IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\n
Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\n
After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\n
\n\t
Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
\n\t
Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
\n\t
Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
\n\t
The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
\n
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
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Note: Edited in October 2021
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It presents comprehensive methodologies and up-to-date software along with examples of practical case studies from industrial areas to provide a realistic and authentic platform for readers.",isbn:"978-1-83968-400-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-399-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-401-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91570",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"practical-applications-in-reliability-engineering",numberOfPages:94,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"377d3c041a06cfcfc99bd906fdbbbf46",bookSignature:"Muhammad Zubair",publishedDate:"June 16th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10384.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1306,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 8th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 29th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 27th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 16th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 14th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"320007",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Zubair",slug:"muhammad-zubair",fullName:"Muhammad Zubair",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320007/images/system/320007.png",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Zubair is an Associate Professor at the Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Prior to this role, Dr. Zubair worked as an assistant professor and graduate program coordinator at the University of Engineering and Technology Taxila, Pakistan.\nDr. Zubair’s interests include nuclear reactor safety, accident analysis, reliability and risk analysis, digital instrumentation and control, and radiation detection and measurements. He has a strong research background supported by publications in international journals, conferences, and book chapters. He is engaged in different research projects including one coordinated by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). He also serves as editor, associate editor, and technical committee member for international journals and conferences.",institutionString:"University of Sharjah",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Sharjah",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"828",title:"Reliability Engineering",slug:"reliability-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"76775",title:"Introductory Chapter: An Overview of Reliability and Risk Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98255",slug:"introductory-chapter-an-overview-of-reliability-and-risk-analysis",totalDownloads:213,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Muhammad Zubair and Eslam Ahmed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76775",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76775",authors:[{id:"320007",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Zubair",slug:"muhammad-zubair",fullName:"Muhammad Zubair"},{id:"417511",title:"Dr.",name:"Eslam",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"eslam-ahmed",fullName:"Eslam Ahmed"}],corrections:null},{id:"75481",title:"The Optimal System for Complex Series-Parallel Systems with Cold Standby Units: A Comparative Analysis Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95274",slug:"the-optimal-system-for-complex-series-parallel-systems-with-cold-standby-units-a-comparative-analysi",totalDownloads:231,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this research is to propose three reliability models (configurations) with standby units and to study the optimum configuration between configurations analytically and numerically. The chapter considered the need for 60 MW generators in three different configurations. Configuration 1 has four 15 MW primary units, two 15 MW cold standby units and one 30 MW cold standby unit; Configuration 2 has three 20 MW primary units, three 20 cold standby units; Configuration 3 has two 30 MW primary units and three 30 MW cold standby units. Some reliability features of series–parallel systems under minor and complete failure were studied and contrasted by the current. Failure and repair time of all units is assumed to be exponentially distributed. Explanatory expressions for system characteristics such as system availability, mean time to failure (MTTF), profit function and cost benefits for all configurations have been obtained and validated by performing numerical experiments. Analysis of the effect of different system parameters on the function of profit and availability has been carried out. Analytical comparisons presented in terms of availability, mean time to failure, profit function and cost benefits have shown that configuration 3 is the optimal configuration. This is supported by numerical examples in contrast to some studies where the optimal configuration of the system is not uniform as it depends on some system parameters. Graphs and sensitivity analysis presented reveal the analytical results and accomplish that Configuration 3 is the optimal in terms of design, reliability physiognomies such as availability of the system, mean time to failure, profit and cost benefit. The study is beneficial to engineers, system designers, reliability personnel, maintenance managers, etc.",signatures:"Ibrahim Yusuf and Ismail Muhammad Musa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75481",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75481",authors:[{id:"326781",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ibrahim",surname:"Yusuf",slug:"ibrahim-yusuf",fullName:"Ibrahim Yusuf"},{id:"326782",title:"MSc.",name:"Ismail Muhammad",surname:"Musa",slug:"ismail-muhammad-musa",fullName:"Ismail Muhammad Musa"}],corrections:null},{id:"74961",title:"Importance Analysis of Containment Spray System in Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94412",slug:"importance-analysis-of-containment-spray-system-in-pressurized-water-reactor-pwr-",totalDownloads:330,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The basic purpose of the containment spray system (CSS) is to cool the containment atmosphere when the internal pressure of the containment exceeds a certain limit. Water is transferred by a pump from the storage tank via heat exchangers to the overhead spray nozzles in the roof of the containment. This water cools the atmosphere of the containment. In this research, the reliability analysis of CSS has been investigated using fault tree analysis (FTA). The results of the top event probabilities, minimal cut sets (MCS), risk decrease factor (RDF), risk increase factor (RIF), and sensitivity analysis were obtained for the WASH-1400 data base.",signatures:"Muhammad Zubair and Priyonta Rahman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74961",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74961",authors:[{id:"320007",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Zubair",slug:"muhammad-zubair",fullName:"Muhammad Zubair"},{id:"331065",title:"BSc.",name:"Priyonta",surname:"Rahman",slug:"priyonta-rahman",fullName:"Priyonta Rahman"}],corrections:null},{id:"75574",title:"Optimal Maintenance Policy for Second-Hand Equipments under Uncertainty",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96230",slug:"optimal-maintenance-policy-for-second-hand-equipments-under-uncertainty",totalDownloads:207,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter addresses a maintenance optimization problem for re-manufactured equipments that will be reintroduced into the market as second-hand equipments. The main difference of this work and the previous literature on the maintenance optimization of second-hand equipments is the influence of the uncertainties due to the indirect obsolescence concept. The uncertainty is herein about the spare parts availability to perform some maintenance actions on equipment due to technology vanishing. The maintenance policy involves in fact a minimal repair at failure and a preventive repair after some operating period. To deal with this shortcoming, the life cycle of technology or spare parts availability is defined and modeled as a random variable whose lifetimes distribution is well known and Weibull distributed. Accordingly, an optimal maintenance policy is discussed and derived for such equipment in order to overcome the uncertainty on reparation action. Moreover, experiments are then conducted and different life cycle of technologies are evaluated according to their obsolescence processes (accidental or progressive vanishing) on the optimal operating condition.",signatures:"Ibrahima dit Bouran Sidibe, Imene Djelloul, Abdou Fane and Amadou Ouane",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75574",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75574",authors:[{id:"220831",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ibrahima dit Bouran",surname:"Sidibe",slug:"ibrahima-dit-bouran-sidibe",fullName:"Ibrahima dit Bouran Sidibe"},{id:"222503",title:"Dr.",name:"Djelloul",surname:"Imene",slug:"djelloul-imene",fullName:"Djelloul Imene"},{id:"335208",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdou",surname:"Fane",slug:"abdou-fane",fullName:"Abdou Fane"},{id:"335209",title:"Dr.",name:"Amadou",surname:"Ouane",slug:"amadou-ouane",fullName:"Amadou Ouane"}],corrections:null},{id:"75609",title:"Digital On-Chip Calibration of Analog Systems towards Enhanced Reliability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96609",slug:"digital-on-chip-calibration-of-analog-systems-towards-enhanced-reliability",totalDownloads:325,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter deals with digital method of calibration for analog integrated circuits as a means of extending its lifetime and reliability, which consequently affects the reliability the analog electronic system as a whole. The proposed method can compensate for drift in circuit’s electrical parameters, which occurs either in a long term due to aging and electrical stress or it is rather more acute, being caused by process, voltage and temperature variations. The chapter reveals the implementation of ultra-low voltage on-chip system of digitally calibrated variable-gain amplifier (VGA), fabricated in CMOS 130 nm technology. It operates reliably under supply voltage of 600mV with 10% variation, in temperature range from −20°C to 85°C. Simulations suggest that the system will preserve its parameters for at least 10 years of operation. Experimental verification over 10 packaged integrated circuit (IC) samples shows the input offset voltage of VGA is suppressed in range of 13μV to 167μV. With calibration the VGA closely meets its nominally designed essential specifications as voltage gain or bandwidth. 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\r\n\tAn RNA virus is a virus that contains ribonucleic acid called RNA, it plays a crucial role in carrying genetic information from one generation to the next. RNA viruses usually have a single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) but also pose a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). Most the RNA viruses replicate and are assembled in the cytoplasm, but DNA viruses replicate and are assembled in the nucleus of the host cell.
\r\n
\r\n\tHuman infections caused by RNA virus include Hepatitis A, C and E, Nipah virus, Ebola, HIV, polio, measles, Rabies, SARS-CoV2, Dengue Fever, West Nile fever, Zika virus, Influenza, Hantavirus, etc. \r\n\tThis book chapter’s main theme will be focused on transmission dynamics, pathogenesis, mechanisms of host interaction and response, epigenetics and markers, molecular diagnosis, RNA interacting proteins, RNA binding proteins, advanced development of tools for diagnosis, possible development of concepts for vaccines and anti drugs for RNA viruses, immunological mechanisms, treatment, prevention and control. \r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80355-667-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-666-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-668-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"52f8a3a1486912beae40b34ac557fed3",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yogendra Shah",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11369.jpg",keywords:"HIV, Dengue, Zika, West Nile Virus, Chikungunya, Rabies, SARS-CoV2, MERS-CoV, Hanta Virus, Influenza, Whole Genome Sequencing, DNA Sequencing",numberOfDownloads:217,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 4th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 1st 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 31st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 20th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Shah obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Medicine from Hokkaido University, Japan. He was awarded the Young Science and Technology Award from the Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) in 2019. His research interests include infectious diseases, zoonotic infectious diseases, and vector-borne diseases.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278914/images/system/278914.jpg",biography:"Dr. Yogendra Shah is a consultant microbiologist/virologist, senior research microbiologist, and lecturer at Seti Provincial Hospital, COVID-19 PCR laboratory, National Zoonoses and Food Hygiene Research Center, and Kathmandu College of Science and Technology, Nepal. He obtained a Ph.D. in Veterinary Medicine (Bacteriology) from the Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Japan, in 2017. His research focuses on better understanding the molecular epidemiological features/transmission dynamics of infectious diseases and zoonotic infectious diseases in Nepal by employing molecular techniques like ELISA, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), and DNA sequencing. He was awarded the Young Science and Technology Award from the Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) in 2019. His research interests include infectious diseases, zoonotic infectious diseases, and vector-borne diseases. He has published more than thirty-five research articles in peer-reviewed journals and twelve books.",institutionString:"National Zoonoses and Food Hygiene Research Centre",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"National Zoonoses and Food Hygiene Research Centre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nepal"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"13",title:"Immunology and Microbiology",slug:"immunology-and-microbiology"}],chapters:[{id:"80540",title:"Neurotropic Virus-Induced Meningoencephalomyelitis",slug:"neurotropic-virus-induced-meningoencephalomyelitis",totalDownloads:47,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81675",title:"Influenza Viruses: Targetting Conserved Viral Ha-Stem, Matrix and Nucleo-Proteins to Disarm a Resilient and Recurring Pandemic",slug:"influenza-viruses-targetting-conserved-viral-ha-stem-matrix-and-nucleo-proteins-to-disarm-a-resilien",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81283",title:"COVID-19 Prevention through Vitamin C, D, and Zinc Supplementation: A Small Clinical Study in Two Parts",slug:"covid-19-prevention-through-vitamin-c-d-and-zinc-supplementation-a-small-clinical-study-in-two-parts",totalDownloads:26,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"232234",title:"Dr.",name:"Chanda",surname:"Siddoo-Atwal",slug:"chanda-siddoo-atwal",fullName:"Chanda Siddoo-Atwal"}]},{id:"81859",title:"Respiratory Syncytial Virus",slug:"respiratory-syncytial-virus",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82086",title:"The Role of IL-6 in RNA Virus Infection",slug:"the-role-of-il-6-in-rna-virus-infection",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81733",title:"Impairment of the Cardiovascular System during SARS-CoV-2 Infection",slug:"impairment-of-the-cardiovascular-system-during-sars-cov-2-infection",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80052",title:"Chronic Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Demyelination of the Central Nervous System: A Report on Two Cases",slug:"chronic-inflammatory-bowel-disease-and-demyelination-of-the-central-nervous-system-a-report-on-two-c",totalDownloads:67,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80935",title:"Ageing and HIV-Risk in Non-Gravid Female Humans",slug:"ageing-and-hiv-risk-in-non-gravid-female-humans",totalDownloads:29,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429343",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Ivancic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429343/images/19998_n.jpg",email:"martina@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10542",title:"Molecular Epidemiology Study of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Complex",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"29279e34f971687dc28de62534335ac4",slug:"molecular-epidemiology-study-of-mycobacterium-tuberculosis-complex",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10542.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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\n
1. Background about energy harvesting
\n
Energy harvesting represents the energy derived from ambient sources that is extracted and directly converted into electrical energy. This way to provide energy is further used when another energy source is not available (off-grid use) to supply small- and medium-sized electronic devices, as well as electrical systems, with power from nW to hundreds of mW [1, 2]. Generally, energy harvesting refers to an environment with regular and well-assessed ambient energy sources. Energy harvesting is applied when there is a match between the available energy and the energy required.
\n
Another term, energy scavenging, refers to an environment with strong non-uniform and unknown ambient energy sources [3]. Some examples of differences between the two terms are presented in Table 1.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n
Scavenging
\n
Harvesting
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Thermal
\n
Forest fires
\n
Furnace covers
\n
\n
\n
Photonic
\n
Interior lighting
\n
Diurnal solar cycles
\n
\n
\n
Mechanical
\n
Foot traffic
\n
Motors, ductwork
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
The difference between the terms “scavenging” and “harvesting” [3].
\n
The ambient energy sources used for energy harvesting are temperature gradient, electromagnetic radiation, light, motion and chemical energy (Figure 1).
\n
Figure 1.
Energy harvesting sources.
\n
An energy harvester consists of:
an energy source (which is natural or artificial);
one or more transducers that convert environmental energy into electrical energy;
an energy storage device (e.g., a rechargeable battery or a capacitor that stores the harvested energy);
The most used energy harvesters are: thermal harvester based on the thermoelectric effect; light harvester based on the photoelectric effect; electromagnetic harvester based on induction; chemical harvester based on different reactions on the electrodes surfaces; piezoelectric harvester based on mechanical vibrations or human motion (which converts pressure or stress into electricity); radio-frequency (RF) harvester (that captures the ambient radio-frequency radiation).
