Comparison of emissions released by biodiesel and conventional diesel fuel [19].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5378",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"The Epidemiology and Ecology of Leishmaniasis",title:"The Epidemiology and Ecology of Leishmaniasis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne, parasitic disease with tremendous variety in presentation, biology, and epidemiology. Any book on this disease must acknowledge the nearly impossible task of providing an exhaustive account of leishmaniasis simply because the epidemiology of the disease is so very complex. This book addresses some of this variety with chapters on the epidemiology of leishmaniasis in North Africa, Central America, and South America. The purpose of the book is not to specifically address diagnosis and treatment of the disease, but rather to provide a sample of the differing epidemiologies of leishmaniasis that occur due to variations in local habitats; the presence of different vectors, reservoirs, and agents; and the wide variety of cultures in which this disease occurs.",isbn:"978-953-51-2972-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2971-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7346-5",doi:"10.5772/62617",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"the-epidemiology-and-ecology-of-leishmaniasis",numberOfPages:176,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"862e269e0512a4763bba54d355c3c44f",bookSignature:"David Claborn",publishedDate:"March 1st 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5378.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13530,numberOfWosCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:37,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:80,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 15th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 5th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 10th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 8th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 7th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"169536",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Claborn",slug:"david-claborn",fullName:"David Claborn",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169536/images/system/169536.jpeg",biography:"David Claborn is a Professor of Public Health at Missouri State University (MSU), USA, where he teaches courses in environmental health, infectious disease, and international health. He obtained a DrPH from the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, with his dissertation on the re-emergence of malaria in South Korea. He has been the director of the Master of Public Health program at MSU since 2013. Prior to his academic career, Dr. Claborn served in the US Navy for 20 years, retiring at the rank of Commander in 2008. His work as a medical entomologist has taken him to several international settings including Japan, Australia, South Korea, Italy, and, during Operation Desert Storm, Saudi Arabia.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Missouri State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1134",title:"Population Health",slug:"population-health"}],chapters:[{id:"52357",title:"Living on the Edge: Border Countries Should Have Strict Veterinary and Health Policy on Leishmaniasis",doi:"10.5772/65273",slug:"living-on-the-edge-border-countries-should-have-strict-veterinary-and-health-policy-on-leishmaniasis",totalDownloads:1347,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"First human and canine cases as well as presence of competent Phlebotomine fly vectors are reported for the first time in Slovenia. Number of infected dogs in Slovenia has been increasing in the last few years. Having increased number of infected dogs and a presence of proven Phlebotomine fly vectors at the same time in a climatically suitable region may lead to endemic spread of the disease. And that is the kind of situation calling for governmental regulation. Basic preparedness and rapid response mechanisms should be in place. Leishmaniasis cases should be detected early and reaction should be quick. In epidemic-prone areas and before the anticipated outbreak season, the responsibilities of the outbreak task force members should be defined; the necessary needs for response, surveillance, and control should be assessed; the surveillance system should be reinforced; criteria for epidemic alert should be set up; and all health facilities should be provided with minimum stocks of basic diagnostic and treatment supplies. Successful preventive measures should include regular veterinary checks of all imported dogs and dogs traveling outside the country, vector control, use of effective repellents, sleeping indoors with nets on the windows, and antileishmanial vaccination of dogs.",signatures:"Tina Kotnik and Vladimir Ivović",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52357",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52357",authors:[{id:"186975",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tina",surname:"Kotnik",slug:"tina-kotnik",fullName:"Tina Kotnik"},{id:"188027",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Ivovic",slug:"vladimir-ivovic",fullName:"Vladimir Ivovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"54155",title:"Clinical Manifestations of Visceral Leishmaniasis (American Visceral Leishmaniasis)",doi:"10.5772/67398",slug:"clinical-manifestations-of-visceral-leishmaniasis-american-visceral-leishmaniasis-",totalDownloads:1715,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is the most severe form of leishmaniasis. It is endemic in tropical and subtropical countries and responsible for about 50,000 deaths annually. It is characterized by irregular fever, progressive pallor, spleen and liver growth, and consequent increase in abdominal volume, lymphadenopathy, anorexia, and weight loss. Some changes in epidermal structures can be observed such as dry, brittle and depigmented hair, while the eyelashes are long and silky, pale skin, and as the disease progresses may arise petechiae, ecchymosis, hemorrhagic suffusion, and sometimes jaundice. Edema appears very often, mainly in lower limbs. Hematologic changes are manifested by the reduction of all blood cells. Hypoalbuminemia is a frequent finding, while globulin increases. The patient suspected of having the disease is the one who has fever and splenomegaly. It is valuable to the diagnosis of epidemiological data, history of irregular fever, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, and blood disorders such as pancytopenia and hypoalbuminemia. In the course of the disease, bacterial infections are established, especially in the respiratory tract, sometimes responsible for the death. VL is a consumptive disease that requires specific treatment as early as possible.",signatures:"Celia M.S. Pedrosa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54155",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54155",authors:[{id:"187021",title:"Dr.",name:"Celia Maria",surname:"Pedrosa",slug:"celia-maria-pedrosa",fullName:"Celia Maria Pedrosa"}],corrections:null},{id:"53594",title:"Application of the Eco-Epidemiological Method in the Study of Leishmaniasis Transmission Foci",doi:"10.5772/66430",slug:"application-of-the-eco-epidemiological-method-in-the-study-of-leishmaniasis-transmission-foci",totalDownloads:1602,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study of transmission foci involves the clinical characterization of disease within a focus using active surveillance of human cases, characterization of the population group that is most frequently infected or at highest risk of becoming infected, diagnosis and treatment of infected people and identification of the conceptions, attitudes, beliefs and practices related to the disease. An entomological survey is necessary to determine the geographical distribution of species and incrimination of vector species, the ecological characteristics of the zone (macro-focus), times of the year and day of highest biting activity and places in homes in which the most frequent contact between the people and the vectors occurs. A survey of peri-domestic and wild mammals in the area is advisable to try to identify potential reservoir hosts. Using this information, it is feasible to design specific and accurate prevention and effective, rational and economic control measures and define the times of the year and locations in which these measures must be applied. In this chapter, a description of the application of the eco-epidemiological method to the study of leishmaniasis transmission foci is provided. A special emphasis is placed on the methodology, multidisciplinary work and analysis of findings.",signatures:"Iván D. Vélez, Lina M. Carrillo, Horacio Cadena, Carlos Muskus and\nSara M. Robledo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53594",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53594",authors:[{id:"187783",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara M.",surname:"Robledo",slug:"sara-m.