Advancement in autogenous self-healing of cementitious materials with mineral additives (Adopted from [17]).
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Concrete is the most used and efficient construction material in the world. It is durable, can resist high compressive stress, is cheaper than most of the construction materials and can be moulded in a wide variety of shapes. Despite that concrete cracks due to its weakness in tension, shrinkage, fatigue loading, and under the action of environmental conditions. These microcracks can reduce concrete’s toughness, increase permeability, which can ultimately lead to the reduction of concrete’s structural integrity, durability and life span. Self-healing concrete in that context offers an actual solution.
Any process whereby concrete recovers its performance after initial damage is termed self-healing in concrete [1]. A typical self-healing in cementitious materials is presented in Figure 1. The concept of concrete self-healing has evolved from that found in biological life forms, that is, plants and animals that naturally exhibit self-healing performance when any damage appears.
Example of self-healing concrete and cementitious systems (Adopted from [
According to Schlangen and Joseph (Cited in [2]), the strength of concrete gradually decreases when the first repair is required. Also, commonly, a second repair is required in concrete after 10–15 years. However, the initial repair period can be extended considerably with the application of self-healing technology in concrete. Self-healing leads to a longer material lifetime, and it involves no repair and maintenance costs.
This chapter presents the state-of-the-art of self-healing in concrete and cement-based materials. It discusses advancements in this field and limitations. The next section (Section 2) presents the concept of self-healing in concrete and measurement techniques. Then the chapter describes major developments in different self-healing concrete field.
The self-healing system in concrete is principally divided into two types, autogenic and autonomic [1]. Autogenic self-healing in concrete is an intrinsic material-healing property wherein the self-healing process initiates from the generic materials present. For example, cementitious materials exhibit a self-repairing ability due to the rehydration property of unhydrated cement remaining on the crack surface. In contrast, a self-healing process that involves the incorporation of material components that are not traditionally used in the concrete is termed autonomic self-healing [1].
Figure 2 presents the developed autogenic and autonomic self-healing systems. One of the principal causes of autogenic self-healing is the hydration of unhydrated cement remaining in the matrix. Then again, the volume of healing products formed in this process is limited. Hence, the autogenic self-healing is effective within the crack width up to 50–150 μm [4]. Autogenic self-healing performance is higher in early age due to high content of unhydrated cement, and parameters such as compressive stress [5] to restrict crack and wet-dry cycles [6] can increase the healing performance. Autogenic healing performance can also be enhanced using fibres to restrict crack opening and the use of superplasticizer in engineered cementitious composite (ECC) to reduce w/c ratio [6]. Cardiff University research group introduced polyethylene terephthalate (PET) tendons [7], a shrinkable polymer activated with a heating system inside the concrete structural element to compress and close the crack enhancing the autogenous healing process. Considerable enhancement in healing performance is also possible to achieve using optimum supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) and smart expansive minerals [3, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. Autonomic self-healing in concrete, in contrast to the autogenous healing process, requires the release of the healing agent from reserved encapsulation or a continuous vascular network. Common encapsulating shell materials are glass [23, 24] and polymers [1, 25, 26]. Healing agents in autonomic self-healing are epoxy resins, cyanoacrylates (super glues), alkali-silica solutions [23, 24, 27, 28], methyl methacrylate [24, 28], expansive minerals [16, 29], hydrogel [30] and bacteria-based microorganisms [31, 32, 33].
Self-healing concrete systems.
Self-healing performance in concrete is assessed using visual observation, mechanical strength recovery, permeability, durability improvement and microstructural evaluation (Figure 3). There are three fundamental factors in evaluating the self-healing: visual crack sealing and the identification of healing compounds causing it, the improvement of the durability performance and the recovery of mechanical strength properties [3, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. The mechanical strength recovery is limited in most of the concrete self-healing process. Hence, the most reliable self-healing performance is based on the physical crack closure, durability improvement, that is, permeability reduction parameters, and microstructural evaluations.
Self-healing performance in concrete measurement techniques.
Autogenous self-healing in cement was spotted early in the twentieth century by Lauer and Slate [34], and the concept was gradually established by different researchers [35, 36]. The crystallisation of calcium carbonate within the crack is the primary process in autogenous self-healing of matured concrete [35]. Reactions involved in the deposition of calcium carbonate are presented in Eqs. (1)–(3). In those reactions, CO2 dissolved in water from the air, and the calcium ion Ca2+ is derived from concrete.
Reasons for autogenous self-healing proposed by different researchers [36] are: (i) Further reaction of the unhydrated cement, (ii) expansion of the concrete in the crack flanks, (iii) crystallisation of calcium carbonate, (iv) closing of the cracks by fine particles existing in the water and (v) closing of the cracks by spilling off loose concrete particles resulting from the cracking. This five action model is schematically presented in Figure 4.
A model of five steps taking place within three processes, physical, chemical and mechanical (Reproduced from [
The understanding and improvement of autogenous self-healing have developed in four major directions (Figure 2). These are: (i) manipulation of existing conditions, such as age, compressive stress and curing condition (e.g. wet-dry cycle); (ii) fibres to restrict cracks (e.g. ECC); (iii) shrinkable polymers to initiate internal stress after cracking to shrink the cracks and (iv) cement-compatible mineral additives.
Autogenous self-healing of concrete is significantly influenced by its age, internal stress and curing conditions. Early age concrete naturally heals rapidly due to autogenous healing. Concrete prisms with cracks up to 50 μm were autogenously healed under 0.1, 1 and 2 Mpa compressive stresses [5] (Figure 5a). The crack face comes into contact by the impelled compressive stress. Hence, the concrete specimens cured under any amount of compressive stress healed much better than specimens cured under no compression stress (Figure 5b). Only a specific amount of compression is required to keep the crack faces in contact. Samples that are submerged in water during curing recovered their strength. In contrast, specimens stored in 95% RH for 3 months did not heal at all. This is due to insufficient hydration in the high humid condition, which is not enough to trigger the healing process.