\n
Thermoelectric energy harvesting mainly depends on the operation of the thermoelectric generator (TEG). A TEG converts heat directly into electrical energy according to the Seebeck effect. In this case, the motion of charge carriers (electrons and holes) leads to a temperature difference across this device. Its operation is described in Section 2.3. Furthermore, the thermoelectric energy harvesting system can generate power from hundreds of μW to mW for different sensors and transmitters.
\n
In the last decades, the specialists’ attention has been focused on the development of green energy technology to decrease fossil fuel utilisation and greenhouse gas emissions. A thermoelectric harvester produces green energy for energy harvesting with a multitude of advantages: maintenance-free, because of the use of highly reliable and compact solid-state device; silent and quiet; highly efficient in environmental terms because the heat is harvested from waste heat sources and converted into electricity; operation with high maximum temperatures (up to 250°C); useful scalable applications configured to harvest wide amounts of energy when necessary; possibility to harvest power from both hot surface or cold surface; green energy behaviour, being eco-friendly [5]. A TEG device produces energy without using fossil fuel, leading to a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
\n
Unlike thermodynamic PV systems or conventional heat engines (Rankine, Stirling), the energy conversion efficiency of the TEG is limited to about 5–15% [6]. The temperature difference across the TEG system and the dimensionless thermoelectric figure-of-merit (\n\nZT\n\n) have a major impact on the energy conversion efficiency [7]. It is desirable to obtain the maximum electric output power and efficiency when a TEG system operates. In case of waste heat recovery applications [8], only electric output power is significant and the heat not recovered is lost [9]. Considering that thermal energy harvesting has a reduced efficiency (5–6%), this could represent a major barrier for its extensive utilisation. An improvement in the TEG efficiency bigger than 10% has been lately obtained due to the progress of new thermoelectric materials [10].
\n
The recovery of the electrical energy from waste heat using diverse sources is depicted in Figure 2.
\n
Figure 2.
Electrical energy recovered from waste heat.
\n
\n
\n
2. Basic principles of thermoelectric energy generation
\n
\n
2.1. Thermoelectric effects
\n
The thermoelectric effects are reversible phenomena leading to direct conversion between thermal and electrical energy [9]. Direct energy conversion relies on the physical transport properties of the thermoelectric materials (thermal conductivity, electric conductivity and Seebeck coefficient) and their energy conversion efficiency in terms of the figure-of-merit. These materials are suitable to convert thermal energy into electrical energy and vice-versa. The main phenomena that occur in a thermoelectric device are the thermoelectric effects (Seebeck, Peltier, Thomson), and the Joule effect.
When the electrical energy is converted into thermal energy, the phenomenon is known as the Peltier effect, with applications in cooling and heating. The device used in such applications is called thermoelectric cooler (TEC) [11, 12, 13]. In this case, thermoelectric modules are efficient temperature controllers [14].
When the thermal energy is converted into electrical energy, the phenomenon is known as the Seebeck effect, with applications for power generation. The device used in such applications is called thermoelectric generator (TEG) [15, 16].
\n
The Seebeck effect occurs when a temperature difference across a conductor provides a voltage at the conductor ends. Two distinct conductors A and B are linked together to compose the junctions of a circuit (Figure 3). These conductors are connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel. One junction has the hot temperature Th and another one has the cold temperature Tc, with Th bigger than Tc. The Seebeck effect appears due to the thermal diffusion which provokes the motion of the charge carriers (electrons or holes) across (or against) temperature difference in the conductors.
\n
Figure 3.
Schematic of the Seebeck effect in an open circuit.
\n
The Seebeck voltage at the circuit junctions can be written as:
where \n\n\nα\nA\n\n\n and \n\n\nα\nB\n\n\n are the Seebeck coefficients for the conductors A and B, in V·K−1.
\n
The Seebeck coefficient of a thermoelectric material or thermopower\n\n\nα\nAB\n\n\n is the connection parameter between the input temperature difference and the output voltage difference. The Seebeck coefficient of a thermoelectric material depends on temperature, as well as on other two physical transport properties (thermal conductivity, electric conductivity). It determines the thermoelectric material performance. Its magnitude ranges from μV·K−1 to mV·K−1 and depends on the junction temperature, and its sign is influenced by the semiconductor material [17]. Furthermore, the sign of the Seebeck coefficient depends on the type of carriers (electrons e− and holes h+) conducting the electric current. If the electric current is conducted by e−, the sign of the Seebeck coefficient is negative. If the electric current is conducted by h+, the sign of the Seebeck coefficient is positive [18].
\n
The Seebeck coefficient\n\n\n\nα\nAB\n\n\n, the temperature gradient \n\n∇\nT\n\n, and the electric field \n\nE\n\n are written under the following relationship:
\n
\n\n\nα\nAB\n\n=\n\nE\n\n∇\nT\n\n\n\nE2
\n
The Thomson effect affirms that in any conductive material in which the electrical current flows in the presence of a temperature difference between two ends, heat is also released or absorbed. The Thomson heat released or absorbed is given as:
where \n\nρ\n=\n\n1\nσ\n\n\n is the electrical resistivity in \n\n\n\nΩ\n·\nm\n\n\n\n,\n\n\nσ\n\n is the electrical conductivity in \n\n\n\nS\n·\n\nm\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n, \n\nJ\n\n is the current density in \n\n\n\nA\n·\n\nm\n\n−\n2\n\n\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nμ\nAB\n\n\n is the Thomson coefficient in [V·K−1], and \n\n∇\nT\n\n is \n\n∇\nT\n=\n\n\nd\nT\n\n\nd\nx\n\n\n\n is the temperature gradient along the conductor in \n\n\n\nK\n.\n\n\n\n
\n
Joule heating occurs when an electric current that flows through a conductor produces heat. Joule heating does not change its sign in Eq. (3), while Thomson heating (the second term) changes its sign, following J.
\n
Therefore, the sign convention of the Thomson coefficient is considered as [17]:
positive when the current flows from the low-temperature side to the high-temperature side of the conductor and the heat is absorbed through it;
negative when the current flows inversely and the heat is rejected from it;
null when the current flows from the high to the low side and vice-versa and the heat is neither generated nor absorbed.
\n
The following relationships hold between the Seebeck coefficient and the Peltier coefficient, as well as between the Seebeck coefficient and the Thomson coefficient. These are called Thomson relations [14]:
2.2. Thermoelectric effects and thermodynamic processes
\n
Thermoelectric effects that take place in TEG devices are subject to the thermodynamic laws. According to thermodynamics, the heat transfer across a finite temperature difference is an irreversible process and the entropy change of such process is positive. The heat conduction and Joule heating are considered as irreversible processes.
\n
The heat is irreversibly produced according to the Joule effect when an electrical current flows through a conductor or semiconductor. The Joule effect takes place at the TEG interconnects due to their electrical contact resistance or in a thermocouple. Other irreversibilities are found in the heat transfer between the TEG and the local environment [9]. If the irreversible processes are removed, the entropy becomes null. In this case, the ideal conditions given by the Carnot efficiency or COP (coefficient of performance) are achieved [19]. A deep overview of steady-state irreversible processes as heat conduction in semiconductor materials, metals and other solid-state devices is presented in [19, 20]. The Seebeck, Thomson and Peltier effects are reversible thermodynamic processes [21]. When the current flows through a conductor, both the Joule effect and the Thomson effect take place simultaneously, and the magnitude of the Thomson effect is about two times less than the magnitude of the Joule effect [17].
\n
\n
\n
2.3. TEG structure and model
\n
The TEG device is composed of one or more thermoelectric couples. The simplest TEG consists of a thermocouple, comprising a pair of P-type and N-type thermoelements or legs connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel. The differentiation between N- and P-doped materials is important. The P-type leg has a positive Seebeck coefficient and an excess of holes h+. The N-type leg has a negative Seebeck coefficient and an excess of free electrons e− [22]. The two legs are linked together on one side by an electrical conductor forming a junction or interconnect, usually being a copper strip. Let us denote the voltage at the outside terminal connected to the N-type leg on the cold side of TEG as V2, while the voltage at the external terminal connected to the P-type leg on the cold side of TEG is V1 (Figure 4). An electrical load having resistance RL is connected in series with the output terminals of TEG creating an electric circuit. When the electric current flows in this electrical load, an electrical voltage is generated at its terminals. The TEG device will generate DC electricity as long as there is a temperature gradient between its sides. When the temperature difference ΔT = Th − Tc across the TEG device increases, more electric output power will be generated.
\n
Figure 4.
Schematic of a TEG device with a single thermoelectric couple and two legs.
\n
A number of thermoelectric couples n form a TEG system wired electrically in series and sandwiched between two ceramic plates to maximise the output voltage from the TEG (Figure 5).
\n
Figure 5.
Schematic of a TEG device with n thermoelectric couples.
\n
In this case, the equivalent internal resistance of the thermoelectric couples in series is:
where \n\nρ\n=\nR\n·\n\nS\nL\n\n\n is the electrical resistivity of each leg, S is the cross-sectional area of the each leg in\n\n\n\n\nm\n2\n\n\n\n, \n\nL\n\n is the leg length in \n\n\nm\n\n\n, k is the thermal conductivity of each leg in \n\n\n\nW\n·\n\n\n\nm\n·\nK\n\n\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n, and the thermal conductance of each leg is\n\n\nK\n=\nk\n\nS\nL\n\n\n in \n\n\n\nW\n·\n\nK\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n
These relations are further simplified considering that N-type and P-type legs are the same as form (\n\nL\n=\n\nL\nP\n\n=\n\nL\nN\n\n\n and \n\nS\n=\n\nS\nP\n\n=\n\nS\nN\n\n\n) and material properties (\n\nρ\n=\n\nρ\nP\n\n=\n\nρ\nN\n\n\n, and \n\nk\n=\n\nk\nP\n\n=\n\nk\nN\n\n\n). The equivalent internal resistance becomes:
If the electrical contact resistance \n\n\nR\na\n\n\n is not negligible, the equivalent internal resistance of the thermoelectric couples in series becomes:
where the load resistance \n\n\nR\nL\n\n\n is connected to the output of the circuit where the electric output power generated by TEG is consumed; the Seebeck voltage is VSeebeck = VP − VN = αPN · ΔT. The relationship between VSeebeck and ΔT is non-linear, therefore αPN depends on temperature.
\n
The electric output power delivered by TEG to the load is:
On the other side, the electric output power absorbed by the load (considering the conventional sign, with the current flowing as indicated in Figure 5) is:
The maximum electrical output power delivered by TEG is obtained if the load resistance is equal to the equivalent internal resistance of the thermoelectric couples in series \n\n\n\n\nR\nL\n\n=\nR\n\n\n\n [23].
\n
The heat flow rate absorbed at the hot junction of the TEG depends on the Peltier heat, the heat conduction and the Joule heat. The heat flow rate absorbed at the hot junction depends on the thermoelectric material properties and leg geometries:
A TEG could be considered as a thermal battery, a physical structure used to store and release thermal energy. The electromotive force of this thermal battery is the Seebeck voltage (Figure 6).
\n
Figure 6.
Equivalent circuit of a TEG device.
\n
\n
\n
2.4. Components of a thermoelectric energy harvesting system
\n
A thermoelectric energy harvesting system consists of the following parts (Figure 7):
Thermoelectric generator (TEG): if ΔT is kept between the hot and cold sides of the device, an external circuit can be supplied by the voltage resulting at the TEG output terminals, providing power to the external electrical load. A single TEG generates power from 1 to 125 W. The use of more TEGs in a modular connection may increase the power up to 5 kW and ΔTmax could be bigger than 70°C.
Heat source, for example, a heat pipe system (the TEG devices and the heat pipe system can be used together in waste heat recovery systems). The heat pipe is a passive (no moving parts or fan) metallic device which has a high heat transfer capacity (very high thermal conductivity), with minimal thermal resistance and almost no heat loss; it operates in a medium temperature to high-temperature range; the common working fluid is water operating at a temperature of about 300°C; for higher operating temperature ranges other working fluids are used (e.g., naphthalene or liquid metals like potassium and sodium) [24]; heat pipes are used for temperature regulation of the TEGs; in some applications (e.g., industrial glass processes) a heat exchanger can be attached on the hot side; its role is to absorb the thermal energy (e.g., from the glass process exhaust stream) and to transfer it to the TEG, which converts it partially into electrical energy; the remaining unconverted thermal energy is transferred from the TEG cold side to the cold source, and is dissipated to the environment at ambient temperature Tamb.
Cold source is the heat transfer system containing heat exchangers (heat sinks, coils, cooling blocks and radiators) to enhance the heat dissipation across the TEG; this process is useful to obtain a bigger temperature difference across the TEG [7, 25]; the heat sink is a device that has the role to transfer heat from a hot surface to a fluid (gas, ambient air or liquid); the assessment and design of different heat sink types for TEG system is presented in [26]. The metal heat sink contains many fins. To increase its dissipation rate, the fins area, the heat transfer coefficient, and the fin thermal conductivity are raised.
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Figure 7.
Block diagram of a thermoelectric energy harvesting system.
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The heat sink is required at the TEG when a high heat flow rate is applied on the TEG hot side, and the cold side is kept at low temperature, leading to high conversion efficiency; in this case, the TEG efficiency is strongly influenced by the TEG design.
DC-DC converter (Boost, Buck-Boost, Buck, Sepic, or Cuk converter), which is a power electronic circuit designed for voltage conversion (to convert a DC source from one voltage level to another voltage level) [27]; since the output voltage of the TEG is low or is not constant, it is necessary to provide a DC-DC converter; its role is to increase the output voltage obtained in the TEG (which depends on the number of TEGs in series and on the TEG features) corresponding the requirements of the external load. For these DC-DC converters, accurate control is necessary. In this case, the implementation of the Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithm within the DC-DC converter controller is essential. To enhance the real system feasibility, it is necessary to harvest from TEGs as much electric output power as possible; the effectiveness of TEG operation could be checked by assessing the DC-DC converter operation and the MPPT control.
DC load, used to be connected to a supercapacitor or to recharge a battery to store energy; the battery stores DC voltages at a charging mode and powers DC electrical energy in a discharging mode; typical DC loads for TEG like batteries operate at 12 V; the output voltage of the TEG device at the MPP (Maximum Power Point) must be higher than 12 V for example in buck converter applications [27]; to avoid the battery overcharging a battery regulator is sometimes used; the electric power output from the DC-DC converter can be stored over time in a supercapacitor, to be released to the load when needed [28].
