Technical University of Madrid",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Technical University of Madrid",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"222046",title:"Dr.",name:"Álvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez Sanz",slug:"alvaro-rodriguez-sanz",fullName:"Álvaro Rodríguez Sanz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/222046/images/system/222046.jpeg",biography:"Álvaro Rodríguez-Sanz was born in 1981, Madrid, Spain. He received MSc in Aeronautical Engineering from Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM) and MSc in Airport Planning and Management from Cranfield University. He worked for AENA, INECO and LATAM Airlines in airport development and air transport strategic planning. His field of research is related to the optimization of airport, air transport and air traffic operations (flow management, causal models and predictability analysis) and safety management. Currently, Álvaro is a researcher and lecturer at UPM and an ATM Research and Development Engineer at CRIDA-ENAIRE.",institutionString:"Technical University of Madrid",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Technical University of Madrid",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"684",title:"Avionics",slug:"aerospace-engineering-avionics"}],chapters:[{id:"69641",title:"Collision Risk Model for High-Density Airspaces",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89753",slug:"collision-risk-model-for-high-density-airspaces",totalDownloads:718,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes a collision risk model (CRM) of airspace scenarios to describe their safety levels when populated by given air traffic. The model requires the use of representative data, containing a description of the flown aircraft trajectories. It is a combination of deterministic and probabilistic mathematical tools able to estimate the level of safety. Furthermore, the model captures the frequency and spatial distribution of the encounters and conflicts, the time in advance the conflict is identified and the overall reaction time of the Air Traffic Control ATC system, and finally, the effectiveness of the ATC as safety layer. The model considers that the risk of an air miss depends on two different factors: on the one hand, the frequency of exposure to risks and, on the other, the chance of collision associated to this exposure. The exposure to risk is captured following a deterministic data-driven approach, whereas the associated chance of collision is derived from a statistical mathematical model, fed by the kinematics of the encounter and the statistics associated to the accuracy of the aircraft state vector when following a planned trajectory.",signatures:"Francisco Javier Saez Nieto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69641",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69641",authors:[{id:"299196",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco Javier",surname:"Saez Nieto",slug:"francisco-javier-saez-nieto",fullName:"Francisco Javier Saez Nieto"}],corrections:null},{id:"68689",title:"Relationship between Air Traffic Demand, Safety and Complexity in High-Density Airspace in Europe",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88801",slug:"relationship-between-air-traffic-demand-safety-and-complexity-in-high-density-airspace-in-europe",totalDownloads:644,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Air traffic performance of the European air traffic system depends not only on traffic demand but also on airspace structure and its traffic distribution. These structural (airspace structure) and flow characteristics (factors such as traffic volume, climbing/descending traffic, mix of aircraft type, military area activity) influence airspace complexity, which can affect controller workload and influence the probability of safety occurrence. In other words, all these dynamic and static complexity components can potentially have an impact upon the safety of the air traffic management (ATM) system. Having in mind fluctuation in traffic on daily, seasonal or annual level in certain airspace, a few questions arise: How changes in traffic demand influence complexity and conflict risk? Is there any correlation between traffic demand, conflict risk and complexity? and Are there any differences between seasons? For that purpose, an investigation is performed on FAB Europe Central (FABEC) airspace, based on 2 weeks of operated traffic during the summer and fall of 2017. Air traffic complexity is estimated using the EUROCONTROL complexity metrics, while conflict risk is assessed using the conflict risk assessment simulation tool. Results show that certain positive relationship exists between traffic demand, conflict risk and complexity.",signatures:"Tamara Pejovic, Fedja Netjasov and Dusan Crnogorac",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68689",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68689",authors:[{id:"300099",title:"Dr.",name:"Fedja",surname:"Netjasov",slug:"fedja-netjasov",fullName:"Fedja Netjasov"},{id:"301546",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamara",surname:"Pejovic",slug:"tamara-pejovic",fullName:"Tamara Pejovic"},{id:"301547",title:"Mr.",name:"Dusan",surname:"Crnogorac",slug:"dusan-crnogorac",fullName:"Dusan Crnogorac"}],corrections:null},{id:"69715",title:"Conflict Risk Assessment Based Framework for Airspace Planning and Design",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89862",slug:"conflict-risk-assessment-based-framework-for-airspace-planning-and-design",totalDownloads:738,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents a conflict risk assessment based framework for airspace planning and design developed for the purpose of preventing aircraft conflicts and collisions. During airspace planning and design process, airspace designers are often guided by the need to increase capacity and/or reduce air traffic controller (ATCo) workload. In order to consider safety risks in a systematic way, the proposed framework contains an additional step—safety risk assessment, performed by safety analysts guided by the risk reduction need. In such a way, they are providing feedback to airspace designers regarding safety issues of their solutions. This chapter presents four conflict risk assessment models, each one developed for different airspace planning level (strategic, tactical, operational, and current day) contained in the proposed framework. Basic development principles for every model were explained together with specific objectives, assumptions, conflict risk concepts, and required input data. Models are illustrated by the simple numerical examples.",signatures:"Fedja Netjasov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69715",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69715",authors:[{id:"300099",title:"Dr.",name:"Fedja",surname:"Netjasov",slug:"fedja-netjasov",fullName:"Fedja Netjasov"}],corrections:null},{id:"70104",title:"Air Traffic Complexity as a Source of Risk in ATM",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90310",slug:"air-traffic-complexity-as-a-source-of-risk-in-atm",totalDownloads:713,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter the connection between air traffic complexity and risks in air traffic management system will be explored. Air traffic complexity is often defined as difficulty of controlling a traffic situation, and it is therefore one of the drivers for air traffic controller’s workload. With more workload, the probability of air traffic controller committing an error increases, so it is necessary to be able to assess and manage air traffic complexity. Here, we will give a brief overview of air traffic complexity assessment methods, and we will put the traffic complexity assessment problem into a broader context of decision complexity. Human reliability assessment methods relevant to air traffic management will be presented and used to assess the risk of loss of separation in traffic situations with different levels of complexity. To determine the validity of the human reliability assessment method, an analysis of conflict risk will be made based on the real-time human-in-the-loop (HITL) simulations.",signatures:"Tomislav Radišić, Petar Andraši, Doris Novak, Biljana Juričić and Bruno Antulov-Fantulin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70104",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70104",authors:[{id:"307036",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomislav",surname:"Radišić",slug:"tomislav-radisic",fullName:"Tomislav Radišić"},{id:"314086",title:"MSc.",name:"Petar",surname:"Andraši",slug:"petar-andrasi",fullName:"Petar Andraši"},{id:"314087",title:"Prof.",name:"Doris",surname:"Novak",slug:"doris-novak",fullName:"Doris Novak"},{id:"314088",title:"Prof.",name:"Biljana",surname:"Juričić",slug:"biljana-juricic",fullName:"Biljana Juričić"},{id:"314089",title:"MSc.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Antulov-Fantulin",slug:"bruno-antulov-fantulin",fullName:"Bruno Antulov-Fantulin"}],corrections:null},{id:"69415",title:"ICAO Risk Tolerability Solution via Complex Indicators of Air Traffic Control Students’ Attitude to Risk",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89613",slug:"icao-risk-tolerability-solution-via-complex-indicators-of-air-traffic-control-students-attitude-to-r",totalDownloads:689,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The solution of the ICAO risk tolerability is proposed via complex indicators of air traffic control students’ attitude to risk. Physically tangible rates and characteristics are used to determine air traffic control students’ attitude to risk levels during flight separation minima violation. The following features of human factors expression are taken as corresponding indicators: main decision-making dominants, aspiration levels, and parameters of the fuzzy risk estimates. The final solution is received with the help of a multiplicative approach. Indicators developed in the paper are proposed to be received with special survey procedure and further results processing and normalization. The explained method is applicable for both acting air traffic controllers and students of the corresponding educational majors.",signatures:"Serhii Borsuk and Oleksii Reva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69415",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69415",authors:[{id:"304492",title:"Dr.",name:"Serhii",surname:"Borsuk",slug:"serhii-borsuk",fullName:"Serhii Borsuk"},{id:"305993",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleksii",surname:"Reva",slug:"oleksii-reva",fullName:"Oleksii Reva"}],corrections:null},{id:"69384",title:"Risk Assessment under Uncertainty",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89445",slug:"risk-assessment-under-uncertainty",totalDownloads:582,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"System safety assessment (SSA) has become a standard practice in air traffic management (ATM). System safety assessment aims, through a systematic and formal process, to detect, quantify, and diminish the derived risks and to guarantee that critical safety systems achieve the level of safety approved by the regulatory authorities. Verification of compliance with the established safety levels becomes the last but an essential part of the safety assurance process. This chapter provides a Bayesian inference methodology to assess and evaluate the compliance with the established safety levels under the presence of uncertainty in the assessment of systems performances.",signatures:"Rosa Maria Arnaldo Valdés, Victor Fernando Gómez Comendador and Luis Perez Sanz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69384",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69384",authors:[{id:"147777",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa",surname:"Arnaldo",slug:"rosa-arnaldo",fullName:"Rosa Arnaldo"},{id:"196016",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor Fernando",surname:"Gomez Comendador",slug:"victor-fernando-gomez-comendador",fullName:"Victor Fernando Gomez Comendador"},{id:"255694",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Perez Sanz",slug:"luis-perez-sanz",fullName:"Luis Perez Sanz"}],corrections:null},{id:"70952",title:"Trajectory-Based, Probabilistic Risk Model for UAS Operations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90688",slug:"trajectory-based-probabilistic-risk-model-for-uas-operations",totalDownloads:667,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To enable the safe integration of Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) into the civil airspace, the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) has elaborated a new regulatory framework that is operation-centric and risk-based. Based on this principle, gaining authorization to conduct certain types of operations depends on a safety risk assessment. To harmonize this process, the Joint Authorities for Rulemaking on Unmanned Systems (JARUS) released a qualitative methodology called Specific Operation Risk Assessment (SORA). However, SORA is not a complete safety assessment tool since, in some cases, a quantitative risk analysis is still required. This work develops a probabilistic risk model that extends SORA to evaluate the ground risk and the air risk components along a specified UAS trajectory quantitatively. The proposed model is supplied with illustrative data and is validated in a representative UAS mission. In the future, the risk model will be exploited to develop a decision tool for determining the minimum-risk trajectory when multiple, alternative routes are available.",signatures:"Hector Usach, Juan A. Vila and Áurea Gallego",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70952",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70952",authors:[{id:"313561",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hector",surname:"Usach",slug:"hector-usach",fullName:"Hector Usach"},{id:"313985",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan A.",surname:"Vila",slug:"juan-a.-vila",fullName:"Juan A. Vila"},{id:"313986",title:"Prof.",name:"Áurea",surname:"Gallego",slug:"aurea-gallego",fullName:"Áurea Gallego"}],corrections:null},{id:"70194",title:"Risk-Based Framework for the Integration of RPAS in Non-Segregated Airspace",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90440",slug:"risk-based-framework-for-the-integration-of-rpas-in-non-segregated-airspace",totalDownloads:613,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS) are new airspace users that require to be safely integrated into the non-segregated airspace. Currently, their integration is planned for the horizon 2025, but there is a lot of pressure by RPAS operators to fly as soon as possible. This research focuses on the development of a risk-based framework for the integration of RPAS in non-segregated airspace. The risk-based framework relies on a hierarchical methodology that is split into two time horizons: design and operation. Different operational and geometrical factors characterise each stage. Then, a set of risk and operational indicators are defined for each stage. These indicators evaluate the operational airspace state and provide information about how the integration of RPAS should be. Primary results provide information about geographical and temporary restrictions. Geographical restrictions refer to the airways that favour or inhibit the integration of RPAS, and temporary restrictions denote the time span when the RPAS can pierce into the airspace.",signatures:"Javier Alberto Pérez-Castán and Alvaro Rodríguez-Sanz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70194",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70194",authors:[{id:"222047",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier Alberto",surname:"Pérez Castán",slug:"javier-alberto-perez-castan",fullName:"Javier Alberto Pérez Castán"},{id:"222046",title:"Dr.",name:"Álvaro",surname:"Rodríguez Sanz",slug:"alvaro-rodriguez-sanz",fullName:"Álvaro Rodríguez Sanz"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"35",title:"Advances in Spacecraft Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"advances-in-spacecraft-technologies",bookSignature:"Jason Hall",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/35.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"17665",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason",surname:"Hall",slug:"jason-hall",fullName:"Jason Hall"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3716",title:"Aerospace Technologies Advancements",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"aerospace-technologies-advancements",bookSignature:"Thawar T. 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1. Introduction
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Wetland is a unique and distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally, where oxygen-free processes prevail, and the primary distinctive factor of wetlands from other landforms or water bodies is the occurrence of adaptive vegetation of aquatic plants, characteristic to the unique hydric soil [1, 2]. The modified form of wetland is termed “constructed wetland.” Constructed wetlands for water treatment are complex, integrated systems of water, plants, animals, microorganisms, and the environment [3, 4]. Wetlands play a number of functions, including water purification, water storage, processing and recycling of carbon and other micro and macro nutrients, stabilization of shorelines, and support of plants and animals. While wetlands are generally reliable, self-adjusting systems, an understanding of how natural wetlands are structured and how they function greatly increases the likelihood of successfully constructing a wetland treatment system [5, 6].