-robledo",fullName:"Sara M. Robledo"},{id:"189117",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan D.",surname:"Velez",slug:"ivan-d.-velez",fullName:"Ivan D. Velez"},{id:"189118",title:"Dr.",name:"Lina M.",surname:"Carrillo",slug:"lina-m.-carrillo",fullName:"Lina M. Carrillo"},{id:"189119",title:"Dr.",name:"Horacio",surname:"Cadena",slug:"horacio-cadena",fullName:"Horacio Cadena"},{id:"189120",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Muskus",slug:"carlos-muskus",fullName:"Carlos Muskus"}],corrections:null},{id:"53752",title:"Visceral Leishmaniasis and Natural Infection Rates of Leishmania in Lutzomyia longipalpis in Latin America",doi:"10.5772/65787",slug:"visceral-leishmaniasis-and-natural-infection-rates-of-leishmania-in-lutzomyia-longipalpis-in-latin-a",totalDownloads:1834,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Leishmaniasis, a neglected disease caused by protozoans of the Leishmania genus, is still present in 98 countries with about two million new cases yearly worldwide. It is transmitted by female phlebotomine sandflies and presents itself as cutaneous, mucocutaneous and visceral clinical forms, depending on the Leishmania species and the parasite‐host relationship. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is caused by Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum chagasi, endemic in 12 countries of Latin America, with 90% of the cases reported in Brazil. VL is characterized by irregular bouts of fever, weight loss, hepatosplenomegaly and pancytopenia, being highly fatal with no treatment. The main strategy in limiting the expansion of VL, besides the treatment of human cases, is the control of the vector Lutzomyia longipalpis and its reservoirs. There are only few studies on the natural infection of Leishmania species, especially in relation to its endemic distribution. Epidemiological studies of leishmaniasis may indicate the infection rate of parasites in sandflies in order to assess the populations at risk and to direct public health control strategies. In this context, we aimed to review the main features of VL with regard the distribution of disease cases and natural infection rates of Leishmania in Lu. longipalpis in Latin America.",signatures:"Kárita Cláudia Freitas Lidani, Fabiana A. Andrade, Maria R.P.A.\nTizzot, Magda C.V. Costa-Ribeiro, Marcia H. Beltrame and Iara J.\nMessias-Reason",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53752",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53752",authors:[{id:"187223",title:"Dr.",name:"Kárita",surname:"Lidani",slug:"karita-lidani",fullName:"Kárita Lidani"},{id:"189200",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabiana",surname:"Antunes De Andrade",slug:"fabiana-antunes-de-andrade",fullName:"Fabiana Antunes De Andrade"},{id:"189201",title:"Dr.",name:"Magda Clara",surname:"Vieira Da Costa-Ribeiro",slug:"magda-clara-vieira-da-costa-ribeiro",fullName:"Magda Clara Vieira Da Costa-Ribeiro"},{id:"189204",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Regina",surname:"Pinheiro De Andrade Tizzot",slug:"maria-regina-pinheiro-de-andrade-tizzot",fullName:"Maria Regina Pinheiro De Andrade Tizzot"},{id:"189205",title:"Dr.",name:"Iara J.",surname:"Messias-Reason",slug:"iara-j.-messias-reason",fullName:"Iara J. Messias-Reason"},{id:"194880",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcia",surname:"Holsbach Beltrame",slug:"marcia-holsbach-beltrame",fullName:"Marcia Holsbach Beltrame"}],corrections:null},{id:"52734",title:"Epidemiology of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Tunisia",doi:"10.5772/65788",slug:"epidemiology-of-cutaneous-leishmaniasis-in-tunisia",totalDownloads:1509,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Tunisia, Zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ZCL) represents the most significant leishmaniasis form. The epidemic of ZCL emerged in Central Tunisia in 1982 and expanded to the whole central and southern parts of the country. Tunisian ZCL is caused by Leishmania (L). major zymodeme MON‐25 and transmitted by Phlebotomus papatasi. Rodents constitute the reservoir for ZCL. They include Psammomys obesus, Meriones shawi and Meriones libycus. ZCL occurs as seasonal epidemics and the annual incidence ranges from 2 to 10 thousand cases. Transmission of L. major by the phlebotomine sandfly vector occurs during the summer months, and active lesions in humans tend to emerge during the autumn and winter months. The symptoms of the disease are rather polymorphic, ranging from benign self‐limited cutaneous sores to more protracted and extensive lesions that may cause severe disfigurement. Asymptomatic infection occurs frequently in endemic areas indicating a high level of immunity of the residents in these regions. The transmission of ZCL, its drastic increase and its spread are influenced by environmental changes affecting the reservoir and vector geographic distributions and by the lack of efficacy of the control tools available.",signatures:"Bettaieb Jihène and Nouira Meriam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52734",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52734",authors:[{id:"186501",title:"Dr.",name:"Jihene",surname:"Bettaieb",slug:"jihene-bettaieb",fullName:"Jihene Bettaieb"},{id:"194369",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariem",surname:"Nouira",slug:"mariem-nouira",fullName:"Mariem Nouira"}],corrections:null},{id:"52819",title:"Ecoepidemiology of American Visceral Leishmaniasis in Tocantins State, Brazil: Factors Associated with the Occurrence and Spreading of the Vector Lutzomyia (Lutzomyia) longipalpis (Lutz & Neiva, 1912) (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae)",doi:"10.5772/65852",slug:"ecoepidemiology-of-american-visceral-leishmaniasis-in-tocantins-state-brazil-factors-associated-with",totalDownloads:1332,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Leishmaniases are considered serious public health problems, and their geographical expansion has enabled their establishment in urban areas of medium and large cities in Brazil. Continuous processes of deforestation, construction of dams, and hydroelectric plants, among others, cause environmental impact and may favor the increase in the number of human cases of leishmaniases, as well as the establishment of epidemic outbreaks. This scenario reflects the reality of some regions of Brazil, such as Tocantins State, which in recent years has recorded high levels of American visceral leishmaniasis (AVL). This study is aimed to analyze environmental and epidemiological factors related with the spatial and temporal distribution of AVL and with the occurrence of Lutzomyia (Lutzomyia) longipalpis, the main vector of AVL, in the state of Tocantins. The results indicate that the vector is adapted to all environments, especially the ones under human influence, and that anthropogenic environmental impacts can support the development and adaptation of AVL in Brazil. Such information could be applied in control strategies aimed at decreasing AVL incidence.",signatures:"Margarete Martins dos Santos Afonso, Sérgio Augusto de Miranda\nChaves, Mônica de Avelar Figueiredo Mafra Magalhães, Renata\nGracie, Carina Azevedo, Bruno Moreira de Carvalho and\nElizabeth Ferreira Rangel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52819",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52819",authors:[{id:"187580",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete",surname:"Martins dos Santos Afonso",slug:"margarete-martins-dos-santos-afonso",fullName:"Margarete Martins dos Santos Afonso"},{id:"194451",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Moreira De Carvalho",slug:"bruno-moreira-de-carvalho",fullName:"Bruno Moreira De Carvalho"},{id:"194452",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio",surname:"Augusto De Miranda Chaves",slug:"sergio-augusto-de-miranda-chaves",fullName:"Sérgio Augusto De Miranda Chaves"},{id:"194453",title:"Dr.",name:"Mônica",surname:"De Avelar Figueiredo Mafra Magalhães",slug:"monica-de-avelar-figueiredo-mafra-magalhaes",fullName:"Mônica De Avelar Figueiredo Mafra Magalhães"},{id:"194454",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizabeth",surname:"Ferreira Rangel",slug:"elizabeth-ferreira-rangel",fullName:"Elizabeth Ferreira Rangel"},{id:"194457",title:"MSc.",name:"Renata",surname:"Gracie",slug:"renata-gracie",fullName:"Renata Gracie"},{id:"196535",title:"Dr.",name:"Carina",surname:"Azevedo",slug:"carina-azevedo",fullName:"Carina Azevedo"}],corrections:null},{id:"52224",title:"Leishmaniasis in Tunisia: History and New Insights into the Epidemiology of a Neglected Disease",doi:"10.5772/65000",slug:"leishmaniasis-in-tunisia-history-and-new-insights-into-the-epidemiology-of-a-neglected-disease",totalDownloads:1363,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Tunisia, both cutaneous (CL) and visceral leishmaniases (VL) are historical diseases that have been described since the nineteenth century. Cutaneous form is more prevalent than the visceral one. It is caused by three taxa (Leishmania major, Leishmania infantum, and Leishmania killicki synonymous Leishmania tropica) and six zymodemes (MON-1, MON-8, MON-24, MON-25, MON-80, and MON-317). Among these dermotropic zymodemes, sand flies vectors and reservoir hosts were identified for only three ones. Transmission cycles of L. infantum MON-24 and MON-80 and L. killicki MON-317 are still unknown. Zoonotic CL is largely distributed and covers mainly the sub-arid and arid bioclimatic stages. Nevertheless, it has recently spread to the humid and sub-humid stages in northern Tunisia. Sporadic and chronic CL are less prevalent with limited geographical distribution. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is mainly infantile that affects children of <13 years. It is caused by the single taxon L. infantum. Transmission cycle of this parasite is zoonotic but not well elucidated. Three zymodemes are responsible for the genesis of VL (MON-1, MON-24 and MON-80). Only the transmission cycle of L. infantum MON-1 is identified. Geographically, VL is mainly distributed in the humid, sub-humid, and semi-arid bioclimatic stages of the country. Despite the large progress of knowledge in the ecoepidemiology of leishmaniases in Tunisia, many parameters of the transmission cycles of these taxa are still unknown and need further investigations to identify them.",signatures:"Najoua Haouas and Hamouda Babba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52224",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52224",authors:[{id:"174926",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamouda",surname:"Babba",slug:"hamouda-babba",fullName:"Hamouda Babba"},{id:"187609",title:"Dr.",name:"Najoua",surname:"Haouas",slug:"najoua-haouas",fullName:"Najoua Haouas"}],corrections:null},{id:"52898",title:"Eco-Epidemiological and Immunological Features of Localized Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Southeastern Mexico: Thirty Years of Study",doi:"10.5772/66130",slug:"eco-epidemiological-and-immunological-features-of-localized-cutaneous-leishmaniasis-in-southeastern-",totalDownloads:1437,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Yucatan Peninsula is considered an important endemic area of localized cutaneous leishmaniasis (LCL) caused by Leishmania (Leishmania) mexicana and mainly the states of Campeche and Quintana Roo where 41.5% of all new cases in Mexico were reported in 2015. People were affected due to the lack of the resources for early diagnosis and treatment and although many aspects of the disease are known, control of LCL is absent in this region. Thus, better case detection and epidemiological surveillance are required. The presence of emerging focus and changes in the clinical form suggest the importance of continuing the eco-epidemiological studies, which could lead to the implementation of a sustainable control on the disease. In this review, we focus on the results of our multi-disciplinary studies carried out in the southeastern Mexico, including LCL burden, clinical aspects, causal agents, vectors, reservoirs and the host immune response to Leishmania (L.) mexicana infection.",signatures:"Fernando J. Andrade-Narvaez, Nicole R. Van Wynsberghe, Erika I.\nSosa-Bibiano and Elsy Nalleli Loria-Cervera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52898",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52898",authors:[{id:"187837",title:"Dr.",name:"Elsy Nalleli",surname:"Loría-Cervera",slug:"elsy-nalleli-loria-cervera",fullName:"Elsy Nalleli Loría-Cervera"},{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez"},{id:"188882",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika Ivett",surname:"Sosa-Bibiano",slug:"erika-ivett-sosa-bibiano",fullName:"Erika Ivett Sosa-Bibiano"},{id:"188883",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicole",surname:"Van Wynsbrghe",slug:"nicole-van-wynsbrghe",fullName:"Nicole Van Wynsbrghe"}],corrections:null},{id:"52588",title:"Survey of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Mexico: Leishmania Species, Clinical Expressions and Risk Factors",doi:"10.5772/65501",slug:"survey-of-cutaneous-leishmaniasis-in-mexico-leishmania-species-clinical-expressions-and-risk-factors",totalDownloads:1392,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Leishmaniasis is caused by Leishmania sp., which is transmitted to human beings and reservoirs by phlebotomine sand flies, with worldwide prevalence of approximately 12 million cases with population at risk of approximately 350 million. Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is the most widespread form, causing localized skin lesions (LCL), mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL), or nodular lesions in diffused cutaneous leishmaniasis (DCL). American CL includes LCL and DCL caused by Leishmania mexicana complex and MCL caused by the Leishmania braziliensis complex. In Mexico, CL is distributed in three endemic areas, Gulf of Mexico, Pacific of Mexico, and Central Mexico. In order to monitor clinical outcome and adequately target treatment as well as epidemiologic studies, diagnostic kinetoplast DNA (kDNA), polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Southern and dot blotting, and ITS1 PCR-RFLP of Leishmania DNA were evaluated in samples and Leishmania isolates from patients with cutaneous ulcers from several endemic areas. In Mexico, LCL can be caused by the L. mexicana, L. braziliensis, or both complexes. DCL is caused by L. (L.) mexicana or Leishmania (L.) amazonensis and visceral leishmaniasis (VL) by Leishmania (L.) chagasi and L. (L.) mexicana in immunocompromised patients. The geographic range in which CL is endemic has increased due to urbanization, new settlements, and ecological, social, and educative conditions, which favors its permanence and transmission.",signatures:"Amalia Monroy-Ostria and Gustavo Sanchez-Tejeda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52588",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52588",authors:[{id:"187270",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Amalia",surname:"Monroy Ostria",slug:"amalia-monroy-ostria",fullName:"Amalia Monroy Ostria"},{id:"189116",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Sanchez Tejeda",slug:"gustavo-sanchez-tejeda",fullName:"Gustavo Sanchez Tejeda"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3842",title:"Leishmaniasis",subtitle:"Trends in Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"861f3ca84eede677ba6cd863093d62f8",slug:"leishmaniasis-trends-in-epidemiology-diagnosis-and-treatment",bookSignature:"David M. 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Energy consumption has increased steadily over the last century due to the world population growth and the technical progress development. The enormous economic growth on a global scale in the past century has led to the extensive use of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
\nA reason of concern was the extensive use of fossil fuels formed and stored underground for millions of years. It has made impossible for the present vegetation on Earth to treat the emitted carbon dioxide by photosynthesis. The result was greenhouse effect with the consequent climate changes. The climate changes assigned to the increased emissions of greenhouse gases forced humanity to develop alternative energy sources, one of them being biomass, either fresh or residual.
\nAnother reason for humanity to turn to the renewable energy resources is the concern of depletion of the overall oil reserves [1], because the eight great economies (except Brazil) and many other nations depend on oil, the consequences of inadequate oil availability could be severe. Therefore, there are great incentives in exploring alternative energy sources.
\nOne of the ways to cope with this global problem is to close the carbon cycle in nature by the use of renewable fuels enabling recycling the sources of biological origin by energy production and consumption of the resulting carbon by photosynthesis. Such biofuels are biogas (a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide) generated by anaerobic digestion of organic waste, ethanol, produced by fermentation of carbohydrates, and biodiesel, produced by transesterification of lipids.
\nThe main feature of these approaches is the utilization of organic waste as energy, thus leading to multiple benefits for the environment: waste treatment with energy production, closing the natural carbon cycle, and saving of fossil fuels. Moreover, there are options to utilize the biofuels and their derivatives and residues as sources for chemical production.
\nThe anaerobic digestion of organic waste is a well spread process in nature. The huge amounts of natural gas collected underground are formed by this process during millions of years. The result is gas, containing about 95% methane with some contaminations. Nowadays, this process is used for agricultural waste treatment producing biogas with satisfactory heating capacity. Biogas is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide with some contaminations of hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, ethane, etc. The methane content varies from 55 to 90% volume depending on the substrate nature and content, the method of digestion, etc. The gas containing less than 50% methane is not combustible.