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The efficiency of the thermoelectric energy harvesting system is defined as the ratio of the electrical energy output (used or stored) to the total energy input. This efficiency also contains the electrical efficiency of TEGs, the heat exchangers efficiency, as well as the efficiency of the DC-DC converter. The total energy input especially depends on the energy obtained from the hot source. Also, the total energy input depends to a lesser extent on the mechanical energy needed to operate the thermoelectric energy harvesting system (e.g., pressure losses in the heat exchangers or cooling of the cold heat sink) [29].
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Researchers are focused on the improvement of the thermoelectric conversion efficiency of TEGs. For this reason, two objectives must be fulfilled. The first objective is to improve the dimensionless figure-of-merit ZT by the optimisation of thermoelectric materials. The second objective is to decrease the thermal resistance between the heat source and the hot side of the TEG, as well as between the cold side of the TEG and the environment [30].
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2.5. Efficiency assessment of a TEG device
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The electrical efficiency of a TEG (or thermoelectric conversion efficiency) is the ratio between the electric output power P delivered to the load and the rate of heat input \n\n\n\nQ\ṅ\n\nh\n\n\n absorbed at the hot junction of the TEG and transferred through the TEG. This means that a TEG converts the rate of heat input \n\n\n\nQ\ṅ\n\nh\n\n\n into electric output power\n\n\nP\n\n with electrical efficiency\n\n\n\nη\nTEG\n\n\n [5].
where T is the absolute temperature representing the mean temperature between the cold side and hot side of the TEG and is written as \n\nT\n=\n\n\n\nT\nh\n\n+\n\nT\nc\n\n\n2\n\n\n .
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The efficiency corresponding to \n\n\nP\nmax\n\n\n\nis:
The TEG device operates as all thermal engines with efficiency less than the efficiency of ideal Carnot cycle \n\n\nη\nC\n\n=\n\n\n\nT\nh\n\n−\n\nT\nc\n\n\n\nT\nh\n\n\n=\n\n\n∆\nT\n\n\nT\nh\n\n\n<\n1\n\n [31]:
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\n\n\nη\nTEGmax\n\n<\n\nη\nC\n\n\nE23
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In this case, the thermoelectric conversion efficiency is limited by the Carnot efficiency and is written, by introducing the reduced efficiency \n\n\nη\nr\n\n\n, as:
For a cold side temperature of Tc = 300 K and ΔT in the range of 20 K, \n\n\nη\nTEGmax\n\n≅\n1\n%\n\n is obtained [32]. As observed in Eq. (24), the TEG efficiency strongly depends on the operating temperatures of TEG (\n\n∆\nT\n\n between the junctions), the dimensionless thermoelectric figure-of-merit ZT, and additionally the TEG design (cross-sectional area, length and shape) [33].
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The TEG efficiency\n\n\n\nη\nTEG\n\n\n rises almost linearly with \n\n∆\nT\n\n, and the ratio \n\n\n\nη\nr\n\n\nT\nh\n\n\n\n is almost constant [5]. The bigger the temperature difference, the more efficient the TEG device will be. A TEG can work at about 20% of the Carnot efficiency over a large temperature range [24]. The TEG efficiency is about 5% and its electric output power is delivered at any ΔT. If materials with ZT = 10 would exist, there could be TEGs with \n\n\nη\nTEG\n\n=\n25\n%\n\n at ΔT = 300 K [25].
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The thermoelectric waste heat recovery is influenced to a bigger extent by the thermoelectric conversion efficiency\n\n\n\nη\nTEG\n\n\n, and to a lesser extent by the heat exchanger design. The ratio between thermal efficiency \n\n\nη\nt\n\n\n and thermoelectric conversion efficiency represents the fraction of waste heat passed through the thermoelectric couples, given as [34]:
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\n\nε\n=\n\n\nη\nt\n\n\nη\nTEG\n\n\n\nE26
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The maximum efficiency \n\n\nη\nTEGmax\n\n\n depends on the temperature difference \n\n∆\n\nT\nTEG\n\n\n at which the TEG works [31]. The maximum conversion efficiency occurs when:
2.5.1. The dimensionless thermoelectric figure-of-merit \n\nZT\n\n\n
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The dimensionless thermoelectric figure-of-merit \n\nZT\n\n is used to characterise a thermoelectric material performance, as well as the efficiencies of various TEGs working at the same temperatures [24].
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ZT depends on the physical transport properties: the thermal conductivity \n\nk\n\n, the electrical conductivity\n\n\nσ\n=\n\n1\nρ\n\n\n, and the Seebeck coefficient\n\n\nα\n\n:
The upper side term\n\n\n\nα\n2\n\n·\nσ\n\n is called the power factor, a parameter that assesses the performance of a thermoelectric material.
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The higher is ZT, more performant is the thermoelectric material and the better is the TEG. In the practical applications, the maximum ZT is about 2 and corresponds to a maximum conversion efficiency of about 20% [35].
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A good thermoelectric material must fulfil the following requirements:
Seebeck coefficient as high as possible to maximise energy conversion; the generated open-circuit-voltage is proportional to the Seebeck coefficient and to the temperature difference across the TEG (VSeebeck = αPN · ΔT). In this case, a high Seebeck coefficient leads to a high voltage. This condition is very important for increasing the energy conversion [22].
Electrical conductivity \n\nσ\n\n as high as possible in order to reduce Joule heating due to the internal electrical losses [22].
Thermal conductivity \n\nk\n\n as low as possible to maintain heat at the junctions, to allow a large ΔT maintained across the TEG, and to minimise thermal losses through the thermoelectric material [19].
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The effective figure-of-merit of TEG, \n\n\nZT\nTEG\n\n\n depends on the dimensionless thermoelectric figure-of-merit, and the specific contact electrical resistivity according to the expression:
where \n\n\nρ\na\n\n=\n\nR\na\n\n·\n\nS\na\n\n\n is the specific contact electrical resistivity. Ideally, for an efficient TEG \n\n\nρ\na\n\n<\n1\nμΩ\n·\n\ncm\n2\n\n\n and instead, for a typical TEG, \n\n\n\nρ\na\n\n<\n2\n·\n\n10\n\n−\n4\n\n\nΩ\n·\n\ncm\n2\n\n\n [36].
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Although the low efficiency is a drawback to the progress of TEGs, researchers’ and manufacturers’ attention is focused on the improvement of the following characteristics:
the dimensionless thermoelectric figure-of-merit \n\nZT\n\n;
the operating range of thermoelectric materials to work with the ΔT as high as possible;
the use of low-price materials to reduce the negative impact of low efficiency [29].
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The most popular thermoelectric material is Bismuth Telluride (Bi2Te3). Its utilisation in TEGs is limited (only for industrial modules with an average value of ZT from 0.5 to 0.8) because the maximum temperature at the hot side of the devices is relatively reduced [29]. In the power generation applications, the best commercially available TEGs made of Bi2Te3 have a ZT of about 1 at the temperature 300 K, leading to a low thermal efficiency of the thermoelectric device (less than 4%) [24]. The thermoelectric materials must be both stable from the chemical point of view and strong from the mechanical point of view at high temperatures (e.g., for the automotive exhaust waste heat recovery, at specific working conditions, the range of the average exhausts temperature is from 500 to 600°C with values increasing up to 1000°C) [37]. To improve the thermoelectric properties of TEG, the researchers’ attention is focused on the development of new thermoelectric materials. Calcium manganese and lead telluride are the thermoelectric materials used in the TEG legs, because they resist at higher temperatures. The hot side of TEG is made of materials having a high ZT at higher temperatures (e.g., lead telluride). The cold side of the TEG is made of materials having high ZT at reduced temperatures (e.g., Bi2Te3) [24]. At present, even though the research of the thermoelectric materials development is focused on obtaining the high ZT of 2, unfortunately the efficiency of TEG is limited to\n\n\n\nη\nTEG\n\n<\n10\n%\n\n [38]. Significant progress has been made towards increasing the thermoelectric efficiency of different inorganic material classes (e.g., skutterudites [39], tellurides [40, 41], half-Heuslers [42] and silicides [43]). The researchers’ attention is focused on the development of organic materials for thermoelectric energy harvesting due to their advantages (e.g., low-cost, reliability, low weight and so on). For this reason, some polymers with different doping levels (like polyaniline (PANI), polyamide (PA), and poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) or PEDOT) are assessed for future applications [44].
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To obtain high efficiency, segmented TEGs use high-temperature differences to raise the Carnot efficiency \n\n\nη\nC\n\n\n [45]. When a TEG operates with a high-temperature difference, each thermoelement of the device can be divided into multiple segments of different thermoelectric materials. In this way, each material is working in a more limited temperature range where this has a good performance [46]. The segmented design of a TEG is an efficient mode to improve its performance. In this case, two or more thermoelectric materials along the direction of the leg height are used to match the optimal temperature range of the thermoelectric material. It means that a thermoelectric material with high efficiency at raised temperature is segmented with another thermoelectric material with high efficiency at reduced temperature [45]. The maximum efficiency is obtained when the relative current density \n\n\nJ\n¯\n\n\n is equal to the compatibility factor \n\nu\n\n of the thermoelectric material [47]:
The compatibility factor is used for choosing the proper material [48]. El-Genk and Sabre [46] obtained a TEG energy conversion efficiency of about 12% by using a segmented thermoelectric couple. Snyder [47] observed that the segmentation of the thermoelements with SnTe or PbTe produced low extra power, while the filled Skutterudite obtained an increment in efficiency from 10.5 to 13.6%. Further studies [47, 48] reported that the segmentation was efficient only for \n\nu\n≤\n2\n.\n\n Ngan et al. [49] demonstrate that segmentation reduces the total efficiency by neglecting the compatibility factor of thermoelectric materials. Hung et al. [50] showed that the performance and the power production of the segmented TEG are three times bigger than a normal TEG. The analytical assessment concerning the effect of the leg geometry on the performance of the segmented TEG was performed in [51, 52]. Their conclusion is that both power and efficiency are increased when the segmented TEG is used. Vikhor and Anatychuk [53] carried out a theoretical analysis. The results showed an efficiency of the segmented TEGs bigger than 15% compared to the non-segmented TEGs. Zhang et al. [54] proposed a design method of optimization with predictive performance to obtain maximum conversion efficiency. In this case, the segmented modules consisted of Bi2Te3-based alloys and CoSb3-based skutterudites, with an efficiency of 12% when working under a Δt = 541°C. The very low losses and the good design based on the numerical evaluation showed that the conversion efficiency was up to 96.9% of the theoretical efficiency.
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2.5.2. TEG design for energy harvesting applications
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In TEG systems, a crucial factor is the optimisation of the systems design, together with the heat source and heat sink attached to the TEG device. Industrial utilisation of TEGs needs other components (like heat exchangers and DC-DC converter) to form a powerful TEG [29].
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The TEG performance is influenced not only by the low conversion efficiency, but also by the heat transfer conditions on the cold and hot sides of TEG and its geometry. The ΔT between two junctions depends on the good heat transfer between TEGs and heat sources or heat sinks. For this reason, the design and interactions between heat exchangers and TEGs are very important problems. There are two paths to solve these problems together. The first path is the optimisation of the TEGs system. The second path is the enhancement of the heat transfer at the TEG sides [55].
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2.5.2.1. Optimization of the TEG device
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The TEG device optimisation is correlated with the impact of the geometry device [56]. It has been demonstrated that an important rise in the electric output power from TEG is obtained by changing the leg geometry. The leg geometry is optimised by determining the leg height and the number of thermocouples, leading to maximisation of electric output power or efficiency at given operating conditions. Therefore, there is interdependence between the optimal leg geometry and the electrical load resistance RL for a TEG. Hodes [23] presented a method to compute the leg geometry (number and height) that maximises the electric output power and \n\n\nη\nTEG\n\n\n with negligible or finite electrical contact resistance at TEG interconnects. If a TEG has a low number of legs, the energy conversion is low, because the RL is not sufficient to obtain an adequate high voltage. Inversely, if a TEG has too many legs, the total equivalent resistance of the TEG will increase and relatively high Joule losses will occur in the TEG when the load is supplied.
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There is an optimal solution also for the leg length. If the leg is long, the electric output power is limited due to the increase in the internal resistance of the leg that limits the electric current. Conversely, a short leg will behave as a good thermal conductor that reduces the temperatures between its ends; hence, even though the internal electrical resistance will be low, the electric output power will not be significant and the electric conversion efficiency will be low [9].
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Lavric et al. [57] demonstrated that the electric output power is influenced by the effects above mentioned (a reduction of the leg length leads to a reduction of the electrical resistance; an increase of the leg length leads to the higher temperature difference across the TEG). If the geometric parameters of the TEG (leg length, semiconductor pair number and the base area ratio of semiconductor columns to TEG) are optimised, the electric output power and the thermoelectric conversion efficiency are considerably improved. Such an improvement is also reported in [58]. The first step was to consider the electric output power as the objective function and the inputs were the geometric parameters. The electrical output power values were about 269, 314, 338, and 893% higher than the values of the initial design. The second step was to consider the TEG conversion efficiency \n\n\nη\nTEG\n\n\n as the objective function. A \n\n\nη\nTEG\n\n\n rise is obtained for the optimal design at the same time with an important reduction of P. Finally, the third step was to use multi-objective optimization to improve both P and \n\n\nη\nTEG\n\n\n, simultaneously.
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Two dimensionless parameters influence the maximisation of the electric output power and the conversion efficiency of TEG [35]:
slenderness ratio, which is a geometric parameter:
The thermal efficiency of the TEG can be improved while decreasing the slenderness ratio for large external load parameters. Yilbas and Sahin [35] obtained high conversion efficiency for the slenderness ratio \n\n0\n<\nx\n<\n1\n\n in the case of all the external load parameters.
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Zhang et al. [55] propose a design method of thermoelectric elements segmentation of TEG, considering their length as the first design parameter. The optimal length ratio, referring to the highest values of the maximum electric output power, and the thermoelectric conversion efficiency are influenced by thermoelectric materials, leg geometry and heat transfer characteristics. Zhang et al. [59] proposed two new parameters, namely, the power factor associated with the electric output power, and the efficiency factor associated with the thermoelectric conversion efficiency. These new parameters are useful for obtaining the optimum temperature range of each segment:
considering that the thermoelectric materials of the TEG legs have the same physical transport properties (αP = –αN; σp = σN; kP = kN) and \n\nm\n\n is a variable factor that depends on the leg cross-sectional area, and on the heat transfer coefficients on both TEG sides.