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The cleansing of water has always occurred through natural processes as the water flows through rivers, lakes, streams, and wetlands, and in the last several decades, systems have been constructed to use some of these processes for water quality improvement [7]. Wetlands are now highly preferred as systems for improving the quality of point and nonpoint sources of water pollution, including stormwater runoff, domestic wastewater, agricultural wastewater, as well as coal mine drainage [4]. To enhance sustainability in wastewater management, the use of constructed wetlands has been applied in the treatment of different forms of wastes. Artificially created wetlands have been successful in the treatment of petroleum refinery wastes, wastes from sugar factory, leachates from landfills and composts, wastes from aquaculture systems, wastes from pulp and paper mills, and wastes that emanate from slaughter houses, textile mills, and plants that process sea food. Under the management of these wastes, the constructed wetlands can serve as the sole treatment or may be part of an integrated wastewater treatment system [8].
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Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is defined as the ability of a microbe to resist the effects of medication that was once successful and efficient in treating the microbe [9]. The term antibiotic resistance (ABR) is a subset of AMR, as it applies only to bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics. The AR phenotypes can arise within a microorganism through the lateral and horizontal gene transfers and mutation. The mutations of the chromosomal DNA alter the existing bacterial proteins, through transformation, resulting in the creation of mosaic proteins and/or as a result of the transfer and acquisition of new genetic material between bacteria of the same or different species or genera [10]. The emerging pollutants in forms of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) have remained prevalent in aquatic environments such as wetlands that receive ARG-loaded sewage [11].
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As much as the use of constructed wetland has been recommended in the treatment of various forms of wastewater, the system efficiency is a factor of very many natural and artificial factors, with the emerging pollutants and contaminants such as resistant genes being the most complicated contaminants to eliminate through the system [11, 12]. Moreover, some studies have reported constructed wetlands as reservoirs to various forms of resistant genes, which trap them and release them to other aquatic systems, hence contributing to their higher concentration in streams, rivers, or lakes [13]. Numerous suggestions have been provided to improve wetland’s functional effect, efficiency, and predictability and provide a proper ecosystem management [6, 7]. This chapter covers a discussion on the constructed wetlands in wastewater treatment and the challenges of emerging related contaminants, such as resistant genes, and provides recommendation for the proper handling and removal of such wastes from the wetland’s functional system.
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2. Wetlands as functional systems
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Wetlands are ecotones/transitional areas between land and water, with indistinct boundaries between the wetland area and uplands or deep water [14]. The definition expansion of the term wetland covers a broad range of systems that range from marshes, bogs, swamps, wet meadows, tidal wetlands, floodplains, and ribbon (riparian) zones along stream channels. However, all wetlands, whether they are natural or artificial, freshwater, or salty, pose a single characteristic or numerous characteristics, and they occur within the surface or near-surface water, whether they are permanently or temporarily submerged under water [15]. In most wetlands, hydrologic conditions are such that the substrate is saturated long enough during the growing season, a mechanism that creates oxygen-poor conditions in the substrate, limiting the vegetation to those species that are adapted to low-oxygen environments [16].
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Wetlands provide a number of functions and benefits. Wetland functions are inherent processes occurring in wetlands; wetland values are the attributes of wetlands that society perceives as beneficial [17]. The wetland hydrology is generally one of slow flows with either shallow waters or saturated substrates, which allows sediments and other pollutants, including emerging contaminants to settle as the water passes through the wetland system. The occurrence of slow flows provides prolonged contact times between the water and the surfaces within the wetland [15]. The wetland treatment mechanisms are anchored on the complex mass of organic and inorganic materials, with diverse opportunities for gas/water interchanges, which foster a diverse community of microorganisms that break down or transform a wide variety of substances [7]. Within the wetland’s ecosystems, there are dense growths of vascular plants adapted to saturated conditions, which slow the water, create microenvironments within the water column, and provide attachment sites for the microbial communities as well as other contaminants. The litter that accumulates as plants die back in the fall creates additional material and exchange sites and provides a source of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous to fuel microbial processes [18].
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Even though, not all wetlands can perform all functions and values, majority of them provide several benefits. When subjected to appropriate ecological management without any threats, majority of wetlands can provide the following:
Water quality services
Flood storage services under excessive precipitation and the desynchronization of storm
Nutrients and other materials cycling services
Habitat for fish and wildlife
Services for passive recreation, such as bird watching and photography
Services for active recreation, such as hunting education and research
Services for esthetics and landscape enhance merit
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2.1 Constructed wetlands
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A constructed wetland is an artificial shallow basin filled with substrate, usually soil or gravel, and planted with vegetation that has tolerance to saturated conditions. Water is then directed into the system from one end and flows over the surface (surface flow) or through the substrate (subsurface flow) and gets discharged from the other end at the lower point through a weir or other structure, which controls the depth of the water in the wetland [11]. Several forms of constructed wetlands have been introduced, including surface flow wetlands, subsurface flow wetlands, and hybrid systems that integrate surface and subsurface flow wetland types [6, 19]. Constructed wetland systems can also be combined with conventional treatment technologies to provide higher treatment efficiency [8]. The choice of constructed wetland types depends on the existing environmental conditions and how appropriate they are for domestic wastewater, agricultural wastewater, coal mine drainage, and stormwater [6].
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Constructed wetlands have been widely used in the treatment of primary or secondary domestic sewage effluents, and others have been used to treat domestic wastewater and have also been modeled to handle high organic loads associated with agriculture or domestic wastewater [5]. A large number of constructed wetlands have also been built to treat drainage from active and abandoned coal mines [20]. The constructed wetland technology has recently been used in the control and management of stormwater flows, and its application in reducing the impacts by stormwater floods within urban areas is expanding globally [21]. The constructed wetland technology is not only preferred in stormwater flow control but also in the treatment of wastewater, and its preference is based on its low cost, low energy requirement, and need for minimal operational attention and skills. Due to its numerous merits and high sustainability potential, there is an increasing extensive research on its practical application to expand the knowledge on its operation and to provide more insight on its appropriate design, performance, operation, and maintenance for optimum environmental benefits. Even though the constructed wetlands are sturdy and effective systems, their performance depends on the periodic improvements to handle emerging contaminants such as antibiotic and antibacterial resistant genes, and for them to remain effective, they must be carefully designed, constructed, operated, and maintained [11, 12].
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2.2 Components of constructed wetland
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Constructed wetland is a system that puts together different units that work together to ensure that its intended purpose is achieved. Constructed wetland systems entail a properly designed and constructed basin that holds water, a substrate that provides filtration pathways, habitat/growth media for the needed organisms, and also communities of microbes and aquatic invertebrates, which in most cases develop naturally. Most importantly, constructed wetlands also hold vascular plants whose nature depends on the intended purification role and efficiency. The efficiency of the constructed wetlands in waste treatment depends on the interaction and maintenance of these components [22].
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In a constructed wetland system, natural geochemical and biological processes within a wetland realm are involved in the treatment of metals, explosives, and other contaminants that exist within the water. Normally, there are three primary components in a constructed wetland. Constructed wetland has an impermeable layer (generally clay). It also has a gravel layer that acts as a substrate needed for the provision of nutrients and support to the root zone. It also has an above-surface vegetation zone [16]. The impermeable layer within the constructed wetland system prevents infiltration of wastes down into underground aquifers. The gravel layer and root zone comprise of a layer where water flows and bioremediation and denitrification occur. The above-ground vegetative layer contains the well-adopted plant material. Within the wetlands, both the aerobic and anaerobic processes occur, and these can be divided into separate cells [5, 16]. Groundwater can be made to flow through pumping or naturally by gravity through the wetland. Within the anaerobic cells, plants and other natural microbes are involved in the degradation of the contaminant. The aerobic cell performs the work of further improving the water quality through continued exposure to the plants and the movement of water between cell compartments. The use of straw, manure, or compost with little or no soil substrate has been beneficial in the wetlands constructed primarily for the removal of metals. However, for wetlands constructed to treat explosives-contaminated water, certain plant species are used to enhance the degradation through a process termed phytoremediation [23].
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2.2.1 Water
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Wetlands are formed on substrates that are fully or partially submerged in water, where a relatively impermeable subsurface layer prevents the surface water from seeping into the ground [1, 2]. These conditions can be created with few modifications to form a constructed wetland. A constructed wetland can be built almost anywhere in the landscape by shaping the land surface to collect the surface water and by sealing the basin to retain the water [7]. Hydrology that enhances the linking of all the functions in a wetland system stands as the most important design factor to be considered in constructed wetlands, as it is often the primary factor in the success or failure of most constructed wetlands. Therefore, planning and putting up of constructed wetlands require the contribution of a qualified hydrologist to ensure that all the hydrological requirements and conditions are taken care of [24]. Even though the hydrology of most constructed wetlands is very much similar to the other surface and near-surface water, it does differ in several important respects. Small changes in hydrology can have fairly significant effects on a wetland’s functionality and its treatment effectiveness and efficiency. Indeed, due to the large surface area of the water and its shallow depth, a wetland system interacts strongly with the atmosphere through rainfall and evapotranspiration. This (the combined loss of water by evaporation from the water surface and loss through transpiration by plants) and the density of the vegetation of a wetland strongly affect the constructed wetlands’ hydrology. This can be experienced through the obstruction of water flow paths as the water finds its sinuous way through the network of stems, leaves, roots, and rhizomes, and it can also occur through the blockage of exposure to wind and sun [7, 24, 25]. Water always acts as a vehicle for delivering the pollutants to the system and also for discharging the untapped pollutants away from the system [24].
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2.2.2 Substrate
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Substrates for constructed wetlands can come in the form of sediment or litter. Substrates used to construct wetlands include soil, sand, gravel, rock, and organic materials such as compost [26]. Due to low water velocities and high productivity typical of wetlands, the sediment and litter accumulation occurs within the wetlands. The substrates, sediments, and litter have numerous functions that are beneficial to the efficiency of the constructed wetlands. They provide support to many of the living organisms in wetlands, and the substrate permeability also affects the movement of water through the wetland and provides numerous chemical and biological processes, many of which are microbial in nature and also enhance the transformation of pollutants within the substrates. The substrates also provide storage for many contaminants, and the accumulation of litter increases the amount of organic matter in the wetland, which provides sites for material exchange and microbial attachment. Through this process, carbon source is realized as well as the energy source that drives some of the important biological reactions in wetlands.
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Flooding of the constructed wetlands with water has a contribution in its functional mechanism. The physical and chemical characteristics of soils and other substrates are altered when they are wholly or partially under water. For example, under saturated substrate, the water replaces the atmospheric gases within the pore spaces and the microbial-driven metabolism results in the consumption of the available oxygen. Therefore, since oxygen is consumed more rapidly than it can be replaced by diffusion from the atmosphere, the substrates change to anoxic condition (without oxygen). Such conditions become significant in the removal of pollutants such as nitrogen and metals. However, substrates can also act as reservoirs for most contaminants, with high concentration of emerging contaminants such as resistant genes being detected in the constructed wetland substrates [27, 28].
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2.2.3 Vegetation
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Constructed wetlands can work with both the vascular plants (the higher plants) and nonvascular plants (algae), and the photosynthesis process by algae increases the dissolved oxygen content of the water which in turn affects nutrients and metals [18, 29]. Constructed wetlands also attract large organisms such as birds which can feed on contaminants. Additionally, they form attachment surfaces for other protozoans and other microorganisms such as zooplanktons, phytoplanktons, and bacterioplanktons which also aid in the elimination of pollutants and contaminants [30, 31]. Vegetation acts as the main trapping and retention points for most contaminants. Studies have continued to detect a high concentration of emerging contaminants such as resistant genes within the root systems of most constructed wetland vegetations [11, 32].