(a) Application of compression and (b) stress-displacement curve of specimens after healing with and without applied compressive stress. (Both figures reproduced from [
Fibres can restrict the propagation of crack width, and smaller crack width is favourable for enhanced autogenous healing in concrete. Fibre is a common feature in Fibre-Reinforced Composite Concrete (FRCC) and ECC. Randomly distributed fibres can bridge over cracks, which can decrease the crack width and block the migration of aggressive agents (e.g. chloride ions and CO2) [6, 37]. These properties improve the autogenous self-healing capacity of concrete and composites. A series of wetting and drying cycles on ECC was carried out by [6] to mimic self-healing performance in outdoor environments. Through self-healing, crack-damaged ECC recovered 76–100% of its initial resonant frequency value and attained a distinct rebound in stiffness. The tensile strain capacity after self-healing recovered close to 100% that of virgin specimens without any preloading. This was found even for the specimens deliberately pre-damaged with microcracks by loading up to 3% tensile strain. It takes about four to five wet-dry cycles to attain the full benefit of self-healing. The use of high cement content, low water-to-cement ratio also increases the autogenous self-healing capacity of ECC. However, FRCC, ECC and HFRCC are costly and maintaining homogeneity of fibres in the matrix for consistent self-healing is challenging.
The shrinkable polymers such as PET can shrink when activated by heating in a specific condition. This shrinkage stress can be used for pre-stressing the concrete thus bringing crack-tip closure for efficient healing. Cardiff University self-healing research team is working with the original crack-closure system for cementitious materials using shrinkable polymer tendons [7]. The system involves the incorporation of unbonded pre-oriented polymer tendons in cementitious beams (Figure 6). Crack closure is achieved by thermally activating the shrinkage mechanism of the restrained polymer tendons (PTs) after the cement-based material has undergone initial curing. Upon activation, the polymer tendon completely closes the preformed macrocracks and imparts significant stress across the crack faces. This enhances the autogenous self-healing process in concrete.
(a) Schematic of shape memory PET polymer tendon, and (b) photo of the setup (Both reproduced from [
Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) and expansive minerals compatible with cement can improve the self-healing capacity of concrete. Depending on minerals, it can serve either or both functionalities, that is, to
Minerals | Composition | Damage type | Curing condition | Performance (healed crack width in time etc.) | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CSA, aH, bA, cL, Mont. | Up to 10% (concrete) | 3 PB, mechanical | Water | 160–220 μm in 33d Calcite, CASH | [8] |
CSA | 4.44 and 15.24% of cement (concrete) | Tension force | Still/continuous flow water | Reduced flow in 100 μm cracks, continuous flow is efficient | [38] |
CSA, CA, aH, bA, cL, Mont. | PC with 10% CSA and 1.5% CA | Sp. tensile test | Water | 100–400 μm in 56 d Calcite | [9] |
Silica, dCEA, bentonite, CA | 8% individual combination up to 14% | Compression, sp. tensile | Water, wet-dry, air, freeze–thaw | 220 μm in 2 weeks dCEA (individually efficient) silica, bent., CA (combination is efficient) | [11] |
FA, SF, CA | OPC, OPC + 30%FA, OPC + 10%SF, OPC + 1%CA | Splitting tensile test | Water | 50 μm in 12d larger cracks heal efficiently with SF | [39] |
FA | 15–20% with PC (paste) | Shrinkage microcracks | Water | Meso-macro pores at 91, 182 and 364 d | [40] |
FA | 5–15% wt. of sand (concrete) | Freeze–thaw | Water | Improve eDME over 90% in 28d | [41] |
BFS | OPC + 50% BFS | Mechanical | Water | Product formation is three times faster for CEM I | [42] |
FA, slag | 30–40% of cement (mortar) | Shrinkage | Water | Improvement in compressive strength | [43] |
cL, slag, FA | 30, 50% FA; 50, 75, 85% slag (paste/mortar) | 3 PB, mechanical | Water | 200 μm in 42d | [12] |
Slag | 66% of cement (paste) | Sliced, mechanical | Ca(OH)2 solution | 60% of 10 μm in 240 h C-S-H, ettringite, hydrogenate etc. | [44] |
Bentonite | Nanoclay in mortar as internal water reservoir | Mechanical | Water | Enhanced hydration for self-healing | [45] |
Bentonite, slag, cL | 2% PVA by vol. Length = 8 mm, dia = 40 μm | 4 PB | Water, wet-dry cycle, air | Nanoclay improves the reloading deflection capacity | [46] |
Quicklime, FA | (3%) on fly ash-PC cement pastes | Mechanical | Water | Increased SiO2 solubility extra Ca(OH)2 | [14] |
Expanded clay LWAs | Na-MFP and PC coated (mortar) | Mechanical | Water | Absorption decrease sodium, phosphorous and fluoride, CH | [47] |
CSA | PVA coated, up to 10% by wt. of cement (mortar, 1:3) | 3 PB | Water | <100 μm in 11d, 100–200 μm in 14d, >200 μm in 16d | [48] |
CA: cement + sand + microsilica | 1–2% of cement | 4 PB | Water, open air | 60% cracks sealed under open air condition | [49] |
MgO | 4–12% of cement | Drying shrinkage, 3 PB | Water | <500 μm in 28d durability improved | [3] |
Advancement in autogenous self-healing of cementitious materials with mineral additives (Adopted from [17]).
H = hauyne.
A = anhydrite.
L = lime/limestone powder.
CEA = chemical expansive agent.
3/4 PB = Three/four-point bending, OPC = ordinary Portland cement, CASH = calcium aluminosilicate hydrate, CSA = calcium sulphoaluminate, CA = crystalline additive, FA = fly ash, SF = silica fume, eDME = dynamic modulus of elasticity, LWAs = lightweight aggregates, Na-MFP = sodium mono fluorophosphate (Na2FPO3, Na-MFP)
Fly ash (FA) and silica fume (SF) and blast furnace slag (BFS) are mostly used as SCMs in the OPC system to improve concrete self-healing performance [12, 13, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43].