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2.5.2.2. Heat transfer enhancement at the hot and cold sides
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The fins attached to the heat transfer surfaces are very important for enhancing the heat transfer at the hot and cold sides. One interface is between the heat sink and the TEG cold side, and the other interface is between the heat source and the TEG hot side.
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An increment of the fin height and fin number results when the electric output power of the TEG rises [60]. An optimal connection between the height and the number of fins to provide the maximum net electric output power is obtained in Jang et al. [60]. The heat transfer increases when the fin number is higher and the fin height rises, due to the extension of the heat transfer area. However, when the height of the fin increases over a given value, the change in the output electrical power becomes less significant. Borcuch et al. [61] investigated the effect of hot side heat exchanger design on the operating parameters of a TEG. Furthermore, the heat sink connected to the TEG device must be thermally matched with the TEG to maximise the electric output power and voltage. In this case, the thermal interface losses are practically negligible, that means \n\n\nT\nheat sink\n\n≅\n\nT\nc\n\n\n and \n\n\nT\nheat source\n\n≅\n\nT\nh\n\n\n.
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To maximise the output voltages of TEG, a big number of thermocouples are necessary, and their total thermal resistance must be equal to the thermal resistance of the heat sink. The reduced thermal resistance of the TEG decreases very much the temperature difference [62].
where \n\n\n\nQ\ṅ\n\nh\n\n\n the heat flow is given by Eq. (18) through the TEG, \n\n\nT\nheat sink\n\n\n is the heat sink temperature, and \n\n\nT\namb\n\n\n is the environmental temperature.
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The thermal resistance and thermal conductance of TEG are linked with each other by an inverse ratio as:
considering that \n\n\nR\nhs\n\n\n and \n\nR\n\n are connected in series with the total resistance \n\n\nR\ntot\n\n=\nR\n+\n\nR\nhs\n\n\n, and\n\n\n\nT\nheat source\n\n\n is the heat source temperature.
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The following cases may be considered:
If \n\n\nR\n\nR\nhs\n\n\n<\n1\n\n, a big heat source-to-environment \n\n∆\nT\n\n occurs across the heat sink and \n\n\n\n∆\nT\n\nTEG\n\n<\n∆\n\nT\nheat sink\n\n\n. In this case, a reduction of the thermoelectric conversion efficiency \n\n\nη\nTEG\n\n\n is observed, leading to a reduction of the TEG electric output power.
If \n\n\nR\n\nR\nhs\n\n\n>\n1\n\n, a big heat source-to-environment \n\n∆\nT\n\n occurs across the TEG and \n\n\n\n∆\nT\n\nTEG\n\n>\n∆\n\nT\nheat sink\n\n\n. In this case, an increment of the \n\n\nη\nTEG\n\n\n is observed, leading to a limited electric output power.
When \n\n\nR\n\nR\nhs\n\n\n=\n1\n\n, the electric output power has a peak. In this case, the lengths and cross sections of thermoelectric legs are adapted, \n\nR\n=\n\nR\nhs\n\n\n and \n\n∆\nT\n\n is equally divided between the heat sink and the TEG.
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Also, when the heat sinks are attached to both sides of the TEG, the total thermal resistance (thermal interfaces resistances and thermal resistances of the heat sinks) is equal to the \n\n\nR\nTEG\n\n\n for maximum electric output power [62]. The contact resistance decreases the electric output power by decreasing ΔT across the TEG. Furthermore, the thermal contact resistance between the TEG and the heat sink or heat source is decreased to reduce the contact effect [63].
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Astrain et al. [64] demonstrated the significance of decreasing the thermal resistance between the heat source and the hot side of the TEG, as well as the cold side of TEG and the environment. The numerical model assesses the TEG performance, taking into account the heat exchangers attached on both sides of the TEG, the heat source, as well as the heat sink. The results obtained show a good accuracy of the model. The results demonstrated that increasing by 10% the thermal resistances of both heat exchangers, the electric output power is improved by 8%. Martínez et al. [65] optimised the heat exchangers fixed on both sides of a TEG to maximise the electric output power. They have concluded that the thermal resistances of the heat exchangers are very important for TEG design. Zhou et al. [66] studied the heat transfer features of a TEG device. The heat transfer intensification on the cold side of the TEG leads to a significant reduction of the temperature and thermal resistance on this side, and implicitly a rise of the electric output power of the TEG device. Furthermore, Zhou et al. [66] highlighted that the refrigerant which flows by heat exchangers produce higher net powers than conventional heat sink with fins. An in-depth review of the heat sink for TEG and parameters affecting TEG performance is presented in [26].
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The refrigeration system of the TEG has been assessed by Aranguren et al. [30]. This system consists of a multi-channel heat exchanger attached to the cold side of the TEG, another heat exchanger used to decrease the refrigerant temperature, the pump to circulate the refrigerant, and the connecting pipes. A numerical model has been implemented to compute the total thermal resistance and the power consumption in the system components. In this model, all system elements have been included to obtain an accurate analysis. The combination of computational and experimental results shows that the system configuration leading to the maximum net power is different with respect to the configuration resulting in the lowest total thermal resistance.
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3. Applications using thermoelectrics in the power generation mode
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The favourable characteristics of the thermoelectric devices promote the development of standalone TEGs for energy harvesting in a wide range of applications (Figure 8) as military, aerospace (e.g., powering spacecraft), biological systems (e.g., to power implanted pacemakers) and other applications (e.g., power for wristwatches or mobile communications) [67]. The key element to improve the energy conversion efficiency of TEG is the effect of waste heat recovery. Waste heat represents the heat produced by machines (e.g., exhaust pipes from automobiles), industrial processes (e.g., cooling towers, burnt solid waste and radioactive wastes), electrical equipment (e.g., kerosene lamps) and the human body. For various TEG applications (e.g., waste thermal power recovery using TEGs and powering of wireless sensors by TEGs) even if ΔT is restricted, the available heat is higher than the capacity of the harvesters. In this case, the heat source delivers a constant heat flow rate at a constant ΔT. Low \n\n\nη\nTEGmax\n\n\n in such applications does not mean low TEG performance [32].
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Figure 8.
Energy conversion applications.
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3.1. Low-power generation for thermoelectric harvesting
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3.1.1. Microelectronic applications
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The TEG devices are especially suitable for waste heat harvesting for low-power generation to supply electric energy for microelectronic applications. Wearable TEGs harvest heat generated by the body to generate electricity. For this reason, it is possible to use waste human body heat to power a TEG watch device. In this case, the wristwatch can capture the thermoelectric energy. Now, body-attached TEGs are commercially available products including watches operated by body temperature and thin film devices. Some manufacturers produce and commercialise wristwatches with an efficiency about 0.1% at 300 mV open circuit voltage from 1.5 K temperature drop and 22 μW of electric output power under of TEG normal operation. A thermo-clock wristwatch produces a voltage of 640 mV and gives a power of 13.8 μW for each °C of temperature difference. A wristwatch with 1040 thermoelements generates in the same conditions at about 200 mV [25]. The wearable TEG performance is affected by the utilisation of the free air convection cooling on the cold side of TEG, the low operating temperature difference between the body and environment, as well as the demand for systems that are thin and lightweight, being practical for long-term usage [68].
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Furthermore, various microelectronic devices, like wireless sensor networks, mobile devices (e.g., mp3 player, smartphones and iPod), and biomedical devices are developed. The thermoelectric energy harvesters are microelectronic devices made of inorganic thermoelectric materials, at different dimensions, with a lifetime of about 5 years [69] and electric output powers are cardiac pacemakers (\n\nP\n=\n70\n÷\n100\n\nμW\n\n) [70], pulse oximeter \n\n\n\nP\n=\n100\n\nμW\n\n\n\n [71], wireless communication \n\n\n\nP\n∼\n3\n\nmW\n\n\n\n [72], electrocardiography (ECG)/electroencephalography (EEG)/electromyography (EMG) with \n\nP\n=\n60\n÷\n200\n\nμW\n\n [73], EEG headband (\n\nP\n=\n2\n÷\n2.5\n\nmW\n\n) [74], ECG system (\n\nP\n∼\n0.5\n\nμW\n)\n\n [75], Hearing aid (\n\nP\n∼\n1\n\nμW\n)\n\n [76] and Wireless EEG [77]. Together with the progress of flexible thermoelectric materials (both organic and inorganic materials), flexible TEGS system benefits from special attention. The flexible thermoelectric materials and maximum electric output power of various TEG systems are reported in [44].
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For these microelectronic devices, standard batteries are used. These batteries are made of various inorganic materials (like nickel, zinc, lithium, lead, mercury, sulphuric acid and cadmium) that are not friendly for the human body. In this case, the body-attached TEGs could be an alternative solution because the materials used are non-toxic [36].
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A TEG to be applied in a network of body sensors has been presented in [78]. In this case, the device has been fixed in a body zone, where the maximum body heat has been obtained and also maximum energy. This equipment is capable of storing about 100 μW on the battery, leading to an output voltage of 2.4 V. Another TEG has been designed to be used on the wrist [79]. The output voltage of the device was 150 mV under normal conditions and an electric output power of 0.3 nW.
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3.1.2. TEG as a thermal energy sensor
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Thermal energy sensors (like heat-flux sensors, infrared sensors, power ultrasound effect sensors, fluid-flow sensors and water condensation detectors) are used to convert heat flow rates into electrical signals by a TEG system [36].
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The heat-flux sensors are used to evaluate the thermoelectric properties of micro-TEGs. In this case, the generated power and the thermoelectric conversion efficiency are measured with high accuracy [80]. The electrical signal generated by the heat-flux sensor is proportional to the heat flow rate applied to the sensor surface. The convective heat flow rate is measured from the temperature difference between two sides of a thermal resistive element plate placed across the flow of heat. The heat radiated from the mass is absorbed by the infrared sensor (IR) and the temperature increase leads to the generation of the Seebeck voltage. The thermoelectric IR sensor operates in a range from 7 to 14 μm [69].
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3.2. High-power generation for thermoelectric harvesting
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About 70% of energy in the world is wasted as heat and is released into the environment with a significant influence on global warming [81]. The waste heat energy released into the environment is one of the most significant sources of clean, fuel-free and cheap energy available. The unfavourable effects of global warming can be diminished using the TEG system by harvesting waste heat from residential, industrial and commercial fields [36].
\n
TEG is substantially used to recover waste heat in different applications ranging from μW to MW. Different waste heat sources and temperature ranges for thermoelectric energy harvesting are shown in Table 2 [69].
Reciprocating engine exhausts Catalytic crackers Annealing furnace cooling systems
\n
\n
\n
Low temperature (230–650°C)
\n
32–55 27–50 27–88
\n
Cooling water Air compressors Forming Dies and pumps
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Different waste heat sources and temperature ranges for thermoelectric harvesting technology.
\n
\n
3.2.1. Automotive applications
\n
The automotive industry is considered as the most attractive sector in which TEGs are used to recover the lost heat. Various leading automobile manufacturers develop TEGs (\n\nP\n∼\n1\n\nkW\n)\n\n for waste recovery to reduce the costs of the fuel for their vehicles [82]. It has been demonstrated that vehicles (the gasoline vehicle and hybrid electric vehicles) have inefficient internal combustion engines. This can be observed in the Sankey diagram depicted in [83], which presents the energy flow direction of an internal combustion engine. The fuel combustion is used in a proportion of 25% for vehicle operation, 30% is lost into the coolant and 40% is lost as waste heat with exhaust gases. In this case, the TEG technology could be an option to recuperate the waste heat energy for gasoline vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles. A significant power conversion could be achieved by combining cooling system losses with the heat recovery from automobile exhausts. The use of TEG systems with an energy conversion of 5% would raise the electrical energy in a vehicle by 6% (5% from exhaust gases and 1% from the cooling system) [25].
\n
A TEG with \n\nZT\n=\n1.25\n\n and efficiency of 10%, can recover about 35–40% of the power from the exhaust gas where the power generated can help to increase the efficiency to up 16% [84]. The components where TEGs could be attached in a vehicle are the exhaust system and the radiators. In this case, the amount of waste heat is decreased and exhaust temperatures are reduced. These aspects require more efficiency from the TEG device. Furthermore, the design of such power conversion system takes into account various heat exchangers mounted on the TEG device. These systems have a lifecycle from 10 to 30 years and the materials accumulated on their surfaces from the exhaust gas, air or coolant represent a major concern in order to not damage their proper operation [85]. Important testing is helpful to confirm the reliability of TEG systems in automotive applications. Furthermore, the design requires knowing the maximum electric output power and conversion efficiency from TEG systems [37].
\n
The main components of the automotive TEG that considers waste heat like their energy source are one heat exchanger which takes heat from engine coolant and the exhaust gases and release it to the hot side of the TEG; the TEG system; one heat exchanger which takes the heat from the TEG and releases it to the coolant or to the air; the electrical power conditioning and the interface unit to supply the electric output power of the TEG system to the automobile electric system (Figure 9). Supplementary at these components, there are secondary components (e.g., the electronic unit, the electric pump, sensors system, valves, fans and so on) depending on the vehicle design and application type [85].
\n
Figure 9.
The main components of an automotive TEG system.
\n
Thacher et al. [86] carried out the feasibility of the TEG system installed in the exhaust pipe in a light truck by connecting a series of 16 TEG modules. The experimental results showed good performance of the system at high speeds. Hsiao et al. [87] carried out an analytical and experimental assessment of the waste heat recovery system from an automobile engine. The results showed better performance by attaching TEGs to the exhaust pipe than to the radiators. Hsu et al. [88] introduced a heat exchanger with 8 TEGs and 8 air-cooled heat sink assemblies, obtaining a maximum power of 44 W. An application to recover waste heat has been developed by Hsu et al. [89], for a system consisting of 24 TEGs used to convert heat from the exhaust pipe of a vehicle to electrical energy. The results show a temperature increase at the hot side Th from 323 to 403 K and a load resistance of 23–30 Ω to harvest the waste heat for the system. Tian et al. [90] theoretically analysed the performance between a segmented TEG (Bi2Te3 used in low-temperature region and Skutterudite in high-temperature areas) used to recover exhaust waste heat from a diesel engine and traditional TEG. They found that a segmented TEG is suitable for large temperature difference and a high-temperature heat source, and has a higher potential for waste heat recovery compared to the traditional device. Meng et al. [91] addressed the automobile performance when applying TEG in exhaust waste heat recovery. The results showed that the effects of the different properties and the heat loss to the environmental gas on performance are considerable.