\nBiogas is broadly distributed in countries with developed agriculture (like India, China, Brazil, etc.), being a cheap and environmentally friendly option for the simultaneous solution of waste treatment problems and energy demand. Anaerobic digestion is also a convenient technology for activated sludge utilization and waste treatment in the food industry, pulp and paper industry, in household waste treatment, etc.
\nThe anaerobic digestion with biogas production is a complicated process of consequent hydrolysis of organic macromolecules (carbohydrates and proteins) to oligosaccharides and peptides, acidogenesis to volatile fatty acids (mainly formic, acetic, and propionic), acetogenesis, and methanogenesis [2]. The overall process is shown in the scheme in Figure 1.
\nFour steps in biogas production [
The gross chemical reaction describing the first step, i.e., hydrolysis is:
\nIn the second step, acidogenic bacteria convert the products of hydrolysis into simple organic compounds, mostly short-chain carboxylic acids, ketones and alcohols.
\nThe chemical reactions are shown below. Glucose is parallely converted into ethanol and propionic acid:
\nThe acetogenic reactions are
\nIn the last step, methanogenic bacteria convert acetic acid into CH4 and CO2:
\nThere is another parallel pathway to produce methane by reduction of carbon dioxide resulting from formic acid degradation:
\nThe activity of the digesting bacteria and biogas production of gas is most rapid in two temperature ranges: between 29°C and 41°C (fermentation is known as mesophilic) or between 49°C and 60°C (the thermophilic range). The mesophilic regime between 32°C and 35°C is more reliable for stable and continuous production of methane. Biogas produced outside this temperature range is rich of carbon dioxide, it is not combustible and that is why it has no calorific value. The thermophilic regime gives higher yield of biogas, but with less net energy efficiency because of the energy losses for high temperature maintenance.
\nDifferent methanogenic strains are responsible for these parallel and competitive processes. The bacteria from the genus
The balance between decarboxylation of acetic acid and carbon dioxide reduction is important for the methane content in the resulting biogas. If only decarboxylation of acetic acid occurs, methane content will be 50% only. The high methane content in the biogas means that carbon dioxide reduction prevails.
\nAnyway, all methanogenic strain are vital in neutral media, i.e., for pH values between 6 and 8. Big deviations either in the acid domain or in the alkaline one lead to strong inhibition and even to death. Acidogenesis is one of the inevitable steps in biogas production. On one hand, methanogenesis is favorized by fatty acid formation, but on the other hand, it could be strongly inhibited by their accumulation due to the pH drop. In such cases, the produced gas is very rich in carbon dioxide and it is not combustible. That is why, one must be very careful in the feeding strategy by substrate and in the selection of bioreactor and flow organization.
\nOne suitable way to minimize the effect of acid accumulation on the biogas formation is to distribute spatially the consecutive processes of biogas formation and to carry them out simultaneously. Such a construction is the baffled bioreactor separated into consecutive compartments fed from the one end with outflow at the other one, cf. Figure 2. It is known that such reactors are stable toward disturbances in feed, pH oscillations, temperature variations, etc. [9].
\nMultistage bioreactor for biogas production.
The main advantage of this type of reactor in the considered case is the distribution of the different consecutive processes (hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis) in different reactor compartments. Due to its one-way feeding, the intermediate products in one compartment passed as substrates to the next one. Because of this feeding organization, different bacteria are spontaneously cultivated, specialized to transform different intermediates of the overall methanogenesis.
\nThere are successful applications of such bioreactor for biogas production by residual stillage from ethanol distillation as a feed [10]. The intermediate profile and the microbial distribution in eight compartment bioreactor for this process are illustrated in Figure 3 by author’s experimental data. Acetic and propionic acids prevail in the first three compartments where reducing sugars are present, due to the hydrolysis of carbohydrates. Obviously, the first three steps of biogas production, i.e., hydrolysis, acidogenesis, and acetogenesis predominantly take place in the first three compartments where sugars are present and the concentration of methanogenic bacteria is very low or negligible. Methanogenics prevails in the next compartments 5–7, which corresponds to the very low acid concentration. There are few methanogenic bacteria in compartment 8 which corresponds to the negligible acid concentration. The biogas productivity rate for those experiments was ca. 4 vol.biogas/vol.reactor/day.
\nAcid and microbial profiles along the compartments in the bioreactor (own data).
The biogas produced by anaerobic digestion finds applications in different area. First, it could be used directly for heating purposes. Next, after some processing to remove carbon dioxide and sulfur-containing compounds the biogas could replace partially the natural gas for local applications. This biogas could be supplied directly in the pipelines, it could be used for the public transport and for electricity production by cogeneration.
\nAnother promising application is the direct electricity production in fuel cells [11]. For this purpose, biogas should be scrubbed for carbon dioxide and sulfur compounds removal and then the purified methane could be fed to solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) and molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC). In this case, methane is directly converted to hydrogen and carbon monoxide by a catalyst in the anodic space. Another approach is to convert methane into carbon monoxide by steam reforming (SR) or partial oxidation reforming (POX) and consequent water-gas shift reaction to isolate hydrogen, supplied to a fuel cell:
\nThere are some papers claiming to utilize biogas as a source for other organic fuel production by catalytic auto-thermal reforming [12, 13]. Another approach is to use biogas being a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide to produce synthesis gas (mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen) [14]:
\nFurthermore, the synthesis gas could be converted into light hydrocarbons by the Fischer-Tropsch process.
\nBiodiesel consists of methyl or ethyl esters of fatty acids produced by transesterification of natural lipids. Different natural fats are used as raw materials, namely, rapeseed, soybean, processed residual sunflower oil, animal fats, and some kinds of algae. The latter are attractive because they can utilize the carbon dioxide from flue gases by photosynthesis thus reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases [15].
\nThe energy content of biodiesel is within 37 and 40 MJ/L compared to 46 MJ/L of the traditional diesel fuel. Biodiesel does not contain sulfur compounds.
\nThe idea for the use of vegetable oils as fuel for diesel engines is more than 100 years old [16, 17]. Just in the 1970s, the petrol crises and the enhanced environmental conscience in the modern societies have led to the secondary discovery of this possible alternative to the hydrocarbon-based fossil fuels. However, the direct use of vegetable oil as a fuel is not convenient, because of its very high viscosity, high flame point, trend to polymerization, etc., all leading to engine damage [18].
\nTransesterification with low alcohols is the best modification of natural oil for the biodiesel purposes.
\nToday, biodiesel is in commercial use throughout the world. It is used as a single fuel or blended with traditional diesel (with 30–36%).
\nBiodiesel is produced in the European Union since 1992. The world production attained 3.8 mln tons in 2005 to reach 3.7 mln tons only in the USA in 2007. The total world production for 2016 is about 15 mln tons.
\nBiodiesel does not contain sulfur and aromatic compounds and its use in the conventional engines leads to reduction of emissions of noncombusted hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. Comparison of the emissions resulting by the use of biodiesel and traditional one is shown in Table 1.
\nEmission type | \nBiodiesel | \nTraditional diesel | \n
---|---|---|
\n | (% of EU standards from 1993) | \n\n |
Carbon monoxide | \n60 | \n180 | \n
Hydrocarbon total | \n90 | \n150 | \n
Nitrogen oxides | \n65 | \n60 | \n
Fine particulates | \n95 | \n190 | \n
Comparison of emissions released by biodiesel and conventional diesel fuel [19].