The substitution of FA 15–20% in OPC paste system has increased the volume of C-S-H gel and reduced meso-macropores, increasing the autogenous self-healing performance [40]. Watanabe et al. [41] replaced about 5–15% wt. of sand with FA in concrete and found a better dynamic modulus of elasticity recovery at 5% replacement and improving trend at 15% under the non-destructive ultrasonic test method. While freezing and thawing decreased dynamic modulus to 80% of the initial state, curing in water recovered it to over 93–98% after 28 days.
FA and SF, and a crystalline additive (CA) mineral were used for improving the self-healing performance of concrete [39]. CA was composed of 35.58% CaO, 16.81% SiO2, 15.22% Na2O, 1.98% Fe2O3, 1.93% Al2O3 and 1.29% MgO. Four different mixes (OPC, OPC + 30%FA, OPC + 10%SF, and OPC + 1%CA) were compared. Larger cracks (0.05–0.30 mm) healed better with SF additives. Microcracks in the range of 0–0.05 mm in CA additive mixes completely healed within 12 days.
The blast furnace slag (BFS) was used individually and in combination with FA and other minerals for improving self-healing properties. Fibre-reinforced cement composition with a local waste BFS and limestone powder (LP) in a mix proportion of 1:1.2:2 (C:BFS:LP), 0.5 w/b-ratio and 0.018% total mass of superplasticizer demonstrated improved self-healing performance [13]. The specimens cured under water recovered 65–105% deflection capacity compared to virgin specimens, while specimens cured in the air recovered only 40–60%. Small 25-μm cracks were healed efficiently, while larger cracks such as 60 μm were not healed completely. A higher proportions of BSF (50%) substitution in OPC decreases the formation of the healing material at an early age, which alters after 22 days [42]. However, optimum self-healing ability for the mixing content of slag and FA were 30 and 40%, respectively [43].
A considerable proportion (up to 70% of total weight) of slag and two classes fly ash (FA) were used as SCMs in ECC for improving autogenous self-healing performance [50]. Microscopic observation showed that slag-ECC healed up to 100-μm width crack. On the other hand, both F- and C-Class FA containing ECC sealed up to 50- and 30-μm width cracks, respectively. A microstructural investigation on the self-healed materials revealed that it was mostly composed of calcite and C-S-H gels and that composition varied with the supplementary minerals used (Figure 7). A higher amount of healing products of slag-ECC formed due to the higher pH value of pore solution and CaO content.
Self-healing materials, (a) XRD and (b) SEM image with EDX element detection (Both reproduced from [
Several types of expansive minerals can enhance autogenous self-healing performance of concrete. Calcium sulphoaluminate (CSA) is one of the popular expansive minerals used for improving healing capacity in concrete [8, 9]. A self-healing agent (SHA) composed of silicon oxide (71.3%) and sodium aluminium silicate hydroxide [Na0.6Al4.70Si7.32O20(OH)4] (15.4%) along with various types of carbonates such as NaHCO3, Na2CO3 and Li2CO3 (etc.), and minerals such as bentonite clay (montmorillonite), feldspar and quartz was also used as an expansive self-healing agent [8]. Cracks of about 150 μm were healed within 33 days in the concrete with SHA, forming alumina silicate and modified gehlenite phases (CASH: calcium aluminosilicate hydrate). The reported healing mechanism was a swelling effect initiated by montmorillonite, and then expansion and re-crystallisation triggered by aluminosilicate with calcium ion. Ferrara et al. [51] used an active silica-based crystalline admixture (CA) as an expansive agent in cement and sand to improve the self-healing potential of raw concrete structures. Crack sealing of over 70–80% was required for reasonable mechanical performance to be recovered, such as stiffness (larger than 20%). The healing compounds formed by the crystalline admixture are similar to cement hydration products such as ettringite and calcium silicate hydrates.
Magnesium oxide (MgO), bentonite clay and quicklime were used in different proportions to enhance the autogenous self-healing capacity of concrete and cementitious materials [3, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Substitution of PC with up to 12.5–15% by a mix of the three expansive mineral agents, MgO 5–7.5%, bentonite clay 2.5–5%, and quicklime 2.5–5%, results in optimum enhancement of the autogenous self-healing in the cement mix [17, 18]. A typical crack healing image is presented in Figure 8 that shows how efficiently the expansive mineral containing PC mix sealed 17o-μm crack in 28 days. The flexural strength recovery and crack sealing efficiency of early age (1 day) cracked specimen was enhanced up to 48 and 39%, respectively, in an expansive mineral containing cement mix, compared to the 100% PC cement mix. The permeability (gas permeability coefficient) decreased by about 70% in the expansive mineral containing mix compared to the 100% PC cement mix. Besides common healing compounds, calcite, portlandite, ettringite and C-S-H, MgO formed brucite, other magnesium hydro-carbonate products. Although, the healing capacity of cementitious materials decreases with the increase in the age of cement paste mix at crack formation, expansive minerals improved the autogenous self-healing capacity of PC mixes at all ages compared to the 100% PC paste [18].
The typical crack sealing pattern in 28 days: (a) 100% PC cement mix and (b) cement with expansive minerals (Reproduced from [
Expansive minerals combination, that is, MgO, bentonite clay and quicklime can improve the autogenous self-healing capacity of drying shrinkage cracks in the cementitious materials. The maximum healable drying shrinkage cracks width in 100% PC and PC-expansive minerals mixes were up to 160 and 400–500 μm, respectively, after 28 days healing in water [3, 19]. Contained expansive minerals, such as reactive MgO can enhance healing compounds within the crack (Figure 9) to effectively heal the crack.