\n
The conversion efficiency for the TEG system could be in the range of 5–10% [83]. The researchers’ attention is focused on the development of new thermoelectric materials that offer improved energy conversion efficiency and a working temperature range more significant than for internal combustion engines. It is planned by 2020, about 90% of cars in the USA to have mounted TEGs for their cooling equipment, thus replacing the air conditioning systems. In this case, an amount of 5% of daily average gasoline consumption would be saved and a significant reduction of greenhouse gas emissions would be obtained [25].
\n
To recover waste heat from the exhaust gas of engines, the research efforts of manufacturers focused on different solutions to compete in the production of ever-cleaner cars. Even if the cost of the bismuth telluride is relatively high, the technical feasibility of TEGs for the automobile industry is widely demonstrated, making it very attractive. The goal of the manufacturers is to develop TEG systems with automated production and low-cost thermoelectric materials [29].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.2. Air applications
\n
\n
3.2.2.1. Space vehicle applications
\n
A considerable amount of heat is released into the atmosphere from space vehicles (turbine engines from helicopters and aircraft jet engines) [29]. To obtain a significant reduction of the gas pollutant into the environment, it is necessary a remarkable reduction of electricity consumption and utilisation of the available energy in these types of vehicles. Implicitly, their operating costs are reduced [25].
\n
To power these space vehicles, TEG systems are used (e.g., on fixed-wing aircraft). The backup TEG is a type of static thermoelectric energy harvesting system with a significant temperature difference across the TEG around 100°C [92].
\n
TEG for energy harvesting uses the available temperature gradient and collects sufficient energy to power up an energy wireless sensor node (WSN) to be autonomous. This WSN is used for health monitoring systems (HMS) in an aircraft structure. The main components of a WSN are the energy source and the wireless sensor unit. An in-depth review of WSN mechanisms and applications is presented in [10].
\n
A TEG energy harvesting captures enough energy for a wireless sensor. One side of the TEG is fixed directly to the fuselage and the other side is attached to a phase-change material (PCM) heat storage unit to obtain a temperature difference during take-off and landing (Figure 10). PCM is considered an essential element for the heat storage unit because it can maximise the ΔT of the TEG system to solve the low TEG conversion efficiency [93]. In this case, the electrical energy is generated [94]. Water is an adequate PCM for heat storage. The temperature difference across the TEG is obtained from the slow changing temperature of the heat storage unit and the rapidly changing temperature of the aircraft fuselage. A lot of energy is produced during the PC, through latent heat [95, 96].
\n
Figure 10.
Schematic of the thermoelectric harvesting system in an aircraft.
\n
An application of Bi2Te3 modules on turbine nozzles has been addressed in [97]. Even though the electric power that can be harvested may be significant, the weight of the cold exchanger is still excessive for the specific application.
\n
Future applications in aircraft may be envisioned in locations in which there are hot and cold heat flows, especially with the use of light thermoelectric materials. However, one of the main issues remains the weight of the heat exchangers [29].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.2.2. Spacecraft applications
\n
The radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) are a solid and highly reliable source of electrical energy to power space vehicles being capable of operating in vacuum and to resist at high vibrations [98, 99]. RTGs are used to power space vehicles for distant NASA space expeditions (e.g., several years or several decades) where sunlight is not enough to supply solar panels [29]. The natural radioactive decay of plutonium-238 releases huge amounts of heat, which is suitable for utilisation in RTGs to convert it into electricity. The thermoelectric materials used the thermocouples of the RTGs are adequate for high temperature considering that the heat source temperature is about 1000°C [100]. These semiconductor materials can be silicon germanium (Si Ge), lead tin telluride (PbSnTe), tellurides of antimony, germanium, and silver (TAGS) and lead telluride (PbTe).
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.2.3. Marine applications
\n
Up to now, just a few surveys have been performed in the marine industry due to the lack of clear and stringent international rules at the global level. The marine transport has a significant influence on climate change because is a large amount of the greenhouse gas emissions [29]. The naval transport generates a wide amount of waste heat, used to provide thermal energy onboard and seldom electrical energy. The heat sources on the marine vessels are the main engine, lubrication oil cooler, an electrical generating unit, generator and incinerators. The utilisation of waste heat onboard is for heating heavy fuel oil and accommodation places, and for freshwater production. The main engine represents the principal source of waste heat. Board incinerators are used for burning the onboard waste instead to be thrown overboard to pollute the sea water. The incinerators are the most favourable TEG systems due to the availability of their high-temperature differences [101, 102].
\n
The specialists’ attention is focused on the future design and optimisation of the high-power density TEGs for the marine environment, as well as on the development of hybrid thermoelectric ships considered as green platforms for assessing the efficiency of TEGs [103].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.4. Industrial applications
\n
The industry is the field where most amounts of heat are emitted and released into the atmosphere in the form of flue gases and radiant heat energy with a negative impact to the environmental pollution (emissions of CO2). For this reason, thermoelectric harvesters are good candidates to recover waste heat from industries and convert it into useful power (e.g., to supply small sensing electronic device in a plant).
\n
Utilisation of TEGs in the industrial field is beneficial from two points of view:
in the industrial applications where recoverability of the waste heat by the conventional system (radiated heat energy) is very difficult to be done;
in the industrial applications where the use of thermoelectric materials reduces the need for maintenance of the systems and the price of the electric power is low, even if the efficiency is low [29].
\n
The results of a test carried out on a TEG system attached at a carburising furnace (made of 16 Bi2Te3 modules and a heat exchanger) are indicated in [104]. The system harvested about 20% of the heat (P = 4 kW). The maximum electrical output power generated by TEG has been approximately 214 W, leading to thermoelectric conversion efficiency 5%. Aranguren et al. [105] built a TEG prototype. The TEG has been attached at the exhaust of a combustion chamber, with 48 modules connected in series and two different kinds of finned heat sinks, heat exchangers and heat pipes. This TEG was used to recover waste heat from the combustion chamber. In this case, the main objective has been to maximise the electric output power generated by the TEG.
\n
For this reason, the dissipation systems have been used on both sides of TEG. This prototype has obtained a 21.56 W of net power using about 100 W/m2 from the exhaust gases of the combustion chamber. To recover the radiant heat from melted metal from the steelmaking industry, the TEG systems are also considered good candidates [29].
\n
Furthermore, TEGs are useful for recovery of waste heat from the cement rotary kiln to generate electricity, considering that the rotary kiln is the main equipment used for large-scale industrial cement production [106]. The performance of this hybrid Bi2Te3 and PbTe thermoelectric heat recovery system is obtained by developing a mathematical model. In this case, about 211 kW electrical output power and 3283 kW heat loss are saved by using a thermoelectric waste heat energy recovery system. The contribution of TEG is about 2%.
\n
The electric output power evaluation of a TEG system attached to an industrial thermal oil heater is presented in Barma et al. [107]. The impact of different design and flow parameters has been assessed to maximise the electrical output power. The estimated annual electrical power generation from the proposed system was about 181,209 kWh. The thermal efficiency of the TEG based on recently developed thermoelectric materials (N-type hot forged Bi2Te3 and P-type (Bi,Sb)2Te3 used for the temperature range of 300–573 K) was enhanced up to 8.18%.
\n
\n
\n
3.2.5. Residential applications
\n
In residential applications, TEGs can be feasible where the heat is transferred from high temperatures to a reduced temperature heat source, and then is released into the environment. In addition, TEG can be also feasible when thermal energy is accessible in high amounts without additional costs. Types of residential applications where TEG systems could be mounted are with TEGs attached to domestic boilers, TEGs attached to stoves, as well as TEGs attached to solar systems [27].
\n
\n
3.2.5.1. TEGs connected to the local heating boiler
\n
The heating boilers for residential applications provide central heating and hot water. These heating boilers are highly used in the places where the winter season with temperatures under 0°C has a long duration and the heating is necessary for all this period. The fuels used by these heating boilers can be biomass (e.g., firewood, wood pellets, wood chips) or renewable resources that provide a lower carbon footprint compared to fossil fuels [108, 109]. In spite of higher pollution, some residential applications use fossil fuel-fired boilers (boilers supplied with natural gas) due to their low maintenance [27]. Furthermore, the fuel combustion is high, providing combustion temperatures bigger than 1000°C.
\n
Instead, the heating boilers contain enhanced heat transfer surfaces due to the fins, and inside them combustion takes place at over 500°C. The heat obtained is used for water heating at temperatures fewer than 80°C. By considering that some thermoelectric materials are available for high temperatures, TEGs are very suitable for this type of equipment. In this case, high-temperature differences are obtained if the TEG cold side is mounted to the water heating side and the TEG hot side is mounted to the combustion chamber of the heat exchanger. The TEG system attached to the heating boiler must provide an electric output power \n\nP\n=\n30\n÷\n70\nW\n\n, as this boiler has to generate the power necessary to supply the auxiliary devices and the pumps of the heating system. These boilers are widely reviewed in [27].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.5.2. TEGs attached to the stove
\n
At the global level, over than 14% of the population is still living without electricity access according to the Energy Access Outlook 2017 [110]. To deliver a small amount of electricity by using power plants to this population could be very costly. Grid connection of villages in remote areas supposes to take into account the cost of the connection of the new power lines to the grid and the distribution cost on long distances [29]. Also, traditional biomass stoves (‘threestone fires’, ‘built-in stoves’ or ‘mud-stoves’) have a reduced thermal efficiency due to incomplete fuel burning, and a lot of the heat generated is wasted through the exhausts. Furthermore, the indoor air quality is very poor related to the utilisation of biomass fuels with a negative impact on the users’ health (e.g., lung diseases, respiratory tract infections, cardiac problems, stroke, eye diseases, tuberculosis and cancer) [111].
\n
Considering that most of the stoves are used in the rural areas in remote locations away from the grid, where the income of the population is very low, the solutions with such hybrid systems (TEGs attached to stoves) must be as inexpensive as possible. These hybrid systems must be very reliable and durable, taking into account this vital problem [111]. In this case, a TEG device attached to the stove equipment used for heating and food preparation could be an attractive option. The biomass stoves-powered TEG uses heat exchangers on both sides of TEG, as well as a power management system. The internal temperatures of a stove are bigger than 600°C, while most commercial TEGs can operate continuously at temperatures higher than 250°C, so that an appropriate hot side temperature could be obtained. To obtain a maximum electric output power, the cold side temperature must be very low. In this case, the cold sink dissipates a big amount of heat maintaining its low temperature [112].
\n
According to the literature survey, various extensive reviews about stove-attached TEG systems have been presented [27, 29, 111, 112, 113, 114]. A good option is the utilisation of the stoves using water as the cooling medium of the TEG to produce the maximum electric output power. The electrical output power decreases if the number of the TEGs is increased on the same heat sink. Such a hybrid system is suitable for complete combustion. The overall efficiency could be substantially improved [111].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.5.3. TEGs attached to the solar systems
\n
Solar TEG (STEG) systems, PV systems and concentrating solar power plants can generate electricity by using the solar heat. A STEG is composed of a TEG system sandwiched between a solar absorber and a heat sink as shown in Figure 11. The solar flux is absorbed by the solar absorber and concentrated into one point. Then, the heat is transferred through TEG by using a pipeline, and is partially converted into electrical power by the TEG. A heat sink rejects the excess heat at the cold junction of the TEG to keep a proper ΔT across the TEG [115].
\n
Figure 11.
Components of STEG system.
\n
Due to the development of the thermoelectric materials, a solar TEG with an incident flux of 100 kW/m2 and a hot side temperature of 1000°C could obtain 15.9% conversion efficiency. The solar TEG is very attractive for standalone power conversion. The efficiency of a solar TEG depends on both the efficiency with which sunlight is absorbed and converted into heat, and the TEG efficiency\n\n\nη\nTEG\n\n\n. Furthermore, the total efficiency of a solar TEG is also influenced by the heat lost from the surface. The efficiency of solar TEG systems is relatively small due to the low Carnot efficiency provoked by the reduced temperature difference across the TEG and the reduced ZT [116]. Its improvement needs to rise temperature differences and to develop new materials with high ZT like nanostructured and complex bulk materials (e.g., a device with ZT = 2 and a temperature of 1500°C would lead to obtain a conversion efficiency about 30.6%) [117]. According to the literature survey, both residential and commercial applications gain much more interest in the regions of incident solar radiation of solar TEGs. This can be explained by the fact that most of the heat released at the cold side of the TEG can be used for domestic hot water and space heating [115].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.2.6. Grid integration of TEG
\n
Most TEG applications have been designed for autonomous operation within a local system. Of course, the TEG output may be connected to different types of loads. In general, a TEG can be seen as a renewable energy power generation source that supplies an autonomous system or a grid-connected system. To be suitable for grid connection, the TEG needs an appropriate power conditioning system. This power conditioning system has to be a power electronic system, with specific regulation capabilities, different with respect to the ones used for solar photovoltaic and wind power systems [114], because the TEG operating conditions are different with respect to the other renewable energy sources. Molina et al. [118] proposed a control strategy to perform energy conversion from DC to AC output voltage, which maintains the operation of the thermoelectric device at the MPP. In the same proposal, active and reactive power controls are addressed by using a dedicated power conditioning system.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusions
\n
This chapter has addressed the structures and applications of TEGs in various contexts. It has emerged that the TEG is a viable solution for energy harvesting, able to supply electrical loads in relatively low-power applications. The TEG efficiency is also typically low. Thereby, the advantages of using TEG have to be found in the characteristics of specific applications in which there is a significantly high-temperature difference across the TEG system, and other solutions with higher efficiency cannot be applied because of various limitations. These limitations may be the relatively high temperatures for the materials adopted, the strict requirements on the system to be used (regarding the type of operation, emissions of pollutants, the position of the device during operation or noise). In these cases, TEGs may be fully competitive with the other solutions.