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2.2.4 Other life-forms
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Constructed wetlands’ performance is also a factor of other life-forms. Organisms within the wetlands include microorganisms and other larger animals. The regulation functions by the microorganisms and their metabolism processes are the fundamental functions of the wetlands systems [33]. The microorganisms are varied in species and possess the required adaptions to drive the functions of the wetland systems. The known significant microorganisms include bacteria, yeasts, fungi, protozoa, and rind algae. The biomass generated from these microbes (microbial biomass) forms a major useful sink for organic carbon and many nutrients. Additionally, the microbial activities also transform a great number of organic and inorganic substances into innocuous or insoluble substances as well as alter the reduction/oxidation (redox) conditions of the substrate, and thus not only affect the processing capacity of the wetland but also enhance the recycling of nutrients. Some microbial transformation processes are aerobic as they require free oxygen to occur, while others are anaerobic as they occur under the absence of free oxygen. However, most of the bacterial species are also facultative anaerobes in nature. These groups are capable of functioning under the constructed wetland conditions of either aerobic or anaerobic in response to changing environmental conditions [6, 34].
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The level of water within a constructed system is crucial to the microbial activities, and microbial populations undergo adjustments to changes in the water delivered to them. Populations of microbes can rapidly expand under the condition of suitable energy-containing materials. However, when environmental conditions become unsuitable, many microorganisms become dormant and can remain dormant for years [35]. The microbial community of a constructed wetland can be affected by toxic substances, such as pesticides and heavy metals, and care must be taken to prevent such chemicals from being introduced at damaging concentrations. The biodiversity with the constructed wetlands is rich, and this is based on the favorable habitat that the system provides to different forms of organisms, which range from animals to plants, including invertebrates and vertebrates. The invertebrate animals, which include insects and worms, contribute to the treatment process by actively fragmenting detritus and consuming organic matter [36]. Additionally, the larvae of many insects are also aquatic and they undertake the consumption of a significant amount of material during their larval stages, which may last for several years in most insect species. The invertebrates also perform a number of ecological roles; for example, dragonfly nymphs have been confirmed to be important predators of mosquito larvae which results in biocontrol of malaria in most waterlogged areas. Despite invertebrates being the most important animals as far as water quality improvement is concerned, constructed wetlands also harbor a variety of amphibians, turtles, birds, and mammals, all of which are important in the systems’ ecological balancing [37].
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3. Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment
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The mechanisms that are available to improve water quality within a constructed wetland system are numerous and often interrelated. The mechanisms involve the settling of suspended particulate matter; the filtration and chemical precipitation through contact of the water with the substrate and litter; chemical transformation; adsorption and ion exchange on the surfaces of plants, substrate, sediment, and litter; the breakdown and transformation of pollutants by microorganisms and plants uptake; and transformation of nutrients by microorganisms and plants as well as the predation and natural die-off of pathogens [36]. The removal can be undertaken biologically through microbiological degradation through catabolism and anabolism, protozoic predation and digestion, and through plant uptake and storage; chemically through adsorption (ionic and covalent) oxidation, reduction, and UV degradation and physically through filtration and settlement, which filters some materials and degrades others [38, 39, 40].
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Constructed wetland treatment technology incorporates the principal components of wetland ecosystems that promote degradation and control of contaminants by plants, degradation by microbial activity, and increased sorption, filtering, and precipitation [38, 39, 40]. The treatment need dictates the nature of technology required and requires proper selection of designs, such as surface or subsurface flow, single or multiple cells, and parallel or series flow. Putting up of constructed wetland systems are sometimes part of a treatment train that integrates processes in series such as settling ponds, oil/water separators, and physical/chemical treatment methods. The removal mechanisms within the constructed wetlands can act uniquely, sequentially, or simultaneously on each contaminant group or species [3, 4]. For instance, the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in contaminated groundwater are primarily eliminated through the integrative physical mechanism of diffusion-volatilization. Further to this, mechanisms such as adsorption to suspended matter, photochemical oxidation, and biological degradation may also play a role. Within a constructed wetland treatment system, physical removal mechanisms of contaminants include settling, sedimentation, and volatilization. Gravitational settling is responsible for most of the removal of suspended solids. The most effective treatment wetlands are those that foster these mechanisms.
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3.1 Merits and demerits of constructed wetlands in waste handling
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The long-term effectiveness of constructed wetlands to contain or treat some contaminants is not well known. Wetland aging may contribute to a decrease in contaminant removal rates over time. However, constructed wetlands are a cost-effective and technically feasible approach to treating wastewater and runoff for several reasons [41].
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Constructed wetlands’ demerits outweigh the merits. Some of the merits are that they can be less expensive and more affordable to build than other forms of treatments, their cost of operation and maintenance (required supplies and energy) are low, and the operation and maintenance only require periodic and not continuous on-site labor. Furthermore, the constructed wetlands are able to tolerate fluctuations in flow, they sustainably facilitate water recycling and reuse, they provide favorable habitat for many wetland organisms, and the system can be built to fit harmoniously into the landscape. Constructed wetlands have the ability to provide numerous benefits in addition to water quality improvement, such as wildlife habitat that supports tourism and other sporting, and they enhance the esthetic enhancement of open spaces. Therefore, due to all the above economic, ecological, and esthetic benefits, constructed wetlands are environmentally sensitive treatment approaches that are viewed with favor by the general public [42].
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The use of constructed wetlands is also subject to limitations that are associated with the use and putting up of the system. Compared to conventional wastewater treatment systems, constructed wetlands generally require larger land areas. Even though wetland treatment may be economical relative to other options, this only applies to where land is available and affordable. The constructed wetland’s performance efficiency may be less consistent as compared to the conventional treatment. The treatment efficiency of constructed wetlands may vary; this variation may be seasonal in response to changing environmental conditions, including rainfall and drought or spatial in relation to the existing weather conditions in different places. While the average performance over the year may be acceptable, but due to such fluctuations in performance efficiency, wetland treatment cannot be relied upon if the effluent quality must meet stringent discharge standards at all times. The biological components are always sensitive to toxic chemicals, such as ammonia, and other pesticides that are periodically flushed or surged by the flowing water, and this may temporarily reduce treatment effectiveness and reduce the efficiency. For proper survival and improved efficiency, constructed wetlands also require a minimum amount of water. While wetlands can tolerate temporary drawdowns, they cannot withstand complete drying and some plants in it can also not tolerate complete submergence [1]. The use of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment and stormwater control is a fairly recent development. There is yet no consensus on the optimal design of wetland systems, nor is there much information on their long-term performance. Furthermore, its ability and potential to eliminate emerging contaminants such as resistant genes have not been fully realized [32].
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4. Constructed wetlands and drug-resistant bacteria and related genes
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Antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs) originate from hospitals, wastewater treatment plants effluents and sewage sludge, and animal slurry in farmland. Soils, surface water (e.g., seas and rivers), and sediments are contaminated by these large arrays of antibiotic resistance genes [43]. Resistant genes are the major courses of antibiotic resistance, which is one of the upcoming crucial concerns to global health care with considerable effect in rising morbidity, mortality, and costs associated with major public health problems. Antimicrobial resistance occurs naturally over time, usually through genetic changes. However, the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials is accelerating this process [44]. Horizontal and lateral gene transfers have greatly contributed to the increasing number of drug-resistant pathogens within the environment (Figure 1).
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Figure 1.
The transfer of resistant genes between resistant and nonresistant microbes.
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Antibiotic resistance has the potential to affect people at any stage of life as well as the health-care, veterinary, and agriculture industries, making it one of the world’s most urgent environmental and public health problems. [45]. Its chain of spread spans from contaminated wastewater discharges from the hospitals to the consumption of contaminated food material (Figure 2). The occurrence of antibiotic-resistant genes in the environment is considered one of the most urgent threats to modern health care and environmental quality and safety. It is often assumed that the abundance and diversity of known resistance genes are representative also for the non-characterized fraction of the resistome in a given environment [46]. Antibiotic resistance genes are ubiquitous in the environment, which has led to the suggestion that there is a high risk these genes can cause in the spread of the disease [46, 47].
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Figure 2.
Resistant genes contamination pathways.
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Constructed wetlands, though designed to remove and eliminate pollutants from wastewater, can also be the hot spots for horizontal or vertical gene transfer, enabling the spread of antibiotic resistance genes between different microorganisms. Antibiotic resistance occurs due to changes or mutations in the DNA of the microorganism, or due to the acquisition of antibiotic resistance genes from other microbial species through gene transfer. The transfer of genetic materials between unrelated individuals is termed horizontal gene transfer, while the transfer of genetic materials from parent to their offspring is termed vertical gene transfer [48]. Horizontal gene transfer is the major source of ARGs as well as the emergence of pathogenic forms of microorganisms with new virulence [11, 12]. Constructed wetlands being the reservoir for various strains and species of microorganisms may provide the media for such transfers to occur, hence contributing to problems of drug resistance [11]. There is rising concern due to the wide presence of antibiotics in the constructed wetlands, as it not only causes serious toxic effects on organisms but also promotes the spread of antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs), even with low concentrations in the environment. ARGs being spread through horizontal or vertical gene transfers can also be spread and maintained in microbial populations, even without selection pressure from antibiotics, and wetlands systems provide favorable transfer grounds [12].
\n
The recognition that the environment could serve as a source for resistance genes to human pathogens has spurred interest in investigating the distribution of resistance genes in various environments to better understand the process [10, 32]. Wastewater and wastewater treatment plants such as constructed wetlands can act as reservoirs and environmental suppliers of antibiotic resistance through filtration and load of resistant genes into the aquatic ecosystems [13]. Indeed, wastewater has been confirmed to be the major route by which the antimicrobials, ARBs, and ARGs are introduced into the natural ecosystem from the human settings. Although wastewater treatment plants such as the constructed wetlands significantly reduce the load of bacteria, the final effluents may contain ARBs, sometimes even at higher concentrations than in the raw wastewater [11, 12].
\n
Considerable research has been conducted on the behavior and fate of ARBs and ARGs discharged from different forms of wastewater to soil through the application of animal manure wastewater irrigation and to aquatic environments through wastewater discharge and runoff. The impact of discharging ARGs in treated wastewater to aquatic systems as well as associated ARG amplification and attenuation dynamics has neither been adequately researched nor discussed. Indeed, intracellular and free ARGs in surface and groundwater can propagate through horizontal gene transfer to indigenous pathogenic microbes. Furthermore, these ARBs may eventually reach and colonize humans through multiple pathways resulting in acute infections or long-term silent colonization that can eventually evolve into an infection [13].
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4.1 Challenges of emerging resistant genes in constructed wetlands
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There are various routes through which the antibiotic-resistant genes can enter the environment. One major route is when the antibiotic-resistant pathogens and associated metabolites are released from hospitals through urine and feces from patients as hospital wastewater. After the release, the effluent physical chemical characteristics and the prevailing environmental factors determine the biodegradation, adsorption, and uptake processes of these drug-resistant pathogens and related genes, eventually shaping the abundance and diversity of the available drug-resistant bacteria. Similarly, antibiotics may be released into the wastewater treatment system via people taking antibiotics from home (Figure 3). From the wastewater treatment plants, the antibiotics can load into sludge, which are later dispersed on fields as fertilizer or released as runoff directly into the receiving surface water [49, 50]. Further to this, wastewater can also be treated by releasing it into constructed wetlands. In such cases, the constructed wetlands will be exposed to antibiotic contaminants from the wastewater. Even though the constructed wetland is expected to filter all the contaminants, including the drug-resistant pathogens and related genes, that is always not the case, the receiving effluents may still receive some amount of drug-resistant pathogens and related genes as effluent loads from the constructed wetland system. Additionally, antibiotics are also used therapeutically or as growth promoters in livestock and poultry. Antibiotics and their metabolites can spread through animal excrements and end up in the treatment systems such as the constructed wetlands, which can eventually release the treated effluents into the fields and groundwater, or in the case of antibiotic use in fish farms, directly into the aquatic environment. It is also worth noting that wherever antibiotics are spread, it is also likely that resistant bacteria follow the same routes of dispersal [51, 52]. Due to these interactions and movements of the drug-resistant pathogens and related genes, there have been increased levels of antibiotics, ARGs, and drug-resistant bacteria within the environment. Furthermore, the environmental bacterial flora which also harbor ARGs and potential ARGs continue to increase within the receiving aquatic environments. Therefore, these types of environments are the likely resistance hot spots where ARGs proliferate and new resistant strains are created by and transferred to other parts of the environment. Due to the increased spread of drug-resistant bacteria and related genes, the routes by which humans come into contact with these bacteria are also increasing. These may include consumption of crops grown by contaminated sludge used as fertilizer, drinking of water drawn from contaminated groundwater or surface water, and frolicking in marine water linked to contaminated surface water. When these resistant bacteria enter humans, they have the opportunity to spread their ARGs to the human microbiome and, through constructed wetlands in wastewater treatment, the cycle repeats [50, 53].
\n
Figure 3.
Contribution of constructed wetland in the ARG removal and reloading.