The main disadvantage at biodiesel production and use is the uncertain standardization depending on the source of lipids. It reflects the different cetane number and the variable temperature of gelatinization depending on the esters and the raw material type.
\nAnother severe problem is crude glycerol, released as byproduct after transesterification of lipids. Its amount is about 10% of the substrate and it is almost equal of the methanol used. This residual glycerol is contaminated by potassium hydroxide, water, some nonreacted lipids, some soaps, and monoglycerides and diglycerides. The low quality of this product makes it impossible for direct practical application.
\nProvided the annual world production of biodiesel is about 15 mln metric tons, one could expect that 1.5 mln metric tons of crude glycerol would be released. It is an enormous amount and it poses the necessity for its application and processing.
\nPure glycerol has various practical applications but it could be hardly replaced by the residual crude glycerol after biodiesel production. That is why new application should be sought.
\nRecent studies show the opportunity for crude glycerol utilization as syngas by steam reforming [20–22], cf. Eq. (9). Other applications are proposed, for example, hydrogen production by photo-fermentation [23, 24], or as a fuel in fuel cells and microbial fuel cells [25, 26]. However, in these cases the contamination by methanol is not recommended [27, 28].
\nThe large amounts of residual crude glycerol prompted to the search of simultaneous waste treatment and for new applications as a raw material, alternative to the petrol for the traditional organic synthesis [29–31]. Such efforts are directed toward production of chemicals of broad industrial importance, e.g., polyols as precursors of plastics (2, 3-butanediol, 1, 3-propandiol) [32–35], propionic acid [36, 37], succinic acid [38], or hydrocarbons by catalytic reforming [39], for epichlorohydrin, some ethers [40], polyesters, etc.
\nAmong the potential applications of waste glycerol are the production of biodegradable polymers for packaging [31, 32, 41, 42], as antifreezing agents [43] as substrate for microbial syntheses, etc. Crude glycerol has been used as carbon source in the nutrition media for biopolymer production by the species
The bacterium
Metabolic pathway for glycerol digestion by bacteria from the genus
The studies of glycerol conversion at the metabolism of bacteria from the genus
Additionally, formic and acetic acids are also produced. These two carboxylic acids are very important for the consequent production of biogas being a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide.
\nThe studies of the metabolism of
The microbial production of acetic and formic acids from glycerol is interesting with the relationship of biogas production by anaerobic digestion. The two main pathways for biogas production by methanogenic bacteria are based on acetate decarboxylation, or carbon dioxide reduction by hydrogen, both produced from formic acid decomposition, cf. Eqs. (8) and (10).
\nConversion of glycerol into biogas by anaerobic fermentation is an interesting option to produce renewable energy together with waste glycerol treatment [56–58]. It is reported that glycerol considerably enhances biogas formation by properly selected microbial population [59]. There are also many studies for the glycerol impact on biogas yield from various substrates, such as cattle dung [60–62], pig manure [57, 62, 63], activated sludge [64–66], as well as at more complicated mixtures of cellulose and household waste [57, 58, 67].
\nIn any case, the results are considerable enhancement of biogas yield from 180 to 400% with respect to the reference substrate. It is typical, however, that the amounts of the added glycerol are restricted to 1–4% wt. from the main substrate. Addition of bigger amounts of glycerol leads to strong acidification of the broth and inhibition of methanogenesis [39, 56]. It means that no considerable amounts of crude glycerol could be utilized as biogas.
\nHowever, it was reported recently that crude glycerol may serve as a single substrate for biogas production with pretty high yield, i.e., 0.345 L biogas/g COD [68].
\nFor attainment of maximum efficient biogas production different schemes of bioreactor feed are studied, as well as choice of the reactor construction, flow organization, etc.
\nEthanol is a renewable energy source produced through fermentation of sugars. Ethanol is widely used as a partial gasoline replacement worldwide. Fuel ethanol that is produced from corn has been used in gasohol or oxygenated fuels since the 1980s. These gasoline fuels contain up to 10% ethanol by volume. As a result, the US transportation sector now consumes about 4540 million liters of ethanol annually, about 1% of the total consumption of gasoline. Recently, US automobile manufacturers have announced plans to produce significant numbers of flexible-fueled vehicles that can use an ethanol blend with 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline by volume—alone or in combination with gasoline. Using ethanol-blended fuel for automobiles can significantly reduce petroleum use and exhaust greenhouse gas emission.
\nEthanol is also a safer alternative to methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), the most common additive to gasoline used to provide cleaner combustion.
\nHowever, the cost of ethanol as an energy source is relatively high compared to fossil fuels. A dramatic increase in ethanol production using the current corn starch-based technology (or other cereals) may not be practical for small countries because corn production for ethanol will compete for the limited agricultural land needed for food and feed production. Additional drawback is the increasing prices of cereals used extensively as substrate for ethanol production by fermentation due to the enhanced demand and thus putting the third-world countries in disadvantaged position.
\nAn alternative potential source for low-cost ethanol production is to utilize lignocellulosic biomass (LCB) such as straw, stems, cobs, grass, sawdust, wood chips, and forestry waste. This approach is known as “second-generation” ethanol production. Extensive research has been completed on conversion of lingo-cellulose to ethanol in the past two decades [69–74].
\nThe conversion includes two main steps: pretreatment with hydrolysis of cellulose in the LCB to fermentable reducing sugars and fermentation of the sugars to ethanol [75].
\nThe purpose of pretreatment is to remove lignin and hemicellulose, reduce cellulose crystallinity, and increase the porosity of the materials. Physical, physical-chemical, chemical, and biological processes have been used for pretreatment of LCB. The hydrolysis is usually catalyzed by cellulolytic enzymes, and the fermentation is carried out by yeasts or bacteria. The factors that have been identified to affect the hydrolysis of cellulose include porosity (accessible surface area) of the waste materials, cellulose fiber crystallinity, and lignin and hemicellulose content [2, 75]. The presence of lignin and hemicellulose impedes the access of cellulases to cellulose, thus reducing the efficiency of the hydrolysis. Removal of lignin and hemicellulose, reduction of cellulose crystallinity, and increase of porosity in pretreatment processes can significantly improve the hydrolysis [76, 77].
\nAnother disadvantage of the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose is the strong product inhibition of glucose and therefore the low-product concentrations and the low-process rate. The easier but not environmentally friendly way is to use acid hydrolysis by sulfuric acid [78]. In this case, higher concentrations of fermentable sugars and oligosaccharides are produced. The usual approach is to employ a two-step dilute acid hydrolysis, where the hemicellulose is hydrolyzed to xylose and recovered in the first stage and a more vigorous second-stage hydrolysis is employed for conversion of cellulose to glucose [79].
\nSeveral different organisms have been proposed for convert fermenting sugars into ethanol. The mostly spread ones are the yeast,
The bacterium,
After fermentation ends the “beer” containing 2–12% ethanol is subjected to distillation to produce the azeotropic mixture of 96% (vol.) ethanol and 4% water. This mixture is not appropriate for blending with gasoline for the water separation, particularly at low temperatures. That is why additional drying is required to reach water content of less than 1%.
\nThe classical methods are extractive distillation by adding solvents like benzene, cyclohexane, or ether to break the azeotrope.