\n
In particular, the use of TEGs is entirely consistent with the provision of green energy through energy harvesting from even small temperature differences. Some low-power applications have been identified on electronic circuits, sensors, waste heat recovery, residential energy harvesting and automotive systems. In other applications to enhance the efficiency of the systems for energy production with a higher power, the efficiency increase is still somewhat limited to consider that an investment in TEG integration may be profitable. Nevertheless, there is a growing interest in the potential of thermoelectric applications. For the future, faster development of TEG solutions can be expected in a broader range of green energy applications. This development depends on improvements in the TEG technology, better information on the TEG characteristics, and the testing of new solutions aimed at promoting better integration in the energy production systems.
\n
\n
Nomenclature
Acronyms
COP
coefficient of performance
DC
direct current
ECG
electrocardiography
EEG
electroencephalography
EMG
electromyography
HMS
health monitoring systems
IR
infrared sensor
MPP
maximum power point
MPPT
maximum power point tracking
PANI
polyaniline
PA
polyamide
PCM
phase-change material
PC
phase-change
PEDOT
poly
RF
radio-frequency
RTG
radioisotope thermoelectric generator
STEG
solar thermoelectric generator
TEG
thermoelectric generator
WSN
wireless sensor node
Symbols
\n\n\nE\n\n\n
electric field (\n\nV\n·\n\nm\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n)
\n\n\nI\n\n\n
electrical current (\n\nA\n)\n\n
\n\n\nJ\n\n\n
current density (\n\nA\n·\n\nm\n\n−\n2\n\n\n\n)
\n\n\n\nJ\n¯\n\n\n\n
relative current density (\n\nA\n·\n\nm\n\n−\n2\n\n\n\n)
\n',keywords:"thermal energy, Seebeck effect, thermoelectric generator, thermoelectric materials, design, low-power applications",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65239.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65239.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65239",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65239",totalDownloads:5437,totalViews:3863,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:56,totalAltmetricsMentions:22,introChapter:null,impactScore:20,impactScorePercentile:99,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"May 15th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"January 21st 2019",datePublished:"February 20th 2019",dateFinished:"January 18th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Green energy harvesting aims to supply electricity to electric or electronic systems from one or different energy sources present in the environment without grid connection or utilisation of batteries. These energy sources are solar (photovoltaic), movements (kinetic), radio-frequencies and thermal energy (thermoelectricity). The thermoelectric energy harvesting technology exploits the Seebeck effect. This effect describes the conversion of temperature gradient into electric power at the junctions of the thermoelectric elements of a thermoelectric generator (TEG) device. This device is a robust and highly reliable energy converter, which aims to generate electricity in applications in which the heat would be otherwise dissipated. The significant request for thermoelectric energy harvesting is justified by developing new thermoelectric materials and the design of new TEG devices. Moreover, the thermoelectric energy harvesting devices are used for waste heat harvesting in microscale applications. Potential TEG applications as energy harvesting modules are used in medical devices, sensors, buildings and consumer electronics. This chapter presents an overview of the fundamental principles of thermoelectric energy harvesting and their low-power applications.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65239",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65239",book:{id:"7695",slug:"green-energy-advances"},signatures:"Diana Enescu",authors:[{id:"226207",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Enescu",fullName:"Diana Enescu",slug:"diana-enescu",email:"diana.enescu@valahia.ro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226207/images/system/226207.jpeg",institution:{name:"Valahia University of Targoviste",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Background about energy harvesting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Basic principles of thermoelectric energy generation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Thermoelectric effects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Thermoelectric effects and thermodynamic processes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. TEG structure and model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Components of a thermoelectric energy harvesting system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Efficiency assessment of a TEG device",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.5.1. The dimensionless thermoelectric figure-of-merit \n\nZT\n\n\n",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.5.2. TEG design for energy harvesting applications",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"2.5.2.1. Optimization of the TEG device",level:"4"},{id:"sec_8_4",title:"2.5.2.2. Heat transfer enhancement at the hot and cold sides",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12",title:"3. Applications using thermoelectrics in the power generation mode",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.1. Low-power generation for thermoelectric harvesting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.1.1. Microelectronic applications",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.1.2. TEG as a thermal energy sensor",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.2. High-power generation for thermoelectric harvesting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"3.2.1. Automotive applications",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.2.2. Air applications",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_4",title:"3.2.2.1. Space vehicle applications",level:"4"},{id:"sec_17_4",title:"3.2.2.2. Spacecraft applications",level:"4"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"3.2.3. Marine applications",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"3.2.4. Industrial applications",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"3.2.5. Residential applications",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_4",title:"3.2.5.1. TEGs connected to the local heating boiler",level:"4"},{id:"sec_22_4",title:"3.2.5.2. TEGs attached to the stove",level:"4"},{id:"sec_23_4",title:"3.2.5.3. TEGs attached to the solar systems",level:"4"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"3.2.6. Grid integration of TEG",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_31",title:"Nomenclature",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Roundy S, Steingart D, Frechette L, Wright P, Rabaey J. Power sources for wireless sensor networks. In: 1st European Workshop on Wireless Sensor Networks Berlin; 2004\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Vullers RJM, van Schaijk R, Doms I, Van Hoof C, Mertens R. Micropower energy harvesting. Solid-State Electronics. 2009;53(7):684-693. DOI: 10.1016/j.sse.2008.12.011\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Steingart D, Roundy S, Wright PK, Evans JW. Micropower materials development for wireless sensor networks. MRS Bulletin. 2008;33(4):408-409. DOI: 10.1557/mrs2008.81\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Sim ZW. Radio frequency energy harvesting for embedded sensor networks in the natural environment [MS Degree thesis]. Manchester, England; 2011\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Snyder GJ. Thermoelectric energy harvesting. In: Priya S, Inman DJ, editors. Energy Harvesting Technologies. Boston, MA, USA: Springer; 2009. pp. 325-336. 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Energy for Sustainable Development. 2018;43:162-172. DOI: 10.1016/j.esd.2018.01.004\n'},{id:"B114",body:'Date A, Date A, Dixon C, Akbarzadeh A. Progress of thermoelectric power generation systems: Prospect for small to medium scale power generation. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2014;33:371-381. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.081\n'},{id:"B115",body:'Kraemer D, McEnaney K, Chiesa M, Chen G. Modeling and optimization of solar thermoelectric generators for terrestrial applications. Solar Energy. 2012;86(5):1338-1350. DOI: 10.1016/j.solener.2012.01.025\n'},{id:"B116",body:'Olsen ML, Warren EL, Parilla PA, Toberer ES, Kennedy CE, Snyder GJ, et al. A high-temperature, high-efficiency solar thermoelectric generator prototype. Energy Procedia. 2014;49:1460-1469. DOI: 10.1016/j.egypro.2014.03.155\n'},{id:"B117",body:'Baranowski LL, Snyder GJ, Toberer ES. Concentrated solar thermoelectric generators. Energy & Environmental Science. 2012;5:9055-9067. DOI: 10.1039/C2EE22248E\n'},{id:"B118",body:'Molina MG, Juanicó LE, Rinalde GF. Design of innovative power conditioning system for the grid integration of thermoelectric generators. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2012;37(13):10057-10063. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.01.177\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Diana Enescu",address:"diana.enescu@valahia.ro",affiliation:'
Department of Electronics, Telecommunications and Energy, Valahia University of Targoviste, Targoviste, Romania
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1. Introduction
Dairy farming plays an essential role in the global socioeconomic scenario, being one of the most traditional rural activities and fundamental for agribusiness. Milk is one of the most complete and most consumed food globally, in addition to providing a social function, generating thousands of direct and indirect jobs throughout the production chain. The development of new technologies should add more efficiency to the milk production chain, a constant challenge for several sectors involved in the segment.
The use of animal reproduction biotechnologies has contributed to the increase in animal productivity and has been one of the main responsible for the increase in milk production. The current scenario is the search for a model capable of providing high production efficiency concerning animal welfare without harming the environment and with the most advanced reproductive techniques for obtaining pregnancies and genetic improvement. In this way, ovarian physiology is a key aspect to contribute to the efficiency of dairy production.
The ovarian follicular population is characterized by the total amount of follicles present in the ovary. Each follicle contains an oocyte, so it is known that there are a great number of oocytes in the ovary. However, only a small portion of the ovarian follicles undergo ovulation. Therefore, the ovarian follicular reserve is an important indicator of fertility in cattle, which may influence the applicability of reproductive biotechniques.
This chapter addresses the mechanism of folliculogenesis and the most recent research. It also brings discussions on how reproductive biotechniques can influence fertility in dairy cattle.
2. Oogenesis and folliculogenesis
The origin of the female reproductive system is still in embryonic life in the sublumbar region located caudally to the kidneys. The primordial germ cells, which will give rise to the germline formation, originate in the proximal epiblast and then move from the yolk sac to the gonadal ridges through the mesentery, around day 30 of germinal development [1]. At this moment, the Müller and Wolff ducts are still present, which will give rise to the female and male reproductive tract, respectively.
After the colonization of the ridges, around 35 days of gestation, the differentiation process begins by specifying the somatic cells of the ridge, where Sertoli cells will originate from the XY chromosome, and the granulosa cells will originate from the XX chromosome. There is an involution of Wolff’s duct (or mesonephros) and development of Müller’s duct (or paramesonephric) in the escarpments. In males, as they inherit the testicles determining factor (TDF) from the Y chromosome, Sertoli cells release the anti-müllerian hormone (AMH) and inhibit the development of Müller’s ducts [2, 3]. After this process, they are formed as oogonia that through mitotic and meiotic divisions form a nest of oogonia in a tubular shape, and then a process of differentiation into oocytes begins [4].
Gonadal structures called germline cysts are elevated in the ovigerous cords and surrounded by a basement membrane shortly after colonization of the gonadal ridges by primordial germ cells. Meiotic divisions are initiated until the process is stopped in meiosis prophase I when primary oocytes are already formed. The primary oocytes are surrounded by a layer of undifferentiated pregranulosa cells [5]. The interruption of meiosis can last for years until a given follicle enters the growth process, resuming meiosis and continuing the follicular development through the primordial follicle until its final stage in the antral follicle [6].
It is known that folliculogenesis depends on interactions between the somatic cells of the follicle and the oocyte, so the communication between the granulosa and theca cells with the oocyte is essential for follicular development and growth to occur [7, 8]. The passage from the primordial follicle to the primary follicle is a transition phase and is characterized by the action of specific growth factors for each stage of folliculogenesis [9]. In bovine species, the so-called follicular growth waves correspond to a stimulus for the recruitment of preantral follicles.
Once the primordial follicle is recruited, whose granulosa cells are flat, it becomes the primary follicle and there is a transition between the flat cells to the cuboidal-shaped granulosa cells [9]. At this stage, the zona pellucida appears, which will remain around the oocyte throughout the follicle’s development. Continuing to grow, the secondary follicle is constituted when the granulosa cells multiply and form two layers of cubic morphology, in addition to the emergence of the first theca cells [10].
The growth of these secondary follicles (when they reach approximately 4 mm in diameter) is regulated by the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which has its receptors in the granulosa cells. When they reach a larger size (approximately 7–9 mm in diameter), they start to be controlled by luteinizing hormone (LH). At this stage, the follicle is already characterized as tertiary and has LH receptors in the theca cells that are already entirely organized, and the formation of the follicular antrum can be observed [11, 12]. The phases of follicular development are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Schematic sequence of complete follicular development.
3. Ovarian follicular population
The follicular population may vary between individuals, and some factors such as genetics, breed, age, species, and hormone levels can influence the number of follicles present in the ovaries [13]. For bovine females, it is estimated that the number of follicles at birth is about 235,000 [14].
An increase in the number of antral follicles present in the ovary and stimulated by gonadotrophin secretion is influenced by body development in heifers [15]. Endocrine activity at first seems to be controlled by suppressing negative feedback mechanisms until the heifer has a good body condition to initiate the estrous cycle and reproduction activities [16, 17, 18].
The first ovulation in heifers is marked by a gradual increase in LH secretion, which leads to the development of the antral follicles and the secretion of estrogen. At birth, antral follicles are not typically present in the ovaries, and the number of follicles increases when heifers reach 2 months of age. After that, the number of follicles declines at 5 months of age, and some changes continue to occur throughout the productive life of the female [19, 20, 21].
4. Antral follicle count and fertility in dairy cattle
Ovarian follicular population is highly variable among species, a concept that is well established [20, 21, 22] and has been already reported in cattle [23]. In recent years, numerous studies have focused on the ovarian follicular population and its influence on reproductive activities, as well as on animal reproduction biotechniques [22, 24]. The antral follicle count (AFC) is a strategy to identify different profiles of cows, performing transrectal B-mode ultrasonography and counting all follicles larger than 3 mm [25]. The total number of follicles counted in the pair of ovaries is added up, and the cow is classified as low, medium, or high AFC. A feature in cattle is the high variability of AFC between animals, but it is known that there is high repeatability in the same individual [19, 26, 27]. The appearance of the ovary on ultrasound examination of cows with high and low AFC is presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Aspect of the ovary on ultrasound examination of cows with different counts of antral follicles (AFC). On the right (A) cow with low AFC, and the left (B) cow with high AFC. Images were generated via the transrectal route with the equipment model S8v (SonoScape®) with a frequency of 8.6 MHz and a linear transducer of 5–10.0 MHz.
Furthermore, according to [28], it has already been established that the concentrations of anti-müllerian hormone (AMH), which is released by the granulosa cells of growing ovarian follicles, are positively related to the entry into puberty of bovine females. In other words, the higher serum concentrations of this hormone are, the higher AFC will be [27]. AMH is a glycoprotein that belongs to the TGF-β growth factor family [29] and it is correlated with follicular growth [30]. AMH is in the granulosa cells and it is responsible for the growth of preantral and antral follicles [31] and follicular growth modulator through the control of ovarian follicular reserve depletion [32].
The intrafollicular AMH expression increases until the follicle reaches 5 mm in cows and then decreases as the follicle reaches the antral stage and increases in size [31]. The positive correlation of AMH with the ovarian follicular population has already been described in previous studies [33, 34]. Thus, the measurement of AMH can be a method of predicting AFC [35]. In Bos taurus taurus, Bos taurus indicus, and taurus × indicus crosses, animals with a high plasma concentration of AMH present a greater number of antral follicles than those with a low concentration of this hormone [36].