\n
While ARGs in their environmental context may originally have had other primary functions aside from conferring resistance to antibiotics, these genes have now been recruited as resistance genes in pathogenic bacteria. Reuse of treated wastewater is increasingly seen as one of the solutions to tackle the water scarcity problem and to limit the pollution load to surface water. Yet, using reclaimed water for non-potable purposes and particularly to irrigate food crops presents an exposure pathway for antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria and genes (ARB & G) to enter the human food chain. Wastewater reuse is currently of particular concern as the potential source of selective pressure that elevates the levels of antibiotic resistance in native bacteria [54]. Aquatic ecosystems are considered important matrices for the release, mixing, persistence, and spread of ARBs and ARGs associated with horizontally transferable genetic elements [11, 12]. Presently, existing regulations give little attention to the protection and management of wetlands, making them to increasingly get exposed to resistant gene-loaded human excreta, raw sewage, untreated wastewater, and other pollutants from diverse sources, making natural and constructed wetlands to be the potential reservoirs of ARBs carrying ARGs that might spread to microbes as well as man [55].
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5. Conclusion and recommendations
\n
The knowledge on antibiotic resistance in wastewater has continued to expand, but proper management for complete elimination with zero reloading into the environment has not been achieved. Indeed, in the past few years, introduction of high-tech molecular studies has increased the understanding on this study subject. However, there are still numerous gaps on the subject, such as how active are horizontal and lateral gene transfers in wastewater, what are the specific main driving factors to the transfer mechanisms, and what is the role of the wastewater treatment plants in increasing the spread of drug-resistant microbes. Indeed, even though constructed wetlands have been commercially used to control and degrade municipal and industrial wastewater, there is need for caution on how exotic wastes such as explosives and those that harbor resistant genes are handled by these systems. With the growing concerns that environmental concentrations of antibiotics exert a selective pressure on clinically relevant bacteria, for the control of such acute strains, there is need for a major shift toward a more localized management of the water cycle, pioneering low-cost wastewater treatment technologies, and more efficient monitoring strategies based on a limited number of indicators that would facilitate the assessment of the anthropogenic impact on the water cycle. Furthermore, there is need to better understand the dispersion processes and the fate of pathogenic and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment, in order to prevent risks to humans and their environment, while also controlling and reducing as much as possible the anthropogenic bacterial input into the environment.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors appreciate Egerton University for providing review materials and an opportunity to produce this chapter.
\n
\n',keywords:"antibacterial resistant genes, constructed wetlands, emerging pollutants, wastewater treatment, wetlands",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73065.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73065.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73065",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73065",totalDownloads:736,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:35,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:31,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"December 9th 2019",dateReviewed:"June 30th 2020",datePrePublished:"August 26th 2020",datePublished:"February 10th 2021",dateFinished:"August 26th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"A wetland is a unique and distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally, where oxygen-free processes prevail, and the primary distinctive factor of wetlands from other landforms or water bodies is the occurrence of adaptive vegetation of aquatic plants, characteristic to the unique hydric soil. A constructed wetland is an artificial shallow basin filled with substrate, usually soil or gravel, and planted with vegetation that has tolerance to saturated conditions. As much as the use of constructed wetland has been recommended in the treatment of various forms of wastewater, the system efficiency is a factor of very many natural and artificial factors, with the emerging pollutants and contaminants such as resistant genes being the most complicated contaminants to eliminate through the system. Indeed, the emerging pollutants in forms of antibiotic resistant genes (ARGs) have remained prevalent in aquatic environments such as wetlands that receive ARG-loaded sewage. Therefore, this chapter covers a discussion on constructed wetlands in wastewater treatment and challenges of emerging contaminants, such as resistant genes filtration and reloading mechanisms, and provides recommendation for the proper handling and removal of such pollutants from the wetlands’ functional system.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73065",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73065",book:{id:"9660",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology"},signatures:"Donde Oscar Omondi and Atalitsa Caren Navalia",authors:[{id:"316539",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Donde",fullName:"Oscar Donde",slug:"oscar-donde",email:"oscardonde@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"320769",title:"Ms.",name:"Caren",middleName:null,surname:"Atalitsa",fullName:"Caren Atalitsa",slug:"caren-atalitsa",email:"catalitsa@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Egerton University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kenya"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Wetlands as functional systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Constructed wetlands",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Components of constructed wetland",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Water",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2 Substrate",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3 Vegetation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.4 Other life-forms",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.1 Merits and demerits of constructed wetlands in waste handling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Constructed wetlands and drug-resistant bacteria and related genes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.1 Challenges of emerging resistant genes in constructed wetlands",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Conclusion and recommendations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nIqbal A, Shang Z. 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DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2013.05.029\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nWu H, Zhang J, Ngo HH, Guo W, Hu Z, Liang S, et al. A review on the sustainability of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment: Design and operation. Bioresource Technology. 2015;175:594-601. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2014.10.068\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nWu X, Mitsch WJ. Spatial and temporal patterns of algae in newly constructed freshwater wetlands. Wetlands. 1998;18:9-20. DOI: 10.1007/BF03161438\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nEivers RS, Duggan IC, Hamilton DP, et al. Constructed treatment wetlands provide habitat for zooplankton communities in agricultural peat lake catchments. Wetlands. 2018;38:95-108. DOI: 10.1007/s13157-017-0959-4\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nMontemezzani V, Duggan IC, Hogg ID, Craggs RJ. Assessment of potential zooplankton control treatments for wastewater treatment high rate algal ponds. Algal Research. 2017;24(Part A):40-63\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nDonde OO et al. A novel integrative performance evaluation of constructed wetland covering removal of viable bacterial cells and related pathogenic, virulent and multi-drug resistant genes from wastewater systems. Water Process Engineering. 2020;33(101060). DOI: 10.1016/j.jwpe.2019.101060\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nSánchez O. Constructed wetlands revisited: Microbial diversity in the –omics era. Microbial Ecology. 2017;73:722-733. DOI: 10.1007/s00248-016-0881-y\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nKuschk P et al. The status of research on constructed wetlands. In: Vitale K, editor. Environmental and Food Safety and Security for South-East Europe and Ukraine. NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security. Dordrecht: Springer; 2012\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nFisher J, Acreman MC. Wetland nutrient removal: A review of the evidence. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 2004;8:673-685. DOI: 10.5194/hess-8-673-2004\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nRuhí A, Fairchild GW, Spieles DJ, Becerra-Jurado G, Moreno-Mateos D. Invertebrates in created and restored wetlands. In: Batzer D, Boix D, editors. Invertebrates in Freshwater Wetlands. Cham: Springer; 2016\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nHarris LD. The nature of cumulative impacts on biotic diversity of wetland vertebrates. Environmental Management. 1998;12:675-693. DOI: 10.1007/BF01867545\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nTöre GY, Meriç S, Lofrano G, De Feo G. Removal of trace pollutants from wastewater in constructed wetlands. In: Lofrano G, editor. Emerging Compounds Removal from Wastewater. Springer Briefs in Molecular Science. Dordrecht: Springer; 2012\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nVo H, Bui X, Nguyen T, et al. Insights of the removal mechanisms of pharmaceutical and personal care products in constructed wetlands. Current Pollution Report. 2018;4:93-103. DOI: 10.1007/s40726-018-0086-8\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nVymazal J. Removal of nutrients in various types of constructed wetlands. Science of the Total Environment. 2007;380(1-3):48-65. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.09.014\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nDonde OO, Cuicui T, Yingying T, Bangding X. Efficacy of macrophyte dominated wastewater enclosure as post-treatment alternative in domestic wastewater quality polishing for eradication of faecal pathogenic bacteria pollution. Process Safety and Environment Protection. 2018;114:192-205. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2017.12.023\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nMishra S, Chowdhary P, Bharagava RN. Conventional methods for the removal of industrial pollutants, their merits and demerits. In: Bharagava R, Chowdhary P, editors. Emerging and Eco-Friendly Approaches for Waste Management. Singapore: Springer; 2019\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nChen H, Jing L, Yao Z, Meng F, Teng Y. Prevalence, source and risk of antibiotic resistance genes in the sediments of Lake Tai (China) deciphered by metagenomic assembly: A comparison with other global lakes. Environment International. 2019;127:267-275. DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.03.048\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nZhao W, Wang B, Yu G. Antibiotic resistance genes in China: Occurrence, risk, and correlation among different parameters. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2018, 2018;25(22):21467-21482\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nFriedman ND, Temkin E, Carmeli Y. The negative impact of antibiotic resistance. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 2016;22(5):416-422. DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2015.12.002\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nKümmerer K. Resistance in the environment. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2004;54(2):311-320. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkh325\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nRadhouani H, Silva N, Poeta P, Torres C, Correia S, Igrejas G. Potential impact of antimicrobial resistance in wildlife, environment and human health. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2014;5:23. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00023.\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nMaryury BJ, Calero-Cáceres W, Muniesa M. Transfer of antibiotic-resistance genes via phage-related mobile elements. Plasmid. 2015;79:1-7. DOI: 10.1016/j.plasmid.2015.01.001\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nGekenidis MT, Qi W, Hummerjohann J, Zbinden R, Walsh F, et al. Antibiotic-resistant indicator bacteria in irrigation water: High prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli. PLoS One. 2018;13(11):e0207857. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207857\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nJun C, Deng WJ, Liu YS, Hu LH, He LY, Zhao JL, et al. Fate and removal of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in hybrid constructed wetlands. Environmental Pollution. 2019;249:894-903. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.111\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nCzekalski N, Berthold T, Caucci S, Egli A, Bürgmann H. Increased levels of multiresistant bacteria and resistance genes after wastewater treatment and their dissemination into Lake Geneva, Switzerland. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2012, 2012;3:106\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nAdefisoye MA, Okoh AI. Identification and antimicrobial resistance prevalence of pathogenic Escherichia coli strains from treated wastewater effluents in Eastern Cape, South Africa. Microbiology Open. 2016;5(1):143-151\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nBai X, Ma X, Xu F, Li J, Zhang H, Xiao X. The drinking water treatment process as a potential source of affecting the bacterial antibiotic resistance. Science of the Total Environment. 2015;533:24-31\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nFahrenfeld N, Ma Y, O’Brien M, Pruden A. Reclaimed water as a reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes: Distribution system and irrigation implications. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2013;4:130\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nRizzo L, Manaia C, Merlin C, Schwartz T, Dagot C, Ploy M, et al. Urban wastewater treatment plants as hotspots for antibiotic resistant bacteria and genes spread into the environment: A review. Science of the Total Environment. 2013, 447:345-360\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Donde Oscar Omondi",address:"oscardonde@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Environmental Science, Egerton University, Kenya
Department of Environmental Science, Egerton University, Kenya
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1. Introduction
“Healthy” and “natural” are two keywords appealing for consumers. Along with these, there is a growing demand for “functional” and “clean label” food products. The food system and consumers demand for new functional products that have potentially positive effects on health besides basic nutrition alongside to products made with few ingredients, preferably natural ones and assuring that these new ingredients are easy-to-recognize. In fact, “clean label” is a new “action” of food system to recover consumer trust, somehow lost in the past decades due to different issues, such as low transparency about ingredients. The term clean label is complex and multidimensional. While there is not a specific definition of the term, it is while accepted that clean label refers to “natural” food, with simple, well-known and short ingredients list while avoiding the use of synthetic additives [1, 2]. In this context, the use of natural extracts rich in bioactive compounds able to reduce the use of synthetic additives arise as a new reality. Consumers’ of nowadays are more informed and demanding. In addition, to healthy, functional and natural, consumers are also demanding for sustainable food products. Within this framework, plant-based ingredients and bioactive compounds arise as promising tools because they comprise all these topics. This chapter will focus on a class of plant-based bioactive compounds, the phenolic compounds, and their potential to be added to functional and clean labelfoods. This chapter will start by covering the structural classification and occurrence of phenolic compounds, their health bioactivities as well as their potential application for modulation of immune reactions to food (food allergies and celiac disease). While these compounds are undoubtedly healthy, their supplementation in food can affect the sensory properties leading to unpleasant effects, namely bitter taste and astringency perception. This will be also focused inside this chapter. The technological properties of phenolic compound as new ingredients will be also discussed considering the interactions within food matrices. Despite their importance, these interactions are usually overlooked in functional and clean label foods. At the end, this chapter aims to highlight that functional foods should constitute a part of a healthy but tasteful diet.
2. Nature and occurrence of phenolic compounds: from food to waste
Phenolic compounds (PC) are secondary metabolites with a high array of unique bioactive properties, which makes them vastly appreciated for their beneficial effects on human health and well-being. PC constitute a wide family of bioactive compounds comprising more than 8000 different structures already identified [3]. Besides the great structural heterogeneity, some common features allow classifying PC into two different families: flavonoids (flavones, flavonols, flavanols, flavanones, isoflavones, and anthocyanins) and non-flavonoids (phenolic acids and derivatives, stilbenes and lignans) as summarized in Figure 1. In nature, these structures could also occur esterified, acylated and/or glycosylated. Indeed, the extreme diversity of these compounds joined with their extensively probed bioactivities makes them one of the most largely studied family of plant metabolites.