Ternary diagrams of healing compounds EDX computed atomic mass percentage formed in PC-MgO cement mixes (Reproduced from [
Expansive minerals can also improve the self-healing capacity of ECCs [46, 52]. Bentonite (Na-Montmorillonite) as a nanoclay was mixed with slag and limestone powder and used in ECC to improve its self-healing performance [46]. An ECC-MgO system resulted in higher flexural strength recovery of pre-cracked prismatic specimens cured under accelerated autoclaved conditions compared to their pre-cracked ECC without MgO [52]. The combined effect of fibre to restrict crack and the expansive minerals to heal the crack is promising.
In the autonomic self-healing system, different kinds of active healing agents are encapsulated into the concrete or composites. Popular encapsulation systems are microvascular glass tube network [23, 24] and microcapsules [1, 25, 26]. Table 2 presents an overall conception of encapsulation materials and technical developments for the autonomic self-healing process. Typically a mobile liquid healing agent is always required. Less viscosity of healing agents is expected so that it can enrich a longer crack path in the damage zone, including microcracks [54]. Healing agents also should possess the ability to make a strong bond between the crack faces.
Shell material | Core material | Øi (μm) | Øo (μm) | Wall thickness (μm) | Length (mm) | Mixed in | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Capsule for self-healing | Spherical | Expanded clay | Na2FPO3 | x | 4000 | x | x | √ |
Expanded clay | Bacteria | x | 1000–4000 | x | x | √ | ||
Expanded clay | CaC6H10O6 | x | 1000–4000 | x | x | √ | ||
Diatomaceous earth | Bacteria | x | _ | x | x | √ | ||
Gelatin | Acrylic resin | — | 125–297 | — | x | — | ||
Gelatin | Epoxy | — | 50 | — | x | √ | ||
Gelatin | Tung oil | — | 50 | — | x | √ | ||
Gelatin | Ca(OH)2 | — | 50 | — | x | √ | ||
Wax | Retarder agent | — | 120 | — | x | √ | ||
Paraffin | Water | — | 900 | — | x | — | ||
Cement + paraffin | SAP | — | — | — | x | — | ||
UF | Epoxy | — | 120 | 4 | x | √ | ||
UFF | Epoxy | — | 20–70 | — | x | — | ||
PU | Na2SiO3 | — | 40–800 | — | x | √ | ||
Silica gel | MMA/ TEB | — | 4.15 | — | x | √ | ||
Silica | Epoxy | — | — | — | x | √ | ||
Silica Gelatin + acacia gum | Na2SiO3 Mineral oil+ Na2SiO3 | – – | 5000 300–700 | – 5–20 | x x | ∕ √ | ||
Cylindrical | Glass | CA | 800 | 1000 | 100 | 100 | ∕ | |
Glass | CA | 800, 1500, 3000 | — | — | 75, 75, 100 | ∕ | ||
Glass | epoxy | 3000–4000 | 5000–7000 | — | 250 | ∕ – | ||
Glass | CA | 3200 | 4000 | 400 | 200 | ∕ | ||
Glass | CA | — | 100 | _ | 63.5 | √ | ||
Glass | CA, epoxy, polyacrylate, PU, bacteria | 2000–3000 | 2200–3350 | 100 | 20–80 | ∕ | ||
Ceramics | PU | 2500–3500 | 3000–4000 | 250 | 15–50 | ∕ | ||
Perspex | Epoxy | — | — | — | — | ∕ | ||
Plant fibre | — | — | 40–188 | — | — | — | ||
PP with wax concentric glass capsule | MMA MgO, bentonite, lime | – 6150 | – 11,400 | – 450 | – – | ∕ √ | ||
Pellets | Cement PVA PVA | Na2FPO3, Na-MFP MgO CSA | – – – | ∼4000 600–4000 500 | – 10–50 12–73 | x x 500 | √ √ √ | |
Vascular network for self-healing | Tubular | Glass | Alkali silica, epoxy | 800 | 2000 | 600 | x | ∕ |
Glass | CA | 3000 | 4000 | 500 | x | ∕ | ||
Glass | Epoxy | 4800 | 6000 | 600 | x | ∕ | ||
Glass | CA | 3200 | 4000 | 400 | x | ∕ | ||
Glass | Foam, epoxy, silicon, CA | 1500 | — | — | x | ∕ | ||
Spiral twisted wire with EVA | Epoxy | 2000 | 3400 | 700 | x | ∕ | ||
Porous concrete | Epoxy | — | 25,000–35,000 | — | x | ∕ |
Autonomic self-healing: Encapsulation materials and techniques used (‘–’ means ‘not reported’, ‘x’ means ‘not applicable’, ‘√’ means ‘yes’ and ‘/’ means ‘no’). (upgraded from [53]).
Capillary glass tubes are a popular choice for the microvascular network or tabular system to carry the healing agent into the concrete matrix [23, 24, 27, 28]. Diameters of the glass tubes typically range from 0.8 mm [23] to 4 mm [55]. A cyanoacrylate (<5 cP viscosity) enclosed in capillary tubes (0.8 mm inner diameter and 100 mm length), with 50 μl capacity and sealed the end with silicon considerably recovered flexural stiffness in beams [23]. Mihashi et al. [28] used embedded glass pipes with two types of healing agent, alkali-silica based and two-part epoxy resin. Considerable strength recovery performance was noted with both types of the healing agent within the crack range between 300 and 500 μm. Nevertheless, efficient mixing of two-component resin inside the crack was a challenging issue.
Cardiff University researchers have investigated the type of healing agent, delivery technique, mortar mix design and the quantity of steel reinforcement used [27]. They used three popular healing agents, (i) epoxy resins following [28], (ii) cyanoacrylates following [23] and (iii) alkali-silica solutions following [28]. During the first and second loading cycles under a three-point bend test, both primary and secondary healing occurs. Low-viscosity (typically 5 cP) single-agent cyanoacrylate adhesive resulted in optimum self-healing due to its efficient infiltration into microcracks. However, healing agents carried into the cracks are limited due to the capillary action [27]. This limitation can be eliminated with the use of an open-ended system.