\nMost advantageous is the molecular sieve drying technology, where the azeotrope is passed through a bed of synthetic zeolite with uniform pore sizes which preferentially adsorb water molecules. After the bed becomes saturated, it is regenerated by heating or evacuating the bed to remove the adsorbed water. The most efficient technology is the vapor-phase “pressure swing” adsorption molecular sieve process [83]. Nowadays, this process is preferred to the classical extractive distillation due to the clean process and the lack of side chemical products due to extraction and distillation.
\nThe problem to be solved is the stillage processing. Stillage is the waste after ethanol distillation and it contains a lot of cellulose residues, nonfermented oligosaccharides, proteins, etc., with COD reaching 70 kg/m3. The stillage amounts are between 1 L/kg feedstock for cereals and 20 L/kg for cellulosic substrate from coniferous origin.
\nThere are different ways to treat this waste. One of them is to use it as animal feed after evaporation and concentration. Another option is to use it as substrate for single cell protein production with the subsequent use as animal fed of the residue. The simplest and the straightforward method is to use stillage for biogas production by anaerobic digestion [84, 85]. According to our experience, the produced biogas has over 70% (vol.) methane content. The COD was decreased from 70 to 1 g/L (over 98% efficiency) and after some additional treatment the wastewater could safely discharged or used for irrigation.
\nThere is a relatively new proposal for consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) of lingo-cellulosic materials consisting in cellulase production, substrate hydrolysis, and fermentation accomplished in a single process by cellulolytic microbes [86].
\nCBP offers the potential for lower biofuel production costs due to simpler substrate processing, low energy inputs, and higher conversion efficiencies compared to separate hydrolysis and fermentation processes. It is an economically attractive goal for “third-generation” biofuel production.
\nThe use of ethanol as fuel depends on the oil prices on the global market and the local regulations in the different states. However, they are other options to use the “bioethanol” as a substrate and a raw material for chemical purposes. Besides the well-known applications as commodity product, chemical reactant, and solvent, ethanol may serve as a source of hydrogen production by steam reforming [87, 88] or chemical products, like ethylacetate [89, 90].
\nThe main problems associated to ethanol production for fuel purposes are either from economical or environmental point of view. The economic problems are related to the prices of cereals competing its application as food. Therefore, the extensive use of cereals for industrial or fuel purposes may be unfavorable for their alimental needs. Next, the demand of new area for crop growing may lead to deforestation and disturbing the biodiversity and environmental balance.
\nThe use of second-generation raw materials for ethanol production (cellulose-based waste) is restricted due to environmental reasons. Not all of the waste lingo-cellulosic biomass could be safely converted into ethanol without disturbing the natural ecological processes. The extensive use of lingo-cellulose for ethanol production could lead to deforestation and threat on biodiversity in large area of land. That is why decision making on the size and the rate of lingo-cellulosic waste use for this and for any other purpose should be very carefully, after precise and thorough environmental analysis.
\nUnfortunately, each of the described processes of biomass utilization ends with the inevitable release of carbon dioxide, resulting of the fuel combustion. Next, crops growing in industrial scale require considerable input of energy, most frequently taken from oil-based fuels. That is why abiotic carbon dioxide utilization and conversion is a major task for the future research and technology of biomass-based renewable fuels. There are two trends for this challenge: utilization photosynthesis by vegetation and recycling the biomass by chemical or electrochemical reduction to organic fuels, like methane.
\nThe first one is to pass flue gases containing carbon dioxide through greenhouse area containing algae capable to produce lipids and other organics being biofuels. Algae can be grown in open ponds, closed-loop systems, and photo-bioreactors. Algae are capable of much higher yields with lower resource inputs than other feedstock and that is why they are moved to an own category. The following biofuels could be produced by algae: biodiesel, butanol, gasoline, methane, ethanol, and kerosene [91, 92].
\nThere are some problems associated with the efficiency of photosynthesis for industrial purposes, the utilization rate of carbon dioxide, etc. Another drawback regarding algae is that biofuel produced from them are less chemically stable than biodiesel produced from other sources because the biofuels have unsaturated bonds in their molecules and they are subjected to spontaneous polymerization.
\nAnother approach is to utilize carbon dioxide as a raw material for various chemical products, like ethers, dimethylcarbonate, as antiknocking additive, monomers for plastics production, acyl carbonates [93]. All of these products are currently produced from petrol and that is why carbon dioxide recycling is important to greenhouse emissions but also to the reduced use of oil as a whole.
\nOn the other hand, carbon dioxide is irreplaceable tool for supercritical extraction of biologically active and thermo-instable substances from natural products.
\nAn attractive approach is to reduce electrochemically carbon dioxide to methane in presence of methanogenic bacteria [94–97] or to ethanol and acetic acid [98].
\nThe present review demonstrates different options for biomass utilization to replace, at least partially, the use of fossil fuels and thus to reduce the pressure of greenhouse gases emissions and to close the carbon cycle in nature within the present times. The biomass and the waste of biofuel production could be also utilized as raw material for various chemical manufacturing currently produced from oil. However, in some cases this option may additionally influence the environment and create secondary pollution. It could happen in cases of bioethanol and biodiesel production when large area of land is required for crop growth and much energy for crop production is requested. That is why local solutions about the use of renewable fuels based on biomass should be made very careful after thorough environmental analysis.
\nMore attractive option is biogas production and utilization, because it is always related to simultaneous waste processing and energy production with closing the carbon cycle at local level.
\nOf course, the most promising research is dedicated to carbon dioxide recycling turning it to fuels or value-added chemicals.
\nThis work was supported by the National Science Fund of Bulgaria under the grant DFNI-E02/16, 2014.
\nThe occurrence of side effects after vaccination is a normal phenomenon; most side effects are local reactions and systemic effects are usually rare [1].
The safety of COVID-19 vaccines has been closely monitored during clinical trials, but even now, during their use, both local and systemic adverse reactions occur immediately after administration and delayed reactions [1].
Several types of COVID 19 vaccines have been used or are being used (Table 1):
Vaccine | Trade-named | Type |
---|---|---|
Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 | Comirnaty | mRNA vaccine1 |
Moderna COVID-19 | Spikevax | mRNA vaccine1 |
Janssen COVID-19 | Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 | Viral vector vaccine2 |
Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 | Vaxzevria, Covishield | Viral vector vaccine3 |
Sinopharm BIBP COVID-19 | BBIBP-CorV | Inactivated virus vaccine4 |
CoronaVac COVID-19 | Sinovac COVID-19 | Inactivated virus vaccine4 |
Gam-COVID-Vac | Sputnik V | Viral vector vaccine5 |
NVX-CoV2373 | Novavax COVID-19 | Protein subunit vaccine and a virus-like particle vaccine, though the producers call it a “recombinant nanoparticle vaccine”6 |
BBV152 | Covaxin | Inactivated virus vaccine4 |
AD5-nCOV | Convidecia | Viral vector vaccine7 |
CIGB-66 | Abdala | Subunit vaccine8 |
EpiVacCorona | Peptide vaccine9 | |
ZF2001 | Zifivax | Subunit vaccine7 |
FINLAY-FR-2 | Soberana 02 | Conjugate vaccine10 |
CoviVac | Inactivated virus vaccine4 | |
VLA2001 | Valneva COVID-19 vaccine | Inactivated virus vaccine4 |
QazCovid-in | QazVac | Inactivated virus vaccine4 |
Minhai COVID-19 vaccine | KCONVAC | Inactivated virus vaccine4 |
COVIran Barekat | Inactivated virus-vaccine4 | |
Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences COVID-19 vaccine IMBCAMS COVID-19 vaccine | Covidful | Inactivated virus vaccine4 |
MVC-COV1901 | Medigen | Protein subunit vaccine6 |
ZyCoV-D | DNA plasmid based COVID-19 vaccine11 | |
FAKHRAVAC | MIVAC | Inactivated virus vaccine4 |
COVAX-19 | SpikoGen | Protein subunit vaccine6 |
Razi Cov Pars | Protein subunit vaccine6 | |
Turkovac | ERUCOV-VAC | Inactivated virus vaccine4 |
Sinopharm CNBG COVID-19 vaccine | Recombinant protein subunit vaccine6 | |
Corbevax | Protein subunit vaccine6 | |
FINLAY-FR-1A, | Soberana Plus | Conjugate vaccine10 |
CoVLP | Virus-Like Particle vaccine12 | |
Noora | Protein-based vaccine6 |
COVID-19 vaccines [2].