Figure 1.
Polyphenols classification and basic structures.
PC are found almost in all families of plants and are concentrated in leaf tissue, the epidermis, bark layers, flowers and fruits. The PC distribution could vary within the plant tissues. Indeed, differences in PC composition from seeds, pulp and peels have been extensively studied [4]. Overall, anthocyanin pigments are mainly accumulated in peels while flavan-3-ols appear in higher concentration in seeds [5]. Furthermore, PC occurrence in Plant Kingdom depend on biotic and abiotic factors such as genetic variations, environmental conditions and agronomic practices among others [6]. Besides these variations, the PC content could vary during processing from technological and industrial processes to homemade practices such as culinary treatments or vegetables storage [7, 8]. All these features must be considered before analyzing the real intake of PC and related health outcomes observed. Indeed, the amount of a bioactive compound required to deliver the health-related effects is the key to design a new functional food. Besides the great diversity of PC and the wide range of foods containing them, the major daily intake comes from cereal grain accounting for over 50% of their total intake. Among phytochemicals identified in cereal grain the most important are the phenolic acids and condensed tannins (flavan-3-ols polymers) [9]. In parallel, flavonoids are the main bioactive compounds found in fruits [10] and herbs and spices are rich in hidroxybenzoic acids [11].
PC are not only present in foods but also Agro-Food wastes such as fruit pomace, wood material or even waste water [12]. In this context, the valorization of Agro-Food by-products have emerged over the last years especially because of their easy obtention in large volumes with reduced costs [13]. Apart from their functionality as a source of energy, Agro-Food by-products should also be considered as value-added residues due to their chemical heterogeneity, structure and subsequent applications in the food sector as functional food ingredients or nutraceuticals contributing not only for a sustainable and circular economy but also for the implementation of zero waste politics [14].
Agro-Food wastes have been traditionally used as organic fertilizer, livestock feeds, or as a source for biofuel production [13]. The evolution in Green-chemistry with cutting-edge technology to properly obtain bioactive compounds from Agro-Food wastes opens a new perspective to produce value-added products [15]. Much evidence has been highlighted to use by-products of fruit industry or wineries, among others. Edible parts of fruits and vegetables usually contain lower amounts of bioactive compounds than skin, twings or peels non-edible portions. Indeed, wastes obtained after pressing the juice are a valuable source of PC. In parallel, winery and overall beverages industry generates large volumes of pomace (a mixture of pulp, skin, seeds, and stem) with higher amounts of PC when compared with edible fruits and vegetables [16]. Among fruit-derived by-products or wastes, apple pomace contains high amounts of flavonols, flavanols, phenolic acids, dihydrochalcones and anthocyanins [17]. Furthermore, significant amounts of a well-known antidiabetic agent named phlorizin is widely found in apple-derived by-products [18]. Peels from fruit such as banana peel, rich in phenolic acids, flavonols, flavanols, and catecholamines accounting three times the edible part of the fruit, have been reported as providing strong antioxidant and anti-microbial activities, in addition to exhibit other health benefits like reducing cholesterol and blood sugar, neuroprotective effect and anti-angiogenic activity were also described [13]. Citrus peels have been also studied to recover high-value bioactive compounds like flavones (apigenin-glucoside and diosmetin-glucoside) and flavanones (eriocitrin and hesperidin) from lemon peel and phenolic acids (hydroxybenzoic and caffeic acids) and flavanones (hesperidin and narirutin) from orange peel and pulp [19]. Potato peel has been reported as containing phenolic acids and beetroots peel and pulp contain flavonoids, phenolic acids and betalains, which exhibited good antioxidant activity and hepatoprotective effects [20]. One of the most recently studied food material was onion and garlic skin/peel, which generates huge volume of wastes especially rich in quercetin derivatives as well as other aglycone flavonoids exhibiting bioactivities like antioxidant, antimicrobial, antispasmodic, and antidiabetic activity [21]. Berries by-products such as branches obtained from elderberry processing are a valuable source of anthocyanins [22]. Furthermore, seeds/kernel which is a major waste after processing holds promise as a potential therapeutic source with numerous PC being isolated such as flavonols and gallotannins [23].
Some of the mentioned food by-products or Agro-Food wastes have been already proposed as additive in the formulation of bakery and dairy products to enhance their contents in bioactive compounds [24, 25]. In addition, the presence of natural compounds, pigments and volatile compounds can enhance the sensory properties and overall quality of the final product but some research is needed to deep in the technological effects of these new ingredients with highly probed bioactivities.
3. Phenolic compounds as modulators of immune reactions to food
Over the past several years, non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as cancer, cardiometabolic, neurodegenerative and autoimmune disorders have become of important health concerns for consumers and a growing public health issue everywhere in the world [26]. They typically result from an imbalance between people and their environment and lifestyle patterns, including physical inactivity, tobacco usage, alcohol abuse and related metabolic risks [27]. Essential for life, diet provides a vast source of molecules that are largely harmless for the majority of the world population. Nonetheless, compelling observational and interventional evidence is now available on the implication of modern unbalanced dietary habits/diet - with its high saturated fat and sugar intake - on the incidence of low-grade, chronic, and systemic inflammation [28]. Furthermore, for some individuals, the intake of staple food like milk, eggs, nuts or bread can trigger a set of immune mechanisms that can lead to a severe allergic condition termed food allergy [29]. Besides food allergy there is a high number of immune reactions to food, some of them autoimmune disorders such as Celiac Disease. The rise of immunologic reactions to food are substantial and evolving public health issues, increasing over the last decade as epidemic [30]. Nevertheless, therapeutic options remain limited. One of the mechanisms leading to this subclinical, yet persistent adverse response to nonlife-threating situations, occurs through, for instance, food-induced structural and behavioral changes in gut microbiota [31]. The bacterial ecosystem living up in the gut play crucial roles in the induction of protective responses to pathogens, maintenance of body’s homeostasis and tolerance to innocuous food antigens [32]. As a consequence, any environmental factor disturbing the richness and diversity of bacteria making up the gut microbiome could potentially affect host metabolism, impact intestinal barrier integrity and immune system functions [33]. A better understanding of the key nutritional mechanisms involved in such immune responses will likely be vital for disease prevention and development of new therapies. Indeed, consumption of antioxidants, mainly dietary phenolic compounds found in fruits and vegetables, has been related with low prevalence of immune reactions to food [34]. Used as nutraceuticals, PC are thought to dampen the onset of immune-related inflammation [35, 36]. Moreover, recent studies proved the ability of PC to bind food antigens [37, 38], which could modulate the disorders, but concerns still remain about their real function by the organism that assumes PC through diet, because of their bioavailability, metabolism and pharmacokinetics. Scientific knowledge has to be improved to establish the basis for nutritional recommendations that help to prevent or minimize the prevalence and symptoms of immune reactions. A broad approach is herein explained to fully understand the immunomodulatory process of PC in food allergies and celiac disease from ingestion to immune systemic effects manifestation.
3.1 Food allergies
This hypersensitivity to particular proteins present in food, known as allergens, occurs when the immune system erroneously perceive foreign proteins as dangerous, initiating an allergic immune reaction [29].
The most common type of food allergy is mediated by immunoglobulin E (IgE), and is estimated to have an impact in the life of 5–8% of the children and up to 4% of the adults worldwide [39]. Food allergic reactions mediated by IgE comprise distinct phases; the allergic sensitization, where the food antigen is taken up, processed and displayed on the surface of antigen presenting cells (APCs); which, in the presence of interleukin-4 (IL-4) and/or IL-13, provide signals for the activation of the T helper 2 (TH2) subtype of T cells. Then, TH2 cells in conjugation with IL-4 and IL-13, will induce class switching in B cells, which differentiate into plasmocytes (antibody-producing cells) that secret allergen-specific IgE [40]. After the allergic sensitization, the subsequent re-exposure (elicitation phase) to the allergen, will now result in a more robust immune response. Here, the antigen-specific IgE binds to the surface receptor FcεRI expressed on mast cells and basophils. The cross-link of the FcεRI receptors with IgE will trigger mast cells and basophils degranulation, which leads to the secretion of inflammatory mediators e.g. β-hexosaminidase and histamine. In addition, allergen-induced cytokines (IL-4 and IL-13) are also released fostering the typical food allergic symptoms, which can range from mild to a life-threatening allergic reaction (anaphylaxis) [39, 40]. Given that, the incidence as well as the severity of food allergy, is gradually increasing, the search for novel therapeutics to mitigate this condition is in high demand [29].
As described earlier, there are various immune mechanisms implicated in food allergy that may, therefore, be targeted in prospective anti-allergic strategies. In this light, the extraordinary structural characteristics, wide distribution in fruits and vegetables, and the well-studied anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties of PC, make these bioactive compounds fitting candidates for anti-allergic therapies [41]. In fact, various studies with PCs have suggested that some of these metabolites, especially phenolic acids and flavonoids, may exhibit certain anti-allergic benefits and although the exact mechanisms behind their action are not clear, data shows that PC can intervene at both the allergic sensitization and the elicitation phases [42, 43]. Moreover, PC can also modulate gut microbiota and potentially influence food allergy [44].
Several methodologies are currently in use to evaluate the capacity of distinct PC to interact with specific allergen proteins. Plundrich et al. performed in silico analyses to narrow down the search for PC present in cranberries/ and or lowbush blueberries (rich in anthocyanins), which could theoretically interact with Ara h 2, the most pro-allergenic protein in peanuts, specifically in the region that is thought to be the binding site for IgE [45]. This screening, in concert with further in vitro experiments revealed that procyanidin C1 and chlorogenic acid could potentially interact with Ara h 2 inducing conformational changes, which masked the IgE epitope [45]. Covalent interactions between chlorogenic acid and ovalbumin (OVA), the major allergen found in the egg white, also induced modifications in OVA conformation, resulting in the direct shielding of the linear IgE epitope, which attenuated allergic mechanisms [46]. Accordingly, histamine release experiments, showed that the basophil degranulation was inferior in human basophils sensitized with the OVA conjugated with chlorogenic acid when compared to OVA unconjugated, implying a decrease in the crosslinking of the FcεRI receptors via IgE-allergen interaction [46]. Also, the ability of phenolic compounds to bind to dietary allergen is pointed out as having a beneficial effect due to precipitation events [47]. Accordingly, Yichen Li et al. observed that PC from pomegranate juice could form stable complexes with cashew nuts, thus reducing allergen recognition by antibodies, and consequently the immunoreactivity to cashew nuts [47].
Despite not completely mimicking the human pathophysiology of food allergy, animal models of food allergy are important pre-clinical research tools for the food industry. These models are elected due to their capacity to simulate the most common reactions observed after the exposure to specific allergens, namely IgE production, TH2 related cytokine expression and mast cells degranulation [48, 49]. In fact, various animal models are now used to study the effect of PC as modulators of allergy. For example, the metabolites derived from epicatechin found in the circulating plasma of a mouse model of OVA allergy fed with phenolic compounds extracts isolated from apple/ or purified epicatechin, were associated with the reduction of several clinical allergic symptoms [49]. Additionally, in the ileum, the mRNA levels of the TH2 – related cytokine IL-13 and the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-12 were decreased as well, suggesting that epicatechin could be a possible modulator of allergic reactions [49]. Also, Abril-Gil et al., used Brown Norway rats to investigate the potential protective effect of cocoa diets, which contain high amounts of flavanols (e.g. epicatechin, catechin and procyanidins) in allergic immune reactions upon OVA re-exposure [50]. Strikingly, their findings showed that while in the group of rats deprived of cocoa high levels of serum specific anti-OVA IgE were observed, in the other groups where cocoa was offered, IgE was significantly lower [50]. Moreover, the in vitro analysis of spleen and mesenteric lymph node cells (MLN) cytokines secretion revealed that IL-5 and IL-13 were reduced in the MLN, and that in the spleen, IL-4 was also reduced in a specific cocoa diet. Interestingly, the cocoa diet was also important for attenuating degranulation events by reducing the FcεRI and mast cell mediators (proteases) gene expression and release [50].
More recently, a mouse model (C3H/HeJ mice) representative of peanut allergy was used to evaluate the capacity of PC rich-extracts obtained from blueberry and cranberry to minimize the allergenicity of peanut proteins [51]. Here, colloidal aggregates composed of PC extracts (with different percentages) and proteins derived from peanut were introduced in the diet of peanut sensitized mice for several weeks, before challenging the mice with a higher dose of peanut flour. At the end of the experiment, it was observed that mice pre-treated with the PC aggregates, showed reduced IgE and IgG levels; and lower expression of the allergen-induced basophil activation protein marker CD63 in spleen lysates, when compared to mice kept on a diet with non-complexed peanut proteins [51].