The most recent advancement of a vascular network system in concrete was used in a filed trail of a road improvement scheme by Materials for Life (M4L) project [56]. The vascular network systems with shape memory polymer tendons (PET) were combined in large-scale structural elements (Figure 10). The self-healing performances were promising in this field trial.
(a) Vascular network in concrete slab panel and (b) vascular network combination with PET in field trial (Reproduced from [
Microcapsules are developed to avoid challenging issues in tubes-based capsulation systems incorporation in bulk concrete production. In this healing technique, microcapsules preserving reactive healing agents are ruptured by the forces imposed on capsules’ shell due to the cracks propagation in the matrix. The released healing agent then reacts with the cementitious matrix crack surface to form healing compounds that bridge the gap and eventually heal the cracks.
The compatibility of microcapsules with bulk concrete depends on a wide variety of factors. Major influencing factors are the size and volume fraction of microcapsules used, the capsules’ mechanical properties and interlock properties between the capsules and the surrounding materials [57]. The shape of the embedded capsule is another major factor that should be considered for compatibility issues. Spherically shaped capsules provide a more controlled and enhanced release of the healing agent upon breakage. It also reduces the stress concentrations around the void left from the empty capsule. However, a tubular capsule can cover a larger internal area of influence on the concrete for the same volume of a healing agent (higher surface area to volume ratio).
Yang et al. have investigated methyl methacrylate (MMA) as a monomer and triethylborane (TEB) as the healing agent and the catalyst [25]. In the investigation, about 50.2 and 66.8% reduction in permeability has been achieved within 3 and 30 days, respectively. Microscopic imaging confirms that some ruptured microcapsules existed and filled the cracks of the sample after 80% ultimate compressive strength at 28 days.
About 2% crystalline sodium silicate in polyurethane-encapsulated microcapsules with a diameter ranging from 40 to 800 μm increased 24% mechanical load recovery compared to 12% in the control samples [58]. However, the compressive strength of the composite reduced by 12% compared to that of the control mix. In the concrete containing microcapsules, sodium silicate reacts with calcium hydroxide of cement and produces a calcium-silica-hydrate (C-S-H) gel that heals the cracks partially. The C-S-H further reacts with dissolved CO2 in water and sodium oxide, which produced calcium carbonate. This is similar to the main hydration phase of cement, which causes strengthening.
Sodium silicate encapsulated in double-walled polyurethane/urea-formaldehyde (PU/UF) was reported in [59]. The addition of 2.5 and 5% microcapsules resulted in about 24 and 35% healing efficiency based on the crack depth measurements. Further advancement with sodium silicate encapsulated in gelatin and gum arabic shell materials (Figure 11) was found in recent studies [57, 60]. These microcapsules survive mixing with cement and rupture successfully upon crack formation and release sodium silicate solution. Although increasing microcapsules volume fractions in a ∼24% reduced the mechanical properties, the crack sealing was just under 100%. Besides, the crack depth and sorptivity coefficient were decreased by 70 and 54%, respectively. These microcapsules were also successfully implemented in the filed trail of a road improvement scheme by M4L project [61].
(a) Microscopic image of microcapsules (scale bars correspond to 500 μm) and (b) ruptured microcapsules appearing as ‘wet’ spots on the digital image of the split face (Both reproduced from [
The colloidal silica solution capsules up to 16 vol% in PC grout increased the sealing efficiency from ∼20% for the only PC to ∼85% in 28 days [62]. However, monodisperse photo-polymerised acrylate shell with hydrophilic mineral core microfluidic droplets are further advancement in the self-healing microcapsule field [63].
Although the direct addition of potential minerals to the concrete mix improves autogenous self-healing performance, protecting those minerals in initial mixing may further enhance the healing process. With this in mind, pellets of potential healing mineral agents have been used for improved concrete self-healing. Sisomphon et al. [47] used expanded lightweight clay aggregates (LWAs) impregnated with a solution of sodium mono fluorophosphate (Na2FPO3, Na-MFP) and coated by cement paste layers. The entire mechanism is schematically presented in Figure 12a. Pellets with expansive minerals such as a reactive MgO were spray-coated (10–50 μm) with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to produce PVA-coated MgO pellets for self-healing concrete applications (Figure 12b). A PVA-coated granulated CSA (calcium sulpho aluminate)-based expansive mineral was used for improving the self-healing performance of cementitious materials [48]. Replacement of CSA pellets was up to 10% by wt. of cement and mortar was prepared with 1:3 cement-to-sand ratio and w/c = 0.5. Cracks in the range of 0.1–0.2 mm were healed completely within 14 days whereas larger crack >0.2 healed within 16 days.
(a) Impregnation of LWAs to prepare pellet and self-healing concept: I-V (Reproduced from [
Granules of expansive self-healing agent coated with an extra layer of cement compounds were investigated by [64]. The self-healing concept is schematically presented in Figure 13. The fundamental concept is that the surface of the coating may hydrate during initial production and mixing while the core healing mineral agent remains unhydrated; this may then dissolute and diffuse into the crack surface after crack propagation and form new products for self-healing.
Concept of self-healing concrete with granules containing expansive mineral agents (Reproduced from [
Alkali-resistant endospore-forming bacteria that precipitate calcite through biological metabolism are used for self-healing in concrete. Examples of these bacteria are
In the urea-based MICP process, hydrolysis of urea with urease results in ammonia and carbonate ions, which increase the pH value into the bacteria cell. Researchers have experimented with urea as a mineral precursor for bio-cementation using bacteria [33, 66]. In the presence of CaCl2 as a source of Ca2+, high pH content bacteria cause CaCO3 crystal precipitation from the solution. Typically, bacteria shell made with various ions are negatively charged to attract positive cautions Ca2+ ions surrounding the cell wall, which reacts with CO32− and precipitate CaCO3 around the cell [66].