type of vaccine that uses a copy of a molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA) to produce an immune response.
adenovirus serotype 26.
chimpanzee adenovirus ChAdOx1.
vaccine consisting of virus particles that have been grown in culture and then killed to destroy disease-producing capacity.
adenovirus serotype 26 for the first shot and serotype 5 for the second.
the vaccine that contains purified parts of the pathogen that are antigenic, or necessary to elicit a protective immune response.
adenovirus serotype 5.
contains purified parts of the pathogen that are antigenic.
subunit vaccines made from peptides.
type of subunit vaccine which combines a weak antigen with a strong antigen as a carrier so that the immune system has a stronger response to the weak antigen.
type of vaccine that transfects a specific antigen-coding DNA sequence into the cells of an organism as a mechanism to induce an immune response.
molecules that closely resemble viruses, but are non-infectious because they contain no viral genetic material.
The most common local effects after vaccination are pain, redness, and swelling at the injection site [3]. In a study conducted in the Czech Republic, on 922 health workers, local pain was reported in 89.8% of cases, after the administration of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine [4]. Side effects after the second shot may be more intense than the ones experienced after the first shot [3].
Tiredness, headache, muscle aches, chills, joint pain, and fever (more common after the second dose) were also reported [5].
In his paper published in 2021, Meo et al. [6] analyzed the most recent and eloquent data on the side effects of the 2 RNA vaccines, Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 and Moderna, data published in the Web of Science (Clarivate Analytics), PubMed, EMBASE, World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Drug Authorities (FDA) USA, Local Ministries, Health Institutes, and Google Scholar. It was found that the most common reactions caused by administration of the first dose vaccine of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 were pain, swelling, redness, fever, fatigue, headache, chills, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle pain, joint pain, lymphadenopathy, shoulder injury, right axillary lymphadenopathy, paroxysmal ventricular arrhythmia, syncope, and right leg paresthesia [7]; and pain, swelling, redness at the site of vaccine, fever, fatigue, headache, chills, vomiting, arthralgia, myalgia, and urticaria after the first dose of Moderna vaccine (Figure 1) [7]. Moderate or severe reactions have been reported after the second dose of vaccine, and facial swelling and Bell’s palsy have also been reported [8].
Comparison between frequencies of adverse effects of Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna vaccines [
Also, the most common reactions after administration of the most commonly used vaccines are shown in the Table 2 [2].
Vaccine | Side effects prevalence | Common Side effects |
---|---|---|
Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 | < 1 in 10 people. | Pain and swelling at the injection site, tiredness, headache, muscle aches, chills, joint pain, and fever |
< 1 in 1000 people | Temporary one-sided facial drooping and allergic reactions such as hives or swelling of the face | |
Moderna COVID-19 | < 1 in 10 people. | Pain at the injection site, fatigue, headache, myalgia (muscle pain), and arthralgia (joint pain) |
< 1 in 1000 people | Delayed cutaneous reactions at injection site resulting in rash-like erythemas | |
Janssen COVID-19 | < 1 in 10 people. | Pain and swelling at the injection site, redness, headache, tiredness, muscle pain, nausea, coughing, joint pain, fever, and chills |
< 1 in 100 people. | sneezing, tremor, throat pain, rash, sweating, muscle weakness, pain in the arms and legs, backache, weakness, and feeling generally unwell | |
< 1 in 1000 people | hypersensitivity (allergy), and itchy rash | |
Oxford-AstraZeneca COVID-19 | < 1 in 10 people | Vomiting, diarrhea, fever, swelling, redness at the injection site, and low levels of blood platelets |
< 1 in 100 people. | Enlarged lymph nodes, decreased appetite, dizziness, sleepiness, sweating, abdominal pain, itching, and rash | |
< 1 in 1000 people | Hypersensitivity (allergy) |
The most common reactions after administration of Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, Janssen, and Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccines [2].
Most side effects were mild and moderate, and severe allergic reactions were rare [10]. In patients who have experienced severe side effects after receiving the first dose of mRNA vaccines, dose 2 has not been given. Also, no other dose was given to patients who experienced severe allergic reactions after COVID 19 Janssen or Oxford-Astra Zeneca vaccines [10].
Documented hypersensitivity to polyethylene glycol (PEG) is a contraindication to the COVID-19 Pfizer vaccine, severe allergic reaction has been observed in about 10 cases per million doses of vaccine administered [11].
According to the Center for Disease Control (CDC), the 15-minute postvaccination monitoring recommendation is certified by the fact that most allergic reactions (71%) occur during this period, especially in patients with a history of allergic events (81%) [11].
Anaphylaxis after COVID-19 vaccination is rare with rates of 4.7 cases/million Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine doses administered and 2.5 cases/million Moderna vaccine doses administered [12]. In cases where anaphylaxis has been reported, it has occurred within the first 15 minutes of receiving the vaccine, especially at the first dose of vaccine, usually in people who have reported allergic reactions or anaphylaxis in their medical history [13].
Myocarditis and pericarditis after COVID-19 vaccination are rare. Most cases have been reported after receiving Pfizer-BioNTech or Moderna (mRNA COVID-19 vaccines), particularly in male adolescents and young adults [14]. Most of them (95%) had mild or moderate manifestations, self-limiting in most cases, and did not require hospitalization for more than four days [15, 16]. Myocarditis has been reported more often after the second dose, usually within a week of vaccination [14].
According to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), a significant number of cases of myocarditis have been reported in young people, after the administration of mRNA vaccine, especially the second dose, with favorable evolution under specific treatment and hospitalization [17].
Related to the age group, most cases were reported in young people in the 16–17 age group (105.9 cases per one million doses) [17], followed by the 12–15 age group (70.7 cases per one million doses) and 18–24 age group (52.4 cases per million doses) [17].
In the study published in August 2021 by Diaz et al., myocarditis occurred a median of 3.5 days (IQR, 3.0–10.8 days) after mRNA vaccination, the median age was 36 years (IQR, 26–48 years), all were discharged after a median of 2 days (IQR, 2–3 days), and there were no readmissions or deaths [18].
Pericarditis developed especially after the second immunization, median onset was 20 days (IQR, 6.0–41.0 days) after the vaccination, median age was 59 years (IQR, 46–69 years median stay in hospital was 1 day (IQR, 1–2 days), no deaths were reported [18].
Thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome (TTS) has been associated with the administration of the Janssen COVID-19 vaccine [19]. TTS is rare and has occurred in approximately 4 cases per one million doses administered [19]. A review of reports indicates a causal relationship between the Janssen COVID-19 vaccine and TTS [20, 21].
The following features were found in relation to TTS [20, 21]:
All side effects have been reported after the first dose of the Janssen COVID-19 vaccine (none after booster doses).