The manifestly promising results demonstrated by these and other in vivo experiments, suggest that in the presence of PCs, the re-exposure to allergens result in less exuberant allergic responses. In this way, the use of these bioactive compounds hold promise to surmount the immune responses triggered by the oral administration of food antigens, contributing therefore, to the oral tolerance to dietary proteins [52].
In summary, the urgent need for effective therapeutics for food allergy and given the complex mechanisms involved in this escalating pathology, diverse anti-allergic strategies are being explored. In this perspective, the natural ability of PC to interact with food allergens, interfere with IgE interaction or production, reduce the secretion of allergic mediators and modulate the expression of allergy related cytokines make PCs attractive agents for mitigating food allergy.
3.2 Celiac disease
Celiac Disease (CD) is an immune-mediated enteropathy triggered by the ingestion of gluten proteins by genetically susceptible individuals [53]. Although there is, so far, no clear explanation for the burst of gluten-related disorders in recent years, it has been speculated that this may have occurred due to an increase in the consumption of gluten-containing foods, some based on novel wheat stains produced for technological rather than nutritional reasons, and the humans’ over usage of antibiotics and pesticides, both of which rendered people more sensitive to allergenic plant proteins [54].
Mechanistically, CD is characterized by an aberrant T-cell response towards gluten peptides that, because of their high proline content, are left undigested at the gut lumen [55]. According to recent findings, some of these gluten peptides have the ability to bind to the chemokine receptor CXCR3 on the surface of intestinal epithelial cells, leading to a PKC-α dependent tight junctions disassembly and increased intestinal permeability [56]. In the lamina propria, gluten peptides are selectively deamidated by the enzyme tissue transglutaminase 2 (TG2) and later presented to gluten-specific HLA-DQ2 or HLA-DQ8-restricted CD4+ T cells by antigen-presenting cells [57]. Once activated, and in response to tissue signals provided by stressed epithelial cells, gluten-specific CD4+ T cells support the activation and differentiation of both autoreactive TG2 and gluten-specific B cells into IgA and IgG-producing plasma cells while increasing the cytolytic properties of intraepithelial cytotoxic T lymphocytes which kill distressed intestinal epithelial cells based on the recognition of stress-induced ligands e.g. MHC-class I polypeptide-related (MICA/B) and HLA-E molecules [58].
The rapid increase in the global incidence of CD, together with the growing concern of CD patients regarding their quality of life when on a gluten-excluding diet, led researchers scrambling for alternative (or complementary) ways to tackle the celiac gut’s response to gluten and potentially restore tolerance [59]. Among the candidates, recent evidence brough PC into the spotlight as promising agents to be used in CD management due to their wide range of beneficial properties and positive impact on human health. Nevertheless, and despite the advances made in the past few years, there are still many unresolved questions in this area, due to the multitude of action mechanisms underlying the response to PCs intake and large interindividual variability [60].
In a CD context, PC could act at several levels: they could impair gluten digestion and peptide availability at the intestinal lumen, reduce inflammation, enhance intestinal barrier integrity and function and have a prebiotic effect through inhibition of certain pathogenic groups and stimulation of beneficial bacterial growth [61]. As shown by Dias et al. green tea PC and grape seed procyanidins can readily interact with one of the most immunoreactive gluten peptides - the 33/32-mer - primarily through an unspecific, entropy-driven, hydrophobic effect [62]. In general, these interactions were found to be similar to the interactions between polyphenols and proline-rich salivary proteins in that they are the result of cooperative binding mechanisms involving both enthalpic and entropic effects. Staggeringly, the primarily PC-binding sites within the 32-mer peptide sequence were also unveiled: they correspond to leucine, tyrosine and phenylalanine-containing domains, located in four well-defined and almost indistinguishable hydrophobic clusters, equally spaced by non-polar proline residues [63]. Subsequent transepithelial transport studies on Caco-2 cell monolayers highlighted the ability of dietary doses of EGCG to scavenge and reduce the apical-to-basolateral translocation of the 32-mer peptide in vitro to nearly undetectable levels [62]. Still, it remains unclear whether this attenuation will have any implication in the activation and triggering of a gluten-specific T-cell mediated immune response, though the structural changes induced on the peptide upon binding provides foundational support for functional changes in its immunostimulatory action [64].
On another recent breakthrough, green tea catechins were found to prevent gluten digestion through physical interactions with gluten proteins and prevention of hydrolysis by digestive enzymes [65]. According to this study, the presence of green tea catechins resulted in a decreased formation of low molecular weight gluten peptides, decreased intestinal permeability and reduced inflammation [66]. A similar finding was also made available by Kramer and coworkers which shown a significant inhibition of IFN-γ- or gluten peptide p31–43-induced increases in CD inflammatory biomarkers including TG2, COX-2, IL-15, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 by procyanidin B2-rich cocoa extracts [67].
Regarding the effect produced by PC-rich dietary patterns on gut and blood microbiomics in CD patients, data are still scarce. Nevertheless, there is now several pieces of evidence suggesting that PCs may represent a relevant factor in shaping the intestinal microbial ecosystem (i.e. the microbiota and derived metabolic products) and modifying the relative abundance of specific bacterial taxa in dysbiotic CD subjects [68]. By modulating the concentration of health-affecting microbial metabolites in the gut e.g. butyrate, polyphenols are likely to regulate a plethora of biological responses at the intestinal level that control, for instance, tight junction integrity, anti-inflammatory signaling, immune cell migration, adhesion, and cellular functions such as proliferation and apoptosis [69]. Accordingly, it has been found that treatment of CD-derived organoids with microbiota-derived bioproducts, including butyrate, improved epithelial barrier functionality and reduced gliadin-induced IFN-γ and IL-15 secretion [70]. Of note, both butyrate and lactate have been shown to exert a relevant role in regulating FoxP3 isoform expression in T cells and consequent activation of a Th17-driven immune response in CD subjects [71]. But, as well-controlled intervention studies are still lacking, future studies should be focusing on providing a proof of concept of the reliability of a PC-based dietary intervention in the context of microbiota-intestinal permeability and CD health outcomes.
4. Use of phenolic compounds as alternative to synthetic additives in functional foods
In the last 50 years, food systems have dramatically changed where the access to foods, with high levels of salt, sugars and saturated fats have become cheaper and more widely available than micronutrient rich foods—such as fresh fruits and vegetables. Consequently, the incidence of NCDs greatly increase such as obesity, type 2 diabetes as well as immune reactions to food, claiming for action. Food industry faces important challenges regarding the increase in these NCDs. In addition, besides the health challenge, other key points demand advances for the production of food and significant changes in food systems, namely population growth, rural development, globalization and climate changes.
Diverse personal, cultural or economic factors influence consumers’ dietary behavior. Furthermore, political issues as well as the food labeling, marketing, information about food and policies could impact on price affecting consumer demand. Under this framework, strategies to protect vulnerable populations can be addressed to achieve a global access to healthy and sustainable diets. Based on aforementioned, PC extracts arise as ingredients able to promote health benefits while reducing the use of synthetic additives. This section summarizes the interest in using PC as new ingredients in food formulations including the effects on technological processes (Figure 2).
4.1 Reduction of sugar
As already mentioned, the Food Industry needs to diminish the sugar in food and beverages to minimize the impact of sugar consumption in the prevalence of metabolic disorders. Furthermore, public health policy strategies including sugar taxes for food industry accelerate the process. Zero-calorie high-potency sweeteners with improved taste perception are needed as new ingredients. To date, the scientific community has made some efforts to obtain natural sweeteners or designing synthetic compounds with high sweetening power. The most widely artificial sweeteners used in the Food Industry are aspartame, sucralose, saccharine, neotame, advantame and acesulfame potassium-k but whether the use of these sweetener affect our health is still not well understood [72]. Natural alternatives have been explored such as molasses, honey, coconut sugar, date sugar, maple syrup, agave nectar, and xylitol [73]. Most of them are carbohydrates obtained from vegetables, trees, seeds, roots, and nuts. Moreover, dihydrochalcone sweeteners are PC-derived compounds with proved beneficial health effects arising as a good alternative for sugar reduction [74]. However, difficulties associated with browning, replacement of the bulking and other properties that sucrose, glucose and fructose provide in many solid food products must be carefully analyzed.
4.2 Reduction of salt
Reducing the consumption of salt in general population has been identified as a priority intervention to reduce NCDs. Indeed, the World Health Organization has agreed to diminish 30% of salt intake by 2025. The use of vegetable extracts able to enhance flavor while improving health benefits arises as a promising alternative. Under this framework, extracts rich in PC have been already used in food industry. Indeed, green tea extracts were used to enhance the flavor of fish flesh [75], soybean isoflavones enhance the flavor quality in the muscle of grass carp while contribute to health benefits [76]. Furthermore, PC-rich extracts containing aromatic compounds such as onion, garlic, celery spices and herbs could also be a nutraceutical alternative to reduce salt.
4.3 Preservative agents
Spoilage are one of the main causes of economic loses in food industry [77]. Traditionally, the use of artificial preservative technologies such as drying, freezing, thermal treatments and more recently modified atmosphere packaging and non-thermal physical treatments (pulsed electric fields and high hydrostatic pressure) have been employed to extend shelf life of food [78]. Synthetic chemical preservatives such as, tartaric or citric acids; sulphites, sorbate, propionate and benzoate; or nitrites and nitrates, have been extensively used but in recent times the use of natural products as preservative agents acquire relevance [79]. The increase in the consumption of minimally processed foods joined with the clean label requirements boost the trend to explore the use of natural antimicrobials for food preservation. PC have been widely reported as antimicrobial agents [80]. Indeed antimicrobial extracts containing PCs have been already designed for this purposes, such as an extract of moso bamboo (Takeguard™) launched by Takex Labo (Osaka, Japan) or a mixture of different natural antimicrobial extracts (Biovia™ YM10) including green tea extract launched by Danisco DuPont [81]. Table 1 summarizes the already tested PC from food byproducts with antimicrobial properties.
Food Byproducts
Polyphenol
Target organisms
References
Coffee extract
Flavan-3-ols, hydroxycinnamic acids, flavonols, and anthocyanidins
Polyphenols as food preservatives. Adapted from [81].
4.4 Colorant agents
Some PC are natural pigments with high potential to be incorporated into food systems as colorant agents. However, the great reactivity and lack of chemical stability make necessary to deliver these compounds in encapsulated forms. Among PC sources, flowers such as Clitoria ternatea petals are commonly used in health drinks and natural food colorants [95]. Moreover, Brazilian fruit peel - jabuticaba (Plinia cauliflora (Mart.) Kausel) and propolis from Tubuna (Scaptotrigona bipunctata) encapsulated in alginate beds have been tested as a new ingredient with colorant properties and health outcomes [96]. Betacyanins (red-violet) and betaxanthins (yellow-orange), from beets are also powerful antioxidants, which can be used as natural colorants in the food industry [97]. Furthermore, pecan nut shell has been already studied as a food colorant for active packaging for color stabilization [98].
4.5 Emulsifier agents
New alternatives to reduce the content of saturated fats while maintaining the emulsifying properties of sauces must be evaluated. To date, some amphiphilic plant proteins such as wheat gliadins and maize zeins have rheological properties suitable to fabricate colloidal particles for stabilizing foams and emulsions. However, in recent years the use of novel emulsifiers to obtain nutraceutical emulsions are being studied. In this context, the ability of PC to bind to proteins have been described as able to improve the chemical and physical stability of emulsions, arising as a good source of nutraceuticals while emulsifier agents. The emulsifying properties of proteins have also been modified by introducing polysaccharides; however, little to nothing is known about how ternary interactions could affect the physical stability of emulsions. Ternary conjugates were fabricated by covalently bonding polyphenol, protein, and polysaccharide together. The protein was used to provide surface activity, the polysaccharide to provide strong steric repulsion, and the PC to provide functional properties [99]. But, some PC have poor interfacial activity, like green tea PCs [100]. However, the interaction between green tea PC and the protein β-lactoglobulin (β-lg) (spontaneous nanocomplexes formation) was sucesfully used as an emulsifier agent in fish oil [101]. Colloidal complexes were also prepared from pea protein and grape seed proanthocyanidin and the ability of these complexes to form and stabilize oil-in-water emulsions were verified [102]. Overall, covalent and noncovalent interactions between proteins and PC have provide novel insights into the interfacial behaviors of novel emulsifiers [103].