Reproductive biotechniques, such as embryo transfer (ET) and IVEP, depends on the population of antral follicles present in the ovary of donor females to succeed. Among other factors that interfere with ET and IVEP, it is important to mention genetics, breed, and age [37, 38]. High AFC bovine females have been described to have a greater number of viable embryos produced in vivo per animal [39, 40, 41]. Similarly, in IVEP—ovum pick-up (OPU) procedures, high AFC animals resulted in a higher rate of blastocyst production than low AFC females [24, 42].
In contrast, a high conception rate was observed after the use of TAI in low AFC females Bos taurus indicus compared to high AFC animals [43, 44]. Additionally, other authors [45] observed that high AFC Bos taurus taurus females had lower fertility and shorter reproductive life than females with low AFC, but contrasting data have been reported [46].
Donors with a high number of antral follicles have been selected, mainly for OPU-in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedures, due to the quantitative advantages for producing in vitro embryos. Because of the high number of calves generated from IVF, there is an increasing interest in studying the relationship between AFC and reproductive characteristics.
In summary, several studies have tried to verify the influence and the correlation of AFC in the reproductive performance of bovine females. So far, it is not possible to establish the role of AFC in fertility parameters due to the controversial results. Although it is quite predictable that AFC may be related to reproductive efficiency, a better understanding of the subject is necessary. Furthermore, considering basic research, it is necessary to elucidate some aspects of follicular physiology that remain unknown [47].
5. Reproductive biotechniques and fertility in dairy cattle
Increasing the productive efficiency of a herd is one of the great challenges for dairy cattle farming. In the past, genetic selection programs sought essential characteristics for increasing milk production, with effective gains in milk quantity and quality, but reproductive efficiency was disregarded. In recent years, several works have been presented to increase milk production and increase reproductive performance, a key association for efficient dairy farming.
Considering the importance of a sustainable, intensive, and economically viable production system, achieving the reproductive efficiency of the dairy herd is crucial for the effects on profitability by the number of offspring produced, genetic progress, and the shorter interval between lactations. This is a great challenge, as there is low heritability between production and reproduction traits. Therefore, the crucial importance of precisive reproductive assistance is highlighted, providing maximum production efficiency in the smallest possible area and respecting the aspects of animal comfort.
5.1 In vitro embryo production (IVEP)
Despite the rapid development of the technique since its emergence in the late 1980s, until recently, IVEP was used only as a last resource when traditional techniques failed. However, the high genetic gains provided to the herds, obtaining a greater number of pregnancies concerning in vivo production, and lower costs due to high productivity have contributed to making IVEP the first choice in many dairy farms [48].
Holstein cows typically have lower oocyte production when subjected to IVEP. However, it is possible to obtain good results by performing a pre-selection of females with a high number of antral follicles using ultrasound. It is important to highlight that non-lactating females often have a higher number of follicles and oocytes.
Until a few years ago, some obstacles prevented the large-scale use of IVEP in dairy cattle. One of them was the large number of calves born from unwanted sex (male), which significantly increased the production cost. Another difficulty was the distance, often thousands of kilometers, between the laboratories and the properties where the recipient cows were located. The inefficiency of cryopreservation techniques for IVP embryos, especially when dealing with Bos indicus embryos, limited their production and transfer connection. Thus, discarding untransferred embryos was a common practice.
These two major obstacles have now been overcome, making large-scale in vitro embryo production a reality. Some researchers [49] reported an IVEP program in which over 20,000 dairy embryos were produced with sexed semen (female). Embryos were transported through two or three days during the in vitro culture period using portable incubators. In just over a year, 8000 female calves were produced, with an average pregnancy rate of 39%.
In addition, some alternatives can be employed to improve the methods that assist in the recovery of better-quality oocytes and a higher competence in OPU to obtain more interesting results in embryo production. In this context, the follicular wave synchronization before OPU and consider the influence of the antral follicle population seem to be good alternatives [50].
5.2 IVEP and artificial insemination (AI)
Dairy European breeds, such as Holstein and Jersey, suffer great discomfort under high temperatures and high humidity conditions. Therefore, failures in cyclicity and the demonstration of estrus occur, making management difficult and compromising AI results. Furthermore, it is known that embryos are naturally more resistant to heat stress than gametes, which can suffer degeneration and further reduce pregnancy rates in the summer [51]. The transfer of embryos 7 days after fertilization avoids the harmful effects before this period, providing more advantageous rates than AI [52, 53, 54]. For dairy cattle, therefore, the use of transferred embryos seems to be the most viable option, especially in periods of excessive heat [55].
In AI, the number of descendants of genetically selected bulls is multiplied. IVEP, in turn, also generates descendants of females of high genetic merit, causing an even more significant impact on the improvement of a herd. Greater genetic gain is achieved in each generation with the transfer of embryos produced in vitro than with AI [48].
In some dairy farms, cows with better genetic potential are used as embryo donors and recipients. Thus, an efficient genetic selection from animals in the herd becomes possible. As for the economic aspect, with the number of pregnancies in IVEP, it is possible to produce embryos at affordable costs, making the embryo commercially attractive compared to semen [56]. Another advantage is the better use of high-value semen due to the possibility of fertilizing ten or more cows with a single dose.
5.3 Use of sexed semen in AI and timed artificial insemination (TAI)
The use of conventional semen, both in AI and in vitro fertilization, requires twice as many recipients compared to sexed semen [57]. By ensuring that almost all embryos are of the desired sex—female—the use of sexed semen significantly reduces the cost of production [58].
The most used technique for semen sexing is flow cytometry, which offers an accuracy of 85–95% [59]. However, during the sexing process, the sperm may be damaged, which might compromise their viability, reducing the fertilization potential and embryonic development [60]. The sexing process reduces sperm motility, compromising AI indices. [61] Related that the mean conception rate after AI between 2012 and 2016 was 56.9% with conventional semen and 47.3% using sexed semen. In IVEP, however, the method allows obtaining very satisfactory rates of blastocysts, with quality similar to those produced with conventional semen, since this technique requires fewer viable spermatozoa [62, 63]. Generally, the conception rate obtained with sexed semen is 50–60% of the rates obtained with conventional semen in cows and 70–90% of conventional semen in heifers [64].
As there is a reduction in fertility using this semen, some strategies are currently suggested to improve conception rates in insemination programs that use sexed semen. First, it is recommended to use this semen in heifers and most in the first three services due to greater fertility. In AI programs with heat observation, the highest conception rates were achieved, with AI being performed between 16 and 24 h after the onset of heat [65]. Finally, in TAI programs, the best rates were achieved with semen deposition 60 h after removing the progesterone source [66].
5.4 Ovum pick up/IVEP vs. superovulation/embryo transfer (ET)
In the in vivo production of embryos, it is necessary to administer hormones so that superovulation (SOV) occurs and, subsequently, the transfer of the embryos. In Ovum Pick Up (OPU)/IVEP, however, obtaining oocytes and producing embryos do not require hormonal use. Furthermore, it is known that in Bos indicus animals, the number of embryos produced per aspiration session is higher than that of superovulation [67].
The in vitro technique also allows for less spaced collections of oocytes from donors. In general, the minimum interval is 15–30 days, and there is no limit to the number of aspirations performed on the same cow [68]. On the other hand, SOV requires intervals of 40–60 days and should only be performed three or four times before a period of several months apart [69].
The production of embryos by SOV also does not allow pregnant cows, while in IVEP, this is possible. Follicular aspiration can be performed as long as the ovaries can be manipulated without being subjected to excessive traction. The process flow of in vitro and in vivo embryo production is shown in Figures 3 and 4, respectively.
Figure 3.
Schematic sequence of steps in the in vitro embryo production process (IVEP).
Figure 4.
Schematic sequence of steps in the in vivo embryo production process (SOV/ET).
5.5 Cryopreservation of in vitro produced embryos
The cryopreservation of bovine embryos generated in vivo has protocols very well established and effective through a freezing process. However, despite the benefits obtained and the advantages of IVF already reported in previous topics, cryopreservation represents a challenge. The low cryotolerance of IVP embryos is a limiting factor for using the cryopreservation process associated with this process. IVP embryos are more susceptible to damage caused by cryopreservation when compared to those produced in vivo, as they present differences in morphological, metabolic, and chromosomal aspects of their structure [70].
The greater sensitivity of these embryos to low temperatures is mainly due to the greater accumulation of lipids in the cytoplasm [71]. Lipids, made up mostly of triacylglycerols, directly affect the survival of embryos during cooling, as they can undergo irreversible changes and severely compromise development. An alternative method to promote chemical delipidation of embryos and increase cryotolerance by decreasing lipid accumulation has been related [72]. Forskolin, for example, a compost derived from the Indian plant Coleus forskohlii, is able to promote intracellular lipolysis in swine [72] and bovine [73] embryos. When added to the medium at strategic periods of in vitro culture, this substance raises embryonic tolerance to levels that provide good pregnancy rates, even in Bos indicus embryos [73].
Among the cryopreservation methods, vitrification is the most used technique worldwide due to the speed of the process and its low cost [74]. On the other hand, direct transfer (DT), a technique used to simplify the in vivo post-thawing rehydration step of embryos, has its main advantage the low concentration of cryoprotectants reducing embryotoxicity [75]. Also, DT eliminates the evaluation process before the transfer, thus becoming a more practical way than vitrification [76].
6. Challenges of in vitro production embryos
The in vitro production technique comprises a greater number of steps than those necessary in vivo. Thus, skilled labor is necessary so that it is possible to obtain efficient results under controlled laboratory conditions. Due to the fixed costs of laboratory equipment, materials, and professionals, the number of embryos produced determines the commercial viability of the technique [77].
Due to the metabolic and morphological differences compared to those produced in vivo, the pregnancy rates are lower in the in vitro production of embryos. Furthermore, cryopreservation and rewarming processes are more critical for IVP embryos. Therefore, the use of cryopreserved in vitro embryos must be very judicious. Genetic growth must be considered together with the need for an adequate herd pregnancy rate to ensure milk production on the property. The most advantageous aspect of in vitro produced embryos refers to the wide success of using sexed semen in this biotechnique. In the current context, the efficiency of sexed semen in in vivo production is unsatisfactory.
Thus, if the proposal is to associate embryo transfer and sexed semen, the best strategy at the moment is the in vitro production technique. The use of cryopreserved or female sexed IVEP embryos has a precise indication for donor replacement and herd genetic improvement. AI with sexed semen and embryos produced in vivo is equally interesting biotechniques, and there may be an association between them all to ensure milk production, reproductive efficiency, and genetic improvement.
7. Challenges of dairy farming and the contribution of reproduction to increase productive efficiency
In order to minimize the effects of early embryonic loss, the Doppler ultrasound technique has been included in reproductive programs. This non-invasive and real-time biotechnology allows the characterization of blood perfusion of reproductive organs and tissues throughout the estrous cycle and pregnancy in cattle. One of its purposes is to accurately estimate the corpus luteum (CL) functionality for the selection of recipients and for the early diagnosis of pregnancy in TAI and TETF (Fixed Time Embryo Transfer) programs.
In addition to allowing for greater accuracy in the evaluation of the recipient, another feature of the Doppler is the diagnosis of pregnancy at 20–22 days, which is early compared to the conventional system performed at 30 days after insemination. Super-early resynchronization programs developed in heifers and cows are being introduced in dairy herds, as the reduction in the interval between two TAIs promotes gains in reproductive efficiency. Despite the correct evaluation being dependent on the experience and knowledge of the operator and the correct configuration of the equipment, the popularization of the technique is consolidated every day and presents good prospects for the future.
The current scenario of reproduction biotechnology demonstrates great potential for a sustainable increase in milk production, mainly due to the increase in reproductive and productive efficiency. Furthermore, the growth in the use of reproductive biotechniques is associated with the parallel development of a support network such as veterinarians, the pharmaceutical industry, disposable materials, equipment, and service providers. The generation of employment and the need to train human resources to meet the demand for activities are intended to provide social growth.
With the possibility of obtaining an accelerated genetic gain through the shortening of the generation interval, the use of prepubertal females, mainly in the production of embryos, has aroused great commercial interest and investment in research. The genetic potential of the female must first be evaluated in advance, that is, before total production. This is feasible thanks to progress in research with genetic markers for accurate prediction of the females that will be more efficient in milk production. It is also important to consider improving equipment for OPU (oocyte recovery by Ovum pick-up). There are currently fully adapted transducers for use in very young females. Despite the good number of aspirated follicles, a challenge in this category is the low blastocyst rate, promoting limited results in IVF.
Thus, to be viable for the use of these females, the next step is to develop protocols that improve the competence of the retrieved oocyte. Gonadotropin stimulus to increase the proportion (and size) of large follicles and synchronization of follicular waves before OPU to decrease immature oocytes have been investigated. A revolution in dairy farming that has become increasingly accessible is genomic selection which has significantly altered the global dairy industry. The reduction in the generation interval from 7 to 2.5 years and the reduction of costs with progeny tests were only the first benefits presented by the gene-editing biotechnique.
Silencing, altering or replacing genes that cause problems are effective strategies to increase the productive efficiency of the herd, selecting and breeding genetically superior animals. The generation gap is likely to narrow further as assessments gain wide acceptance, as genetic gains are cumulative across generations. Genetic progress is expected as continued genetic selection is implemented. Since 2009, more than one million animals have received genetic evaluations. Although these tests are carried out primarily on male animals, genotyping costs are currently economically viable. Currently, genomic selection programs are investing more in health traits (resistance to disease), reproduction, and selection for environmentally sustainable production, including reducing waste production and gas emissions.
This change of concept, which seeks longevity and animal welfare, is because, in recent years, there has been a decline in fertility and resistance in several populations, leading to a decrease in the profitability of the herds. The increase in slaughter rates, veterinary expenses, replacement costs, and reduced milk sales were just some of the consequences of the negative impact of years of selection focusing only on milk production and animal appearance. Furthermore, the adoption of a selection index, such as evaluating the quality and viability of embryos before the transfer, increases the efficiency of the process.
An example of this has been in North America, where the implementation of a genetic-based selection program for reproductive disorders is actively researched. A high and positive genetic correlation between retained placenta and metritis is being observed, implying selection of genes to improve one trait reflecting positively on the other. This demonstrates that the increased need for genomic traits for these traits contributes to the reproductive efficiency of dairy herds.