Calcium lactate (CaC6H10O6) is a crystalline salt, typically produced from the reaction of lactic acid with calcium carbonate or hydroxide. This was used as an alternative of urea-CaCl2, as a precursor for bacterial metabolism in concrete to avoid ammonia production in hydrolysis reactions. According to [65], metabolic absorption and breakdown of calcium lactate with bacteria lead to the precipitation of CaCO3.
Bacteria cannot survive long if they are mixed directly with fresh cement. The survivability of bacterial spores was optimized in [65], through the technique of packing bacterial spores and organic mineral precursor compounds in porous expanded clay particles before mixing in the concrete matrix. The pellets (2–4 mm) were principally made with the three components of a solid mixture, and they were used as a replacement of some of the similar size coarse aggregate. A high concentration of calcite precipitation has been found in concrete specimens with bacteria incorporated expended clay particles, which efficiently acted in crack-plugging and reduced permeability (Figure 14). About to micron sized (0.15 mm width), cracks were sealed. However, the main drawback in the bacterial pellet process is the negative impact on the mechanical performance of concrete. About 50% of the total aggregate volume requires replacing with bacterial pellets for satisfactory self-healing performance, which negatively impacts the mechanical strength of concrete.
Microscopic images of bacteria based self-healing concrete, (a) Stereomicroscopic image of crack sealing, (b) Stereomicroscopic close-up image of massive columnar precipitate (c–e) ESEM images of top part of massive columnar precipitate indicated in image by dotted square (Reproduced from [
An encapsulation of bacterial spores inside microcapsules is a recent advancement in this field [26]. These microcapsules were reported flexible in humid/water conditions and becoming brittle in the dry environment. With their bacterial encapsulation systems, about 970-μm width cracks were healed successfully, which was four times greater than for non-bacterial mixes. Nevertheless, bacterial activity reduces dramatically with the increase in the pH (>12) value in concrete.
Concrete being one of the most-used construction development materials, early damage and failure within a structure’s design lifetime is a threat to infrastructure industries. A self-healing concrete has great potential to mitigate this challenge. Self-healing in concrete can be broadly classified into two categories: autogenic and autonomic healing [1].
The autogenous self-healing capacity of concrete could be enhanced through restricting crack growth, wet-dry cycle, using SCM’s such as GGBS, fly ash, and silica fume, and using expansive minerals such as MgO, bentonite clay, quicklime, CSA and crystalizing mineral agents. However, the effectiveness of autogenous self-healing is considerably dependant on the remaining unhydrated cement or mineral in the concrete. This is hitherto restricted to smaller healable crack widths, more extended healing periods and the strength recovery.
Autonomic healing in concrete, in contrast to autogenous healing, requires the release of the self-healing triggering agent from reserved encapsulation or a continuous supply network. This is to further improve the self-healing efficiency of concrete compared to the autogenous healing process. Popular autonomic self-healing systems are microencapsulation, microvascular and pellets with different autonomic healing agents such as epoxies, cyanoacrylates, methyl methacrylate, alkali-silica solutions, minerals and microorganisms.
The self-healing concrete technology can be adopted in developing smart and resilient infrastructure development. Different self-healing concrete technology can be utilized depending on different applications. The greatest challenges of all self-healing technology in the concrete industry remain the difficulties in widespread uptake, the additional costs involved and the validation of long-term durability performances. Field trials such as those initiated by the University of Cambridge, Cardiff University and the University of Bath through Materials for Life (M4L) and Resilient Materials for Life (RM4L) research projects are significantly crucial for self-healing concrete validation in large scale.
The authors are grateful for collaboration and support from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) research projects ‘Materials for Life (M4L)’ and ‘Resilient Materials for Life (RM4L)’.
There is no conflict of interest.
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There are several ways to apply robust optimization and the choice of form is typical of the problem that is being solved. 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DL is implemented by deep neural network (DNN) which has multi-hidden layers. DNN is developed from traditional artificial neural network (ANN). However, in the training process of DL, it has certain inefficiency due to very long training time required. Meta-heuristic aims to find good or near-optimal solutions at a reasonable computational cost. In this article, meta-heuristic algorithms are reviewed, such as genetic algorithm (GA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO), for traditional neural network’s training and parameter optimization. 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It is easy to understand and implement. The existing studies show that it is prone to premature convergence and suggest the relaxation of having constant parameters. To boost the performance of the algorithm, different modifications are done by several researchers. In this chapter, we will review these modifications done on the standard firefly algorithm based on parameter modification, modified search strategy and change the solution space to make the search easy using different probability distributions. The modifications are done for continuous as well as non-continuous problems. Different studies including hybridization of firefly algorithm with other algorithms, extended firefly algorithm for multiobjective as well as multilevel optimization problems, for dynamic problems, constraint handling and convergence study will also be briefly reviewed. A simulation-based comparison will also be provided to analyse the performance of the standard as well as the modified versions of the algorithm.",book:{id:"5165",slug:"optimization-algorithms-methods-and-applications",title:"Optimization Algorithms",fullTitle:"Optimization Algorithms - Methods and Applications"},signatures:"Waqar A. Khan, Nawaf N. Hamadneh, Surafel L. Tilahun and Jean\nM. T. Ngnotchouye",authors:[{id:"180330",title:"Dr.",name:"Surafel",middleName:null,surname:"Tilahun",slug:"surafel-tilahun",fullName:"Surafel Tilahun"},{id:"180784",title:"Dr.",name:"Waqar Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"waqar-ahmed-khan",fullName:"Waqar Ahmed Khan"},{id:"185148",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawaf",middleName:null,surname:"Hamadneh",slug:"nawaf-hamadneh",fullName:"Nawaf Hamadneh"},{id:"185149",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean M. T.",middleName:null,surname:"Ngnotchouye",slug:"jean-m.-t.