4.6 Matrix effect
There are several factors which could influence the PC delivery to bloodstream, to their target tissues and biological activities. Disruption of the natural matrix or the microstructure created during processing may influence the release, transformation, and further absorption of some nutrients as well as functional ingredients such as PC in the digestive tract. Some in vitro studies verified the effect of milk proteins in PC bioaccesibility and bioactivities after consuming oat based breakfast cereals with blueberry fruit [104]. The absorption of flavanols, such as green tea catechins, is influenced by epimerization reactions, which usually occur during technological processing as well as the presence of lipids and carbohydrates. Moreover is enhanced by the presence of piperine and tartaric acid [105]. Phenolic acids and Flavanones such as hesperidin are affected by the attached sugar, which can covalently link these compounds to the cereal bran matrix [106, 107]. There are only a few examples reported on PC release from the food matrix, but existing information established a direct relationship between the absorption and dose but is sometimes linear and sometimes saturated [108]. The lack of systematic information on the effects of other components on the bioavailability of PCs needs to be performed. This information must be completed by human studies to further establish general principles affecting absorption in vivo. Information derived from such experiments could be useful for the optimal design of future bioefficacy studies for functional foods production.
5. When sensory properties can compromise the intake of potential healthy phenolic compounds
It is undeniable that PC are a key target for the Food Industry on the design of new healthy products, as widely documented in the previous sections. Nevertheless, PC account for the main organoleptic properties of food products, mainly color and taste. Anthocyanins account for the (red) color of fruits and derived products, and flavanols and tannins are linked to unpleasant taste properties, namely astringency and bitterness. So, while PC have high expectations towards the development of health-orientated and functional products, a central challenge could be aligning their applications with consumer acceptability.
5.1 PC sensory properties
Astringency is a trigeminal sensation described as a mouthfeel of dryness, roughness and puckering sensations. It is induced by different classes of compounds such as tannins, acids and alumns. In food, tannins are the main contributors to astringency perception. Several mechanisms are currently proposed to explain astringency molecular onset. The most studied one relies on the interaction and precipitation of particular families of salivary proteins, namely proline-rich proteins. The involvement of oral epithelial cells has been also reported and more recently the activation of G-protein coupled receptors was also reported. The involvement of oral mechanoreceptors is also a hypothesis despite no tangible data has been reported so far.
On the other hand, the perception of bitter taste is well characterized. Bitterness is perceived by activation of specific receptors, the bitter taste receptors (TAS2Rs). Humans express 25 TAS2Rs to perceive hundreds of bitter tasting molecules, with very wide structural features. These receptors occur at the cell-membrane of gustative cells within taste buds of human tongue. Among the wide diversity of TAS2Rs agonists reported there are several PC. In fact, some of these compounds are highly efficient agonists activating TAS2Rs at very low concentrations.
The importance of these taste properties is that they have elicited negative consumer reactions when present at high intensity in some products [109], decreasing the overall acceptability. This can compromise the intended intake of these new and functional food products.
5.2 Phenolic compounds as ingredients in functional foods
In the last years, the application of PC in functional and/or fortified foods has been widely reported. This has been mainly achieved by using either food industry by-products or wastes. Most studies use by-products from fruits (43%), followed by the application of winery (19%) and vegetable (13%) by-products [110]. Among fruit and vegetable by-products, citrus, tomato, grape, and apple by-products have been used in a wide range of food products (Table 2). One of these by-products is pomace (e.g. derived from apple or, grape), the main solid waste generated in juice or winemaking factories. It contains plenty of different varieties of nutritionally important compounds, such as dietary fibers, carbohydrates, PC, and minerals presenting a huge potential as a source of bioactive compounds. In addition to by-products or wastes, also some other high-PC content sources have been used to supplement food such as green tea.
Effect of fortification with PC in sensory properties of functional foods.
Most of the reported studies use different fruit cultivars, obtained from different industry practices but without a deep characterization of the PC content. So, global relationships between PC composition-rheological-sensory properties-health inputs are not easily attained.
A cross-cut problem in most studies associated with the incorporation of these compounds in food matrices is that they can modify sensory properties leading to astringency and bitterness.
5.2.1 Addition of PC to bakery products
A significant amount of grape PC (near 70%) remains in pomace after wine making, the most important being tannins, anthocyanins, and phenolic acids, the quantities depending on the grape variety and winemaking practices. This by-product has been applied in bread, pancakes, pasta, biscuits, and other derived products. Some studies are summarized in Table 1.
White grape pomace has been also used to supplement biscuits [111]. In this case, the profile of PC was dominated by gallic acid, tyrosol and γ-resorcylic acid, which contributed nearly 87% of total PC. In this case, at sensory level, the replacement by grape pomace affected mainly on two attributes: fruity-acidic flavor notes and color. These authors studied the stability of PC during the baking process. Within the PC, the most stable ones were as follows: γ-resorcylic acid (loss of 11%) < gallic acid (loss of 18%) < tyrosol (loss of 21%) < catechin (loss of 31%) < isovanilic acid. Moreover, procyanidins B1 and B2, which were identified in the pomace were not retained after the baking process. At the end, there was an almost tenfold increase in bioactive compounds in the biscuits enriched with 30% of pomace, from 0.11 mg.g−1 (control) to 1.07 mg.g−1.
The stability of PC at the end of the baking process was also assessed upon supplementation of biscuits and bread with green tea extracts to increase the antioxidant ability of the final product [126]. While it was found ca. 30 and 21% of retention of epicatechin gallate and epigallocatechin gallate, respectively, for biscuits supplemented with 300 mg green tea extract per 100 g flour [127], the retention in freshly baked bread were ca. 83 and 91%, respectively [105]. At the end, it was determined that one piece of bread (53 g) containing 150 mg of GTE/100 g of flour will provide 28 mg of tea catechins, which is ∼35% of those infused from one green tea bag (2 g). However, none of these studies inferred about the sensory profile of these food products.
Ross and colleagues studied the consumer acceptance of grape-seed (GS) flour-containing food products, namely pancakes and noodles [128]. The GS flour was obtained from winemaking by-products from different grapes (Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon). Despite the PC content of the GS flour was not characterized, this organic material is well-known to have a high content in procyanidins. It was observed that the supplementation with GS flour led to a decrease on consumer acceptability of pancakes and noodles, especially for taste (bitterness), mouthfeel (astringency) and texture. This is not surprising since astringency and bitterness are the two main descriptors of procyanidins.
Coffee sylverskin, a byproduct of coffee industry highly rich in PC, has been also evaluated to supplement baking products such as cookies [129] or cakes [117]. The supplementation with this byproduct had improved the functional quality of cookies by increasing their PC contents, antioxidant capacities and in vitro bioaccessibilities. However, all supplementation concentrations had lowered the consumers’ flavor-taste scores and overall acceptability, which was attributed to the bitter taste of this food matrix.
The use of apple pomace has functional ingredient has been recently reviewed [130] and has been applied with success in several bakery products, namely bread, scones, cakes, and muffins. The addition of 5% of the apple pomace was found to not significantly impact the sensory properties of cookies [131].
5.2.2 Addition of PC to coffee
GS pomace (derived from Chardonnay winemaking), was evaluated to be used as a functional ingredient in brewed coffee [132]. This GS pomace could be added at 6.25% replacement without significantly affecting the overall consumer acceptance of coffee compared to the control (0%). These authors chose the GS pomace from a white grape variety because it has lower levels of tannins and no anthocyanins compared to red varieties, and so it can be expected a lower contribution to bitterness and astringency. In fact, not only astringency and bitterness did not increase upon replacement as it was observed their significant reduction for all replacement percentages in comparison to the control coffee. Although the authors do not discuss this result, one hypothesis is that the white grape varieties are also well-known for a higher content in sugar. Mouthf eel and texture, pancakes made with Cabernet Sauvignon (25% replacement) showed the lowest acceptance, significantly different from 30% replacement with a higher acceptance. This result suggested that the impact of GSF concentration was more apparent for in-mouth attributes mouthf eel and texture, pancakes made with Cabernet Sauvignon (25% replacement) showed the lowest acceptance, significantly different from 30% replacement with a higher acceptance. This result suggested that the impact of GSF concentration was more apparent for in-mouth attributes.
5.2.3 Addition of PC to pasta
Gaita and colleagues supplemented pasta with grape pomace [133]. These authors quantified the PC in control pasta and in the fortified one and showed an effective enhancement of PC levels. These increases were dependent on the pomace grape variety, but in general were effective for gallic, caffeic, ferulic and coumaric acids, rutin, and resveratrol. Moreover, the pasta samples with addition of pomace to a level of 3 and 6% showed improved sensory characteristics versus the control sample while the kneading and dough processing operations have not been affected.
5.2.4 Addition of PC to dairy products
Grape pomace of Chardonnay, Moscato and Pinot noir varieties has been used to supplement yogurt [116]. A total of nine PC were characterized in fortified yogurt depending on the origin of the grape pomace: phenolic acids (gallic acid, protocatechuic acid and vanillic acid); flavan-3-ols (procyanidin B1, catechin and epicatechin) and flavonols (rutin and quercetin). For most of these PC, they were stable at least for 21 days. Independently of the origin of grape pomace, all enriched yogurts add a lower liking score, especially regarding the organoleptic properties (flavor and taste). The Moscato yogurt was less accepted, with a very low mean liking score, particularly for taste and flavor. In contrast, Chardonnay was the sample with the highest mean scores for appearance, flavor and overall liking. Several informal attributes were reported by tasters such as “not enough sweet,” with “unpleasant flavors”, “not homogeneous” and “grainy/sandy.” However, no correlation was found with the quantified PC.
Komes and colleagues used plant extracts (lemon balm, mint, lavender, rosemary and sage) for the development of functional and nutritively valuable goat’s milk-based beverages [121]. The concentration of bioactive PC (rosmarinic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives and luteolin derivatives) were significantly increased in goat’s milk in dependence of the added plant extract. While the extracts alone were found to be bitter and astringent, when added to the milk, some of the final beverages had acceptable levels of these two taste properties. However, the beverage enriched with lavender extract was characterized by the highest intensity of bitterness and astringency and thus consequently low overall acceptability. On the other hand, the beverage with mint extract was one of the preferred ones. Interestingly, this beverage was the one with the highest concentration of total PC, total flavonoids and antioxidant ability while was one of the less bitter and astringent beverages. This suggests that the profile of the PC present (not the concentration) should be the key to the perceived taste properties. At the end, apart from the accomplished bioactive enrichment and stability, the new functional beverages exhibited significantly enhanced sensorial properties when compared to plain goat’s milk, with the highest overall satisfactoriness determined for samples fortified with mint and rosemary extracts.
5.2.5 Addition of PC to meat products
Tomato and derived-processed products generates considerable amount of by-products in the form of pomace, peel and seeds. They are rich sources of dietary fiber and bioactive compounds. In addition to carotenes, tomato by-products are rich in vitamins as well as PC, namely phenolic acids and flavonoids. Due to their color properties, these by-products have major applications in meat and meat-derived food products, as reviewed recently [134]. The higher antioxidant activity observed for tomato waste (composed by skin and seeds) has been related with the fact that this product had the highest phenolic and flavonoid amounts, in particular rutin, quercitrin and naringenin may be more efficient as antioxidant than carotenoids with respect to preventing lipid oxidation in pressurized chicken meat. Different researches have observed some general trends in the application of tomato by-products, namely improved nutritional quality, reduced lipid oxidation and increased stability during the shelf-life period of meat products, while maintaining or increasing sensory properties and general satisfactoriness.
Green tea extracts have been also used in meat products (e.g. raw beef and chicken patties). In raw beef and chicken patties, the tea catechins treatment resulted in no significant differences in the sensory flavor, taste, and tenderness [135]. Moreover, even only a marinade with green tea instead of enrichment of meat was found to reduce the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines while bitterness and astringency perception was neglectable [136].
At the end, surprisingly, the sensory profile reported for green tea extract-supplemented meat products (turkey burgers [126], raw beef and chicken patties [135], pan-fried beef [136] as well as other food products (biscuits, cake [137]) is usually equal or superior to the control conditions (usually containing synthetic antioxidants). Since green tea extract is well-known for its bitter and astringent taste properties this could be probably due to interactions with the food matrix compounds, as discussed ahead.
5.3 Interactions of phenolic compounds with food macronutrients
In the human diet, PC are generally consumed in foods along with macronutrients (e.g. proteins, lipids and carbohydrates). The effect of interactions between PC and food constituents is a very important topic since they can have several implications on their sensory properties and lastly on their biological effects.
5.3.1 Interaction with proteins
In food matrices, PC interaction with proteins may affect their physicochemical properties, and consequently, their sensory characteristics. The sensory implications of PC interaction with proteins are not just centered on taste. Indeed, these interactions can also influence the appearance (e.g. haze, color), aroma and texture of food products.