Median time from vaccination to symptom onset: 9 days (range 0–18 days).
48% are women aged <50 years.
Median age: 44.5 years (range 18–70 years).
83% in White non-Hispanic persons.
54% have a cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST).
Venous thrombosis risk factors in U.S. TTS cases following Janssen COVID-19 vaccination are [20, 21]: obesity (46%), hypertension (30%), diabetes (13%), and systemic estrogen therapy (6%).
Thrombotic adverse events have also been reported following the administration of the Oxford-AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine, especially in younger women [19, 22]. Analysis of VigiBase reported embolic and thrombotic events after vaccination with Oxford-AstraZeneca, found a related incidence of 0.21 cases per 1 million vaccinated-days [23].
The following characteristics were found in cases with TTS in connection with Astra Zeneca COVID-19 vaccination [19]:
TTS developed 5 to 24 days after initial vaccination.
Women younger than 50 years of age, some of whom were receiving estrogen replacement therapy or oral contraceptives.
Patients were known to have had previous thrombosis or a preexisting prothrombotic condition.
A high percentage of the patients had thromboses at unusual sites (cerebral venous sinus thrombosis or thrombosis in the portal, splanchnic, or hepatic veins).
The median platelet counts at diagnosis were approximately 20,000 to 30,000 per cubic millimeter (range, approximately 10,000 to 110,000).
Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) in people who have received the Janssen COVID-19 vaccine is a very rare side effect and was reported during the 42 days following vaccination, especially in men ages 50 years and older [24].
Based on a recent analysis of data from the Vaccine Safety Datalink, the rate of GBS was 11 times higher following Janssen COVID-19 vaccination compared to Pfizer-BioNTech or Moderna (mRNA COVID-19 vaccines) [25].
In a study, conducted by Miguel García-Grimshaw and published in August 2021, on more than 3 million people who received mRNA vaccines, GBS was very rare, with incidence of 0.18/100,000 administered doses, within 30 days from first dose vaccine administration [26]. No cases were reported after second dose administration [26]. The presence of a concomitant trigger in most of our cases suggests a lack of mechanistic connection between mRNA vaccines and GBS [26].
Delayed hypersensitivity reactions after the administration of vaccines for COVID-19 have been reported, a median of 7 days after the first vaccine dose, mainly after administration of mRNA vaccines [27]. Delayed large local reactions were noted as well urticaria, morbilliform eruptions, erythromelalgia, erythema multiforme, vasculitis, petechiae, pityriasis-rosea-like exanthems, or persistent maculopapular exanthema [28, 29]. Angioedema and liver damage were also described [28, 29].
A number of very rare side effects have been reported with various vaccines:
A rare autoimmune neurologic disorder characterized by ascending weakness and paralysis after Janssen COVID-19 vaccination [30]
Ocular adverse effects like facial nerve palsy, abducens nerve palsy, acute macular neuroretinopathy, central serous retinopathy, thrombosis, uveitis, multiple evanescent white dot syndrome, Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease reactivation, and new-onset Graves’ Disease [31]
Reactive arthritis (ReA) after CoronaVac vaccination [32]
Auto-immune hepatitis following Covishield vaccination [33]
Sudden sensorineural hearing loss after Oxford-AstraZeneca Covid-19 vaccination [34]
Bullous pemphigoid rash following Moderna [35]
Interstitial lung disease after BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine [36]
COVID-19 vaccines are safe and effective; most side effects are mild and moderate and resolve in a few days. Severe reactions after vaccination are rare; however, the benefit of vaccination is much greater than the risk.
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
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\\n\\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
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\\n\\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
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\\n\\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\\n\\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
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\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\n\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\n\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\n\nWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
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\n\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\n\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\n\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\n\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
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Notably, enhanced AR signaling in CRPC has been documented in several studies; however, which of these factors are important for the biological function it remains poorly understood. Here, I review our current knowledge of the mechanistic roles of AR involved in prostate cancer progression and discuss the importance of the prostate cancer-associated signals.",book:{id:"6762",slug:"advances-in-testosterone-action",title:"Advances in Testosterone Action",fullTitle:"Advances in Testosterone Action"},signatures:"Ken-ichi Takayama",authors:[{id:"239221",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken-Ichi",middleName:null,surname:"Takayama",slug:"ken-ichi-takayama",fullName:"Ken-Ichi Takayama"}]},{id:"75047",title:"Role of Sex Hormones in Human Body",slug:"role-of-sex-hormones-in-human-body",totalDownloads:566,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Gonadal Steroids hormones play an important role in the reproductive and non-reproductive systems. Estrogen has important rule in cardiovascular system as it has vasodilator effect and reduces or prevents platelet activation. In addition, it improves the profile of circulating lipoproteins. All of which may explain why women at premenopausal age are less likely to have heart disease than menopause women or men. E2 play a grate effect on the skeletal system as it is one of the strongest regulators of osteoblast and osteoclast function, and it is responsible for the reduction of adipose tissue and regulation of the body weight, and also has dermatological effect,hence it stimulates the proliferation of keratinocytes and prevents their apoptosis, in addition to the progesterone which increases collagen synthesis. Estrogen is necessary for the functioning and integrity of the tissues of the urinary system specially of the lower urinary tract. Sex steroid are crucial for nervous system, as progesterone is important for production of neurosteroid, and estrogen is currently used in Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease because of its effects on mental health. The androgens also have a crucial biological effects on neural, muscle, bone, adipose tissue,prostate, cardiovascular, haemopoietic, and the reproductive systems. The gonadal steroid hormones play an important role in immune system and regulating the immune response against different viral or bacterial infections.",book:{id:"10313",slug:"reproductive-hormones",title:"Reproductive Hormones",fullTitle:"Reproductive Hormones"},signatures:"Nassrin Malik Aubead",authors:[{id:"329956",title:"Dr.",name:"Nassrin",middleName:null,surname:"Malik Aubead",slug:"nassrin-malik-aubead",fullName:"Nassrin Malik Aubead"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1014",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:23,paginationItems:[{id:"82392",title:"Nanomaterials as Novel Biomarkers for Cancer Nanotheranostics: State of the Art",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105700",signatures:"Hao Yu, Zhihai Han, Cunrong Chen and Leisheng Zhang",slug:"nanomaterials-as-novel-biomarkers-for-cancer-nanotheranostics-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11405.jpg",subseries:{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering"}}},{id:"82184",title:"Biological Sensing Using Infrared SPR Devices Based on ZnO",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104562",signatures:"Hiroaki Matsui",slug:"biological-sensing-using-infrared-spr-devices-based-on-zno",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hiroaki",surname:"Matsui"}],book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82122",title:"Recent Advances in Biosensing in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104922",signatures:"Alma T. Banigo, Chigozie A. Nnadiekwe and Emmanuel M. Beasi",slug:"recent-advances-in-biosensing-in-tissue-engineering-and-regenerative-medicine",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82080",title:"The Clinical Usefulness of Prostate Cancer Biomarkers: Current and Future Directions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103172",signatures:"Donovan McGrowder, Lennox Anderson-Jackson, Lowell Dilworth, Shada Mohansingh, Melisa Anderson Cross, Sophia Bryan, Fabian Miller, Cameil Wilson-Clarke, Chukwuemeka Nwokocha, Ruby Alexander-Lindo and Shelly McFarlane",slug:"the-clinical-usefulness-of-prostate-cancer-biomarkers-current-and-future-directions",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Cancer Bioinformatics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10661.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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