-ngnotchouye",fullName:"Jean M. T. Ngnotchouye"}]},{id:"61251",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76979",title:"A Brief Survey on Intelligent Swarm-Based Algorithms for Solving Optimization Problems",slug:"a-brief-survey-on-intelligent-swarm-based-algorithms-for-solving-optimization-problems",totalDownloads:1643,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter presents an overview of optimization techniques followed by a brief survey on several swarm-based natural inspired algorithms which were introduced in the last decade. These techniques were inspired by the natural processes of plants, foraging behaviors of insects and social behaviors of animals. These swam intelligent methods have been tested on various standard benchmark problems and are capable in solving a wide range of optimization issues including stochastic, robust and dynamic problems.",book:{id:"6587",slug:"nature-inspired-methods-for-stochastic-robust-and-dynamic-optimization",title:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization",fullTitle:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization"},signatures:"Siew Mooi Lim and Kuan Yew Leong",authors:[{id:"229799",title:"Dr.",name:"Siew Mooi",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"siew-mooi-lim",fullName:"Siew Mooi Lim"},{id:"231023",title:"Dr.",name:"Kuan Yew",middleName:null,surname:"Leong",slug:"kuan-yew-leong",fullName:"Kuan Yew Leong"}]},{id:"68118",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88185",title:"Overview of Multi-Objective Optimization Approaches in Construction Project Management",slug:"overview-of-multi-objective-optimization-approaches-in-construction-project-management",totalDownloads:1205,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The difficulties that are met in construction projects include budget issues, contractual time constraints, complying with sustainability rating systems, meeting local building codes, and achieving the desired quality level, to name but a few. Construction researchers have proposed and construction practitioners have used optimization strategies to meet various objectives over the years. They started out by optimizing one objective at a time (e.g., minimizing construction cost) while disregarding others. Because the objectives of construction projects often conflict with each other, single-objective optimization does not offer practical solutions as optimizing one objective would often adversely affect the other objectives that are not being optimized. They then experimented with multi-objective optimization. The many multi-objective optimization approaches that they used have their own advantages and drawbacks when used in some scenarios with different sets of objectives. In this chapter, a review is presented of 16 multi-objective optimization approaches used in 55 research studies performed in the construction industry and that were published in the period 2012–2016. The discussion highlights the strengths and weaknesses of these approaches when used in different scenarios.",book:{id:"8521",slug:"multicriteria-optimization-pareto-optimality-and-threshold-optimality",title:"Multicriteria Optimization",fullTitle:"Multicriteria Optimization - Pareto-Optimality and Threshold-Optimality"},signatures:"Ibraheem Alothaimeen and David Arditi",authors:[{id:"304595",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Arditi",slug:"david-arditi",fullName:"David Arditi"},{id:"304596",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibraheem",middleName:null,surname:"Alothaimeen",slug:"ibraheem-alothaimeen",fullName:"Ibraheem Alothaimeen"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60097",title:"Robust Optimization: Concepts and Applications",slug:"robust-optimization-concepts-and-applications",totalDownloads:2559,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"Robust optimization is an emerging area in research that allows addressing different optimization problems and specifically industrial optimization problems where there is a degree of uncertainty in some of the variables involved. There are several ways to apply robust optimization and the choice of form is typical of the problem that is being solved. In this paper, the basic concepts of robust optimization are developed, the different types of robustness are defined in detail, the main areas in which it has been applied are described and finally, the future lines of research that appear in this area are included.",book:{id:"6587",slug:"nature-inspired-methods-for-stochastic-robust-and-dynamic-optimization",title:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization",fullTitle:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization"},signatures:"José García and Alvaro Peña",authors:[{id:"227809",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"jose-garcia",fullName:"Jose Garcia"},{id:"240407",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Peña",slug:"alvaro-pena",fullName:"Alvaro Peña"}]},{id:"76058",title:"Ultrasonic Detection of Down Syndrome Using Multiscale Quantiser with Convolutional Neural Network",slug:"ultrasonic-detection-of-down-syndrome-using-multiscale-quantiser-with-convolutional-neural-network",totalDownloads:388,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Down Syndrome is a genetic condition that occurs when there is an extra copy of a chromosome 21 in the newly formed fetus. EIF is observed as one of the possible symptoms of DS. But in comparison to the other symptoms like nasal bone hypoplasia, increased thickness in the nuchal fold, EIF is very much less prone to DS. Hence, recommending the pregnant women with EIF to undergo the diagnostic process like amniocentesis, CVS and PUBS is not always a right choice as these diagnostic processes suffer serious drawbacks like miscarriage, uterine infections. This chapter “Ultrasonic Detection of Down Syndrome Using Multiscale Quantiser With Convolutional Neural Network” presents a new ultrasonic method to detect EIF that can cause DS. Ultrasonic Detection of Down Syndrome Using Multiscale Quantiser with Convolutional Neural Network entails two stages namely i) training phase and ii) testing phase. Training phase aims at learning the features of EIF that can cause DS whereas testing phase classifies the EIF into DS positive or DS negative based on the knowledge cluster formed during the training phase. A new algorithm Multiscale Quantiser with the convolutional neural network is used in the training phase. Enhanced Learning Vector Classifier is used in the testing phase to differentiate the normal EIF from EIF causing DS. The performance of the proposed system is analysed in terms of sensitivity, accuracy and specificity.",book:{id:"9965",slug:"computational-optimization-techniques-and-applications",title:"Computational Optimization Techniques and Applications",fullTitle:"Computational Optimization Techniques and Applications"},signatures:"Michael Dinesh Simon and A.R. Kavitha",authors:[{id:"213441",title:"Dr.",name:"A.R.Kavitha",middleName:null,surname:"Balaji",slug:"a.r.kavitha-balaji",fullName:"A.R.Kavitha Balaji"},{id:"335252",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Dinesh Simon",slug:"michael-dinesh-simon",fullName:"Michael Dinesh Simon"}]},{id:"51131",title:"Survey of Meta-Heuristic Algorithms for Deep Learning Training",slug:"survey-of-meta-heuristic-algorithms-for-deep-learning-training",totalDownloads:3160,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Deep