One of the most known effect of this interaction is haze formation in some plant-based beverages like beer, wine and fruit juice [138]. Consumers expect that these beverages are clear (free of turbidity) and to remain so during the shelf life of the product. The development of haze in beverages results in the formation of insoluble particles of colloidal or larger size that can be detected visually. This is often noted as a negative attribute affecting their acceptance and the likelihood of this product to be purchased again. Astringency and bitterness are also affected by the development of haze. Indeed, red wine astringency can be reduced by the addition of some fining agents (ovalbumin, gluten proteins or yeast protein extract) which remove reactive compounds capable of haze formation [139]. Also, in beers, the interaction between PC and malt proteins causes haze and flocculation which can be modulated by adding some fining agents that will help in the process of clarification [140]. However, fining agents should be used appropriately as they could also compromise the flavor and the overall quality of the final product. Moreover, the use of fining agents can also remove a considerable amount of PC compromising their potential health benefits. Another example of PC interaction with proteins in beverages is the case of tea. In fact, tea astringency can be rectified by the addition of milk in which PC (flavan-3-ols) interact with milk proteins (casein and whey protein) [141].
Grace and colleagues [142] studied the effect of the fortification of soy protein isolate with concentrated PC-rich fruits and vegetables (muscadine grape and kale) by sensory analysis. These authors observed that the appearance of the incorporations had resulted in different colors, a purple-red powder for the incorporation with muscadine due to the presence of anthocyanins, and a mid-intensity green with kale caused by chlorophyll incorporation into the matrix. Also, panel evaluators indicated that unfortified protein formed clumps in the mouth, while the fortified muscadine and kale matrices presented a creamy consistency in the mouth. Furthermore, the panel evaluators mentioned that muscadine-protein matrix presented a pleasant flavor with delicate notes of grape aroma, slight astringency, no bitterness, and low sourness in comparison with unfortified soy protein. On the other hand, soy protein fortified with kale showed a reminiscent flavor of cooked beans, moderate sweetness, low sourness, and no bitterness.
In all these examples above mentioned, PC interact with proteins in food matrices, contributing to a lower amount of PC available to interact with oral cavity constituents, including salivary proteins, resulting in a decrease of astringency perception [143] and also bitter taste.
5.3.2 Interaction with lipids
Contrary to PC-protein interactions that have been widely studied, interactions with other food constituents such as lipids are lacking a deeper and comprehensive research. The main references to the interaction between PC and food lipids concern on plant oils, especially olive oil. Bitterness is a key sensory attribute in olive oil determining its acceptability. However, the lipid matrix composition seems to be a determinant factor on the perception of bitter taste. García-Mesa and colleagues [144] demonstrated that two virgin oil matrices spiked with the same level of PC were able to produce different effects on bitterness, depending on the degree of unsaturation of the olive oil matrix. The most unsaturated matrices resulted in softer sensations and reduced bitterness in comparison with the less unsaturated ones.
The interest on using PC as food additives in food lipid matrices has also been growing. Indeed, lipid oxidation is the main source for food quality deterioration and generation of undesirable odors and flavors, compromising shelf-life, changing texture and color and reducing the nutritional value of food [4]. The use of green tea catechins as food additives with antioxidant properties is a good tool to increase the shelf life and to decrease the susceptibility of oxidative damage of food products. Furthermore, as previously referred, tea PC are able to interact with milk proteins suggesting a good retention in the cheese matrix [145]. Giroux and colleagues [145] evaluated the effect of green tea extract enrichment on the texture and organoleptic properties of Cheddar cheese during storage. The main effects observed were a decrease in the typical cheddar flavor, an increase in the global flavor intensity and astringency, color changes and increase in hardness. Nevertheless, the impact of green tea enrichment was dependent on the concentration used.
5.3.3 Interaction with carbohydrates
The first evidence of the interaction between PC and carbohydrates can be observed in fruits in which they interact in plant cell wall. Several classes of PC have already been described to interact with carbohydrates such as anthocyanins, phenolic acids and procyanidins [143].
In the case of red wine, PC are the main contributors to color, astringency and bitterness. Several authors have reported that yeast mannoproteins interaction with PC have numerous effects on wine sensory properties, namely on color stabilization [146], reduction of astringency [147] and increased body and mouthfeel [148]. In fact, the formation of PC-carbohydrate complexes influences their association with salivary proteins leading to a decrease on astringency perception. The same reduction trend on astringency was observed for other matrices, in which soluble pectins were added to persimmon fresh juice, resulting in the complexation with soluble tannins [149]. The interaction between PC and carbohydrates depends on their structure and physicochemical properties (e.g., ionic character and viscosity). Indeed, carbohydrates which present higher viscosity can greatly affect sensorial properties. Peleg and coworkers [150] observed that the increase of viscosity of a PC-rich cranberry juice by the addition of carboxymethyl cellulose lowered the perceived astringency at 25 °C.
In conclusion, interactions between PC and macronutrients can occur in food items and impact their sensory properties. The design of new foods with high nutrient content, tasty and affordable could be a good tool to increase the consumption of these bioactive compounds. However, the creation of these foods without comprising quality, sensory properties and functionality remains a big challenge.
At the end, most of the studies based on supplementation of food products with extracts, or with food industry by-products rich in PC are somehow empiric approaches. They find an optimal dose of an extract, by-product or waste or able to have a high expected (functional/biological) activity while the negative side-effects (e.g. low loaf volume, undesirable taste properties and textural characteristics) are minimized. While this trial-error has led to some successful examples, the use of this knowledge by the food industry depends on a more systematic approach. A deep and extensive characterization of the PC profile of the extracts, by-products and wastes should be a critical point in these studies. Furthermore, consistent data regarding the binding of the PC with food matrix components, the effect of cooking practices as well as the final bioactivities are lacking. These topics will be a valuable tool to align tastiness to healthiness in a systematic and reliable way to aid food industry towards the development of functional and clean label food.
Figure 2.
Use of polyphenols as ingredients in functional foods.
6. Conclusions
The consumption of plant-based foods, including fruits, seeds, cereals, vegetables, and derived foodstuffs, such as beverages, has been nowadays claimed to be beneficial for human health. This awareness has been shared not only by the scientific community but also by the general public. The increase in the prevalence of non-communicable diseases and particularly the immune reactions to food, prompted the establishment of nutritional recommendations to design functional and sustainable foods. In this framework, PC have a significant potential! However, attention should be paid to PC organoleptic properties, which can compromise the final consumer acceptance.
The potential use of PC on modulation of immune reactions to food has been recently explored. In this context, PC have a double potential, before and after the food intake. From one side, the recently discovered ability of PC to bind to food immunologic proteins, and general food macromolecules such as lipids, proteins or carbohydrates could influence their bioactivities opening a new way to explore the relationship between dietary PC and health outcomes. On the other side, the modulator effects of PC on enzymatic activity, cellular redox potential, cell signaling transduction pathways or cell proliferation, as well as the ability to bind to cell receptors, that have been demonstrated sets them as potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant compounds.
Although significant progress has been made to deepen these interactions with food macromolecules and bioactivities, considerable attention should be paid to the astringency and bitter taste elicited by PC. At the end, no matter how healthy a food is, if it does not appeal to its consumer, it is unlikely to succeed.
Going beyond, constructing food systems to all and designing foods suitable for people with specific nutritional requirements must be a priority. Under this framework, the design of clean label functional foods containing PCs as modulators of immune reactions to food while impact positively the organoleptic and technological properties of food emerge as a new reality.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank FCT for their contracts: RPG (SFRH/BPD/85293/2012), EB (CEECIND/01598/2018), SS (CEEIND/01265/2018). This work was performed under the frame of FEDER (Fundo Europeu de Desenvolvimento Regional) funds through the COMPETE 2020—Operacional Programme for Competitiveness and Internationalization (POCI), and by FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia—in the framework of the PTDC/OCE-ETA/32287/2017 project.
Funding
This work received financial support from the European Union (FEDER funds through COMPETE POCI-01-0145-FEDER-30448) and National Funds (FCT, Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia) through project PTDC/SAU-NUT/30448/2017.
\n',keywords:"food allergies, celiac disease, functional foods, phenolic compounds, clean label",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75960.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75960.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75960",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75960",totalDownloads:300,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"February 11th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 26th 2021",datePublished:"November 10th 2021",dateFinished:"March 26th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Adverse reactions to food such as allergies and celiac disease are increasingly recognized as a growing public health burden. There is currently no cure for these diseases so that there is an unmet need to evaluate different nutritional approaches aiming at improving the quality of life of affected patients and their families. In this context, healthy promising nature-derived compounds, most of which contained in fruits and vegetables, have been studied as an alternative to attenuate the epidemic. Indeed, phenolic compounds have become an emerging field of interest in nutrition in the last decades. A growing build of research suggests that phenolic compounds inhibit pro-inflammatory transcription factors by interacting with proteins involved in gene expression and cell signaling, leading to protective effects against many inflammation-mediated chronic diseases. However, the use of phenolic compounds as attenuating agents of immune reactions to food has to be aligned to the organoleptic characteristics of food, since many compounds present unpleasant taste properties, namely bitter taste and astringency. In this framework, tasty but healthy phenolic compounds arise as attractive ingredients in the design and formulation of functional foods. This book chapter is focused on revisiting the organoleptic properties of phenolic compounds while evaluating the role of these compounds in health promoting actions, namely the management of immune reactions to food such as Food Allergies and Celiac Disease.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75960",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75960",signatures:"Catarina Bessa-Pereira, Ricardo Dias, Elsa Brandão, Nuno Mateus, Victor de Freitas, Susana Soares and Rosa Pérez-Gregorio",book:{id:"10637",type:"book",title:"Functional Foods",subtitle:"Phytochemicals and Health Promoting Potential",fullTitle:"Functional Foods - Phytochemicals and Health Promoting Potential",slug:"functional-foods-phytochemicals-and-health-promoting-potential",publishedDate:"November 10th 2021",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sajid Arshad and Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10637.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-933-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-932-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-934-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"192998",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Sajid",middleName:null,surname:"Arshad",slug:"muhammad-sajid-arshad",fullName:"Muhammad Sajid Arshad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"313609",title:"Dr.",name:"Susana",middleName:null,surname:"Soares",fullName:"Susana Soares",slug:"susana-soares",email:"susana.soares@fc.up.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Porto",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"336758",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Maria Rosa",middleName:null,surname:"Perez-Gregorio",fullName:"Maria Rosa Perez-Gregorio",slug:"maria-rosa-perez-gregorio",email:"maria.gregorio@fc.up.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"345790",title:"Prof.",name:"Nuno",middleName:null,surname:"Mateus",fullName:"Nuno Mateus",slug:"nuno-mateus",email:"nbmateus@fc.up.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"345791",title:"Dr.",name:"Elsa",middleName:null,surname:"Brandão",fullName:"Elsa Brandão",slug:"elsa-brandao",email:"elsa.brandao@fc.up.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"345792",title:"Dr.",name:"Catarina",middleName:null,surname:"Bessa Pereira",fullName:"Catarina Bessa Pereira",slug:"catarina-bessa-pereira",email:"cbessapereira@fc.up.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"345793",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Dias",fullName:"Ricardo Dias",slug:"ricardo-dias",email:"ricardo.dias@fc.up.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"345794",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"De Freitas",fullName:"Victor De Freitas",slug:"victor-de-freitas",email:"vfreitas@fc.up.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Nature and occurrence of phenolic compounds: from food to waste",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Phenolic compounds as modulators of immune reactions to food",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Food allergies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Celiac disease",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Use of phenolic compounds as alternative to synthetic additives in functional foods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1 Reduction of sugar",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2 Reduction of salt",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.3 Preservative agents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.4 Colorant agents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.5 Emulsifier agents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.6 Matrix effect",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. When sensory properties can compromise the intake of potential healthy phenolic compounds",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.1 PC sensory properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.2 Phenolic compounds as ingredients in functional foods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"5.2.1 Addition of PC to bakery products",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"5.2.2 Addition of PC to coffee",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"5.2.3 Addition of PC to pasta",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"5.2.4 Addition of PC to dairy products",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"5.2.5 Addition of PC to meat products",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"5.3 Interactions of phenolic compounds with food macronutrients",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"5.3.1 Interaction with proteins",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"5.3.2 Interaction with lipids",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"5.3.3 Interaction with carbohydrates",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25",title:"6. 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LAQV-REQUIMTE Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
LAQV-REQUIMTE Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",annualVolume:11968,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",annualVolume:11969,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"216491",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Skoulikaris",fullName:"Charalampos Skoulikaris",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRMsbQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-04-21T09:31:55.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"300124",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Shahady",fullName:"Thomas Shahady",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002kuIgmQAE/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:32:10.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lynchburg College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/101553",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"101553"},fullPath:"/profiles/101553",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()