learning (DL) is a type of machine learning that mimics the thinking patterns of a human brain to learn the new abstract features automatically by deep and hierarchical layers. DL is implemented by deep neural network (DNN) which has multi-hidden layers. DNN is developed from traditional artificial neural network (ANN). However, in the training process of DL, it has certain inefficiency due to very long training time required. Meta-heuristic aims to find good or near-optimal solutions at a reasonable computational cost. In this article, meta-heuristic algorithms are reviewed, such as genetic algorithm (GA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO), for traditional neural network’s training and parameter optimization. Thereafter the possibilities of applying meta-heuristic algorithms on DL training and parameter optimization are discussed.",book:{id:"5165",slug:"optimization-algorithms-methods-and-applications",title:"Optimization Algorithms",fullTitle:"Optimization Algorithms - Methods and Applications"},signatures:"Zhonghuan Tian and Simon Fong",authors:[{id:"1952",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon",middleName:null,surname:"Fong",slug:"simon-fong",fullName:"Simon Fong"},{id:"186166",title:"MSc.",name:"Zhonghuan",middleName:null,surname:"Tien",slug:"zhonghuan-tien",fullName:"Zhonghuan Tien"}]},{id:"58127",title:"Particle Swarm Optimization Solution for Power System Operation Problems",slug:"particle-swarm-optimization-solution-for-power-system-operation-problems",totalDownloads:1675,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Application of particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm on power system operation is studied in this chapter. Relay protection coordination in distribution networks and economic dispatch of generators in the grid are defined as two of power system-related optimization problems where they are solved using PSO. Two case study systems are conducted. The first case study system investigates applicability of PSO on providing proper overcurrent relay settings in the grid, while in the second case study system, the economic dispatch of a 15-unit system is solved where PSO successfully provides the optimum power output of generators with minimum fuel costs to satisfy the load demands and operation constraints. The simulation results in comparison with other methods show the effectiveness of PSO against other algorithms with higher quality of solution and less fuel costs on the same test system.",book:{id:"6363",slug:"particle-swarm-optimization-with-applications",title:"Particle Swarm Optimization with Applications",fullTitle:"Particle Swarm Optimization with Applications"},signatures:"Mostafa Kheshti and Lei Ding",authors:[{id:"120842",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Kheshti",slug:"mostafa-kheshti",fullName:"Mostafa Kheshti"},{id:"213017",title:"Prof.",name:"Lei",middleName:null,surname:"Ding",slug:"lei-ding",fullName:"Lei Ding"}]},{id:"51209",title:"A Review and Comparative Study of Firefly Algorithm and its Modified Versions",slug:"a-review-and-comparative-study-of-firefly-algorithm-and-its-modified-versions",totalDownloads:2941,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Firefly algorithm is one of the well-known swarm-based algorithms which gained popularity within a short time and has different applications. It is easy to understand and implement. The existing studies show that it is prone to premature convergence and suggest the relaxation of having constant parameters. To boost the performance of the algorithm, different modifications are done by several researchers. In this chapter, we will review these modifications done on the standard firefly algorithm based on parameter modification, modified search strategy and change the solution space to make the search easy using different probability distributions. The modifications are done for continuous as well as non-continuous problems. Different studies including hybridization of firefly algorithm with other algorithms, extended firefly algorithm for multiobjective as well as multilevel optimization problems, for dynamic problems, constraint handling and convergence study will also be briefly reviewed. A simulation-based comparison will also be provided to analyse the performance of the standard as well as the modified versions of the algorithm.",book:{id:"5165",slug:"optimization-algorithms-methods-and-applications",title:"Optimization Algorithms",fullTitle:"Optimization Algorithms - Methods and Applications"},signatures:"Waqar A. Khan, Nawaf N. Hamadneh, Surafel L. Tilahun and Jean\nM. T. Ngnotchouye",authors:[{id:"180330",title:"Dr.",name:"Surafel",middleName:null,surname:"Tilahun",slug:"surafel-tilahun",fullName:"Surafel Tilahun"},{id:"180784",title:"Dr.",name:"Waqar Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"waqar-ahmed-khan",fullName:"Waqar Ahmed Khan"},{id:"185148",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawaf",middleName:null,surname:"Hamadneh",slug:"nawaf-hamadneh",fullName:"Nawaf Hamadneh"},{id:"185149",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean M. T.",middleName:null,surname:"Ngnotchouye",slug:"jean-m.-t.-ngnotchouye",fullName:"Jean M. T. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 4th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"267724",title:"Prof.",name:"Febronia",middleName:null,surname:"Kahabuka",slug:"febronia-kahabuka",fullName:"Febronia Kahabuka",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZpJQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-06-27T12:00:42.JPG",institutionString:"Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Tanzania",institution:{name:"Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Tanzania"}}},{id:"70530",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcio",middleName:"Campos",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"marcio-oliveira",fullName:"Márcio Oliveira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRm0AQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-08-01T12:34:46.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Feira de Santana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. His main interest is in prosthodontics, dental material, TMD and regenerative dentistry.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82991",title:"Diseases of the Canine Prostate Gland",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105835",signatures:"Sabine Schäfer-Somi",slug:"diseases-of-the-canine-prostate-gland",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"82956",title:"Potential Substitutes of Antibiotics for Swine and Poultry Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106081",signatures:"Ho Trung Thong, Le Nu Anh Thu and Ho Viet Duc",slug:"potential-substitutes-of-antibiotics-for-swine-and-poultry-production",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Antibiotics and Probiotics in Animal Food - Impact and Regulation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"82905",title:"A Review of Application Strategies and Efficacy of Probiotics in Pet Food",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105829",signatures:"Heather Acuff and Charles G. 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He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. 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