Other characteristics that have been valued in genomic tests are identifying biomarkers considered for genetic improvement, highly correlated with reproductive performance, such as anti-müllerian hormone (AMH), and identifying relevant genes to reduce pregnancy losses. Identifying genetic markers related to the development and anticipation of the embryo and their selection to avoid embryonic losses can minimize economic damage. Another issue to be further elucidated shortly is whether genes relevant to embryonic development are positively associated with fertility traits. Estimates of the heritability of conventional reproductive traits are generally low. Even so, the progressive inclusion of genomic tests, as a routine in the field, has great potential for identifying superior animals. In the medium and long term, one perspective is that genetic improvement programs will bring consistent profitability for the dairy industry.
Genomic testing still faces challenges because a decisive outcome in the short term is unlikely. Genetic variation for economic characteristics is maintained by increased frequency of rare alleles, new mutations and changes in goals, and no selection management. Moreover, although genomic selection is being well applied at rates of genetic gain, we still know very little about the genetic structure that promotes this variation. The most relevant future challenge will probably be the incorporation of new characteristics in the selection index in breeding programs, overcoming a measurement difficulty or low heritability of them. Added to this, it is still uncertain whether traits produced over several generations emerged included in routine genomics, as gene frequencies change over time.
It is already known that the selection of some genes can directly or indirectly influence other aspects. The concern with creations called “ecologically correct” remains controversial. The inclusion of characteristics such as lower gas emissions can compromise herd productivity. It should be remembered that the increase in milk production per animal reduces the total production of residues in the atmosphere. In other words, it is something broader than simply a genetic alteration to favor an environmental issue narrowly.
Genomic testing positively changes productivity dynamics, but attention is needed to the consequences of these genetic manipulations. The pioneering application of genomic selection in cattle will lead to a series of unanticipated discoveries that could affect animals and society. An accidental finding was recently published in highly relevant research. It was discovered that two cloned bulls whose cell lineage had undergone gene editing, aiming at the characteristic of not having horns, were transgenic. The animals contained in their genome the genetic material of the bacterium used as a vector in gene editing. The Food and Drugs Administration (FDA) guarantees that intentional genomic alterations are safe for animals and anyone who consumes foods derived from them. However, there is still no universally accepted verification method for genomic editing.
Finally, with all the technological changes, the dairy herd has its premises, but the consumer market has also increased its requirements. Producers face the challenge that today there are claims for harmonic milk in ingestion (A2A2) [78], welfare for female producers, and respect for the environmental preservation area. People worldwide are looking for information about the products daily and are no longer limited to the final part of the milk production chain.
The increase in reproductive efficiency is a proposal fully adjusted to environmental sustainability. More productive herds require less area to generate more feed. Furthermore, the use of genetically improved animals according to the climatic conditions of each region prevents land competition with agriculture. As for differentiated milk production, the inclusion of bulls genotyped for the A2 allele of beta-casein accelerates aggregation of A2A2 animals in the herd.
Another critical aspect is the mandatory link between reproductive biotechnology and animal welfare. More productive animals only respond to greater reproductive efficiency if they have all vital requirements well met. Technological innovations such as robotic milking, with the cow’s autonomy about milking, signals a prospect of increased milk production with the same number of animals. A new change in concept which, adding welfare to the creation of dairy cattle will reflect positively on the profitability of producers.
8. Conclusion
All aspects of folliculogenesis remain a vast area to be studied, despite the notable progress made with previous research. It is not possible to determine the complete influence of AFC on female bovine fertility. The use of AFC as a tool to produce embryos in vitro and in vivo seems to be evident. However, further investigations need to be carried out for TAI and fertility. Despite the significant challenges of dairy farming, the development of reproductive biotechnologies, associated with the establishment of genomic analysis, has been used as a potential tool to increase dairy productivity, meet world demand, and meet the demands of the present consumer market.
Overcoming the main limitations of IVEP, together with the good results and its high applicability, has contributed to the use of biotechnique on a large scale. Thus, IVEP is no longer limited to elite animals or animals that do not respond to superovulation but actively contributes to the production, improvement, and profitability of dairy production.
The transfer of IVP embryos is a great strategy to reduce the cost of high genetic value semen, and it seems to be the most viable option in periods or regions of high temperatures. Thus, IVEP has benefited dairy farms of all sizes and animals of different breeds, whether Bos taurus taurus or Bos taurus indicus. However, factors such as nutrition and management must be considered before implementing this technique, as they directly influence reproductive efficiency.
\n',keywords:"dairy cattle, folliculogenesis, antral follicle count, fertility, embryo production",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79568.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79568.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79568",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79568",totalDownloads:150,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 16th 2021",dateReviewed:"October 15th 2021",datePrePublished:"December 6th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"December 6th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The ovarian follicle population is formed by thousands of follicles, preantral and antral, where oocytes are included. During fetal life, the first follicles produced are preantral, and, as they undergo the development process, they reach the final stage of antral follicles, where a cavity/or antrum is developed. All this growth phase is called folliculogenesis, and this chapter will abord the most important aspects of this process. Moreover, not all follicles reach the preovulatory phase and can be fertilized, so we will discuss how reproductive biotechniques can positively influence the fertility of bovine females. We will also discuss the possibility of antral follicle count to influence reproductive performance and the correlation to biotechniques. Finally, we present alternatives on how to improve fertility and productive efficiency in dairy herds.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79568",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79568",signatures:"Marcelo M. Seneda, Sofia B. Delchiaro, Amanda F. Zangirolamo, Amauri A. Alfieri and Fabio Morotti",book:{id:"10887",type:"book",title:"New Advances in the Dairy Industry",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Advances in the Dairy Industry",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Muhammad Subhan Qureshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10887.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83962-747-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-746-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-750-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"321396",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Subhan",middleName:null,surname:"Qureshi",slug:"muhammad-subhan-qureshi",fullName:"Muhammad Subhan Qureshi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Oogenesis and folliculogenesis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Ovarian follicular population",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Antral follicle count and fertility in dairy cattle",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Reproductive biotechniques and fertility in dairy cattle",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 In vitro embryo production (IVEP)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 IVEP and artificial insemination (AI)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3 Use of sexed semen in AI and timed artificial insemination (TAI)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.4 Ovum pick up/IVEP vs. superovulation/embryo transfer (ET)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.5 Cryopreservation of in vitro produced embryos",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Challenges of in vitro production embryos",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"7. Challenges of dairy farming and the contribution of reproduction to increase productive efficiency",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Garcia S, Fernández C. Embriologia. 3d ed. 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Theriogenology. 2020;155:1-11. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2020.04.028'},{id:"B56",body:'Seneda MM, Marinho LSR. Novas aplicações do uso de embriões produzidos in vitro (PIV). In: Anais Biotecnologia da Reprodução em Bovinos—5° Simpósio Internacional de Reprodução Animal Aplicada; October 2012; Parana: MSD Londrina; 2012. p. 188'},{id:"B57",body:'Holden SA, Butler ST. Review: Applications and benefits of sexed semen in dairy and beef herds. Animal. 2018;12:97-103. DOI: 10.1017/S1751731118000721'},{id:"B58",body:'Quelhas J, Santiago J, Matos B, Rocha A, Lopes G, Fardilha M. Bovine semen sexing: Sperm membrane proteomics as candidates for immunological selection of X- and Y-chromosome-bearing sperm. Veterinary Medicine and Science. 2021;75:1633-1641. DOI: 10.1002/vms3.540'},{id:"B59",body:'Garner DL, Seidel GE. Past, present and future perspectives on sexing sperm. Canadian Journal of Animal Science. 2003;83:375-384. DOI: 10.4141/A03-022'},{id:"B60",body:'Thomas JM, Locke JWC, Bonacker RC, Knickmeyer ER, Wilson DJ, Vishwanath R, et al. Evaluation of SexedULTRA 4MTM sex-sorted semen in timed artificial insemination programs for mature beef cows. Theriogenology. 2018;123:100-107. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2018.09.039'},{id:"B61",body:'Oikawa K, Yamazaki T, Yamaguchi S, Abe H, Bai H, Takahashi M, et al. Effects of use of conventional and sexed semen on the conception rate in heifers: A comparison study. Theriogenology. 2019;135:33-37. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2019.06.012'},{id:"B62",body:'Peippo J, Vartia K, Kanane-Anttila K, Räty M, Korhonen K, Hurme T, et al. Embryo production from superovulated Holstein-Friesian dairy heifers and cows after insemination with frozen-thawed sex-sorted X spermatozoa or unsorted semen. Animal Reproduction Science. 2009;111:80-92. DOI: 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2008.02.002'},{id:"B63",body:'Peippo J, Räty M, Korhonen K, Eronen M, Kananen K, Hurme T, et al. Impact of in vitro fertilization of bovine oocytes with sex-sorted frozen-thawed spermatozoa on developmental kinetics, quality and sex ratio of developing embryos. Zygote. 2010;18:185-194. DOI: 10.1017/S0967199409990281'},{id:"B64",body:'Butler ST, Hutchinson IA, Cromie AR, Shalloo L. Applications and cost benefits of sexed semen in pasture-based dairy production systems. Animal. 2014;8:165-172. DOI: 10.1017/S1751731114000664'},{id:"B65",body:'Sá Filho MF, Ayres H, Ferreira RM, Nichi M, Fosado M, Campos Filho EP, et al. Strategies to improve pregnancy per insemination using sex-sorted semen in dairy heifers detected in estrus. Theriogenology. 2010;74:1636-1642. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2010.06.036'},{id:"B66",body:'Sales JN, Neves KA, Souza AH, Crepaldi G, Sala RV, Fosado M, et al. Timing of insemination and fertility in dairy and beef cattle receiving timed artificial insemination using sex-sorted sperm. Theriogenology. 2011;76:427-435. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2011.02.019'},{id:"B67",body:'Pontes JHF, Nonato-Junior I, Sanches BV, Ereno-Junior JC, Uvo S, TRR B, et al. Comparison of embryo yield and pregnancy rate between in vivo and in vitro methods in the same Nelore (Bos indicus) donor cows. Theriogenology. 2009;71:690-697. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2008.09.031'},{id:"B68",body:'Bousquet D, Twagiramungu H, Morin N, Brisson C, Carboneau G, Durocher J. Vitro embryo production in the cow: An effective alternative to the conventional embryo production approach. Theriogenology. 1999;51:59-70. DOI: 10.1016/s0093-691x(98)00231-3'},{id:"B69",body:'Marinho LSR, Machado FZ, Seneda MM. Strategies to improve the reproductive efficiency of dairy cattle. In: Hernandez CT, editor. Dairy Cows: Reproduction, Nutritional Management and Diseases. 1st ed. New York: Nova Science Publishers; 2013. pp. 127-148'},{id:"B70",body:'Sudano MJ, Paschoal DM, Rascado TD, Magalhaes LCO, Crocomo LF, Lima-Neto JF, et al. Lipid content and apoptosis of in vitro-produced bovine embryos as determinants of susceptibility to vitrification. Theriogenology. 2011;75:1211-1220. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2010.11.033'},{id:"B71",body:'Abe H, Yamashita S, Satoh T, Hoshi H. Accumulation of cytoplasmatic lipid droplets in bovine embryos and cryotolerance of embryos developed in different culture systems using serum-free medium or in serum-containing médium. Molecular Reproduction and Development. 2002;61:57-66. DOI: 10.1002/mrd.1131'},{id:"B72",body:'Men H, Agca Y, Riley LK, Critser JK. Improved survival of vitrified porcine embryos after partial delipation through chemically stimulated lipolysis and inhibition of apoptosis. Theriogenology. 2006;66:2008-2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2006.05.018'},{id:"B73",body:'Sanches BV, Marinho LSR, Filho BDO, Pontes JHF, Basso AC, Meirinhos MLG, et al. Cryosurvival and pregnancy rates following exposure of IVF-derived Bos indicus embryos to forskolin prior to vitrification. Theriogenology. 2013;80:372-377. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2013.04.026'},{id:"B74",body:'Dode MAN, Leme LO, Spricigo JFW. Criopreservação de embriões bovinos produzidos in vitro. Revista Brasileira de Reprodução Animal. 2013;37:145-150'},{id:"B75",body:'Voelkel SA, Hu YX. Direct transfer of frozen-thawed bovine embryos. Theriogenology. 1992;37:23-37. DOI: 10.1016/0093-691X(92)90245-M'},{id:"B76",body:'Sanches BV, Zangirolamo AF, Silva NC, Morotti F, Seneda MM. Cryopreservation of in vitro-produced embryos: Challenges for commercial implementation. Animal Reproduction. 2017;14:521-527. DOI: 10.21451/1984-3143-AR995'},{id:"B77",body:'Sanches BV, Zangirolamo AF, Seneda NN. Intensive use of IVF by large-scale dairy programs. Animal Reproduction. 2019;16:394-401. DOI: 10.21451/1984-3143-AR2019-0058'},{id:"B78",body:'Barbosa MG, Souza AB, Tavares GM, Antunes AEC. Leites A1 e A2: Revisão sobre seus potenciais efeitos no trato digestório. Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional. 2019;26:1-11. DOI: 10.20396/san.v26i0.8652981'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Marcelo M. Seneda",address:"marcelo.seneda@uel.br",affiliation:'
Laboratory of Animal Reproduction, Londrina State University, Brazil
National Institute of Science and Technology for the Dairy Production Chain (INCT-Leite), Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sofia B. Delchiaro",address:null,affiliation:'
Laboratory of Animal Reproduction, Londrina State University, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Amanda F. Zangirolamo",address:null,affiliation:'
Laboratory of Animal Reproduction, Londrina State University, Brazil
National Institute of Science and Technology for the Dairy Production Chain (INCT-Leite), Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Amauri A. Alfieri",address:null,affiliation:'
National Institute of Science and Technology for the Dairy Production Chain (INCT-Leite), Brazil
Laboratory of Animal Reproduction, Londrina State University, Brazil
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Dr. Gillies obtained\nPh.D. in Meteorology and Remote Sensing from the University of Newcastle, U.K. He has\nworked as research associate in the Department of Meteorology, Pennsylvania State\nUniversity, and assistant professor in the Department of Plants, Soils and Biometeorology,\nUtah State University.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Utah State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107519",title:"Dr.",name:"Aniello",surname:"Russo",slug:"aniello-russo",fullName:"Aniello Russo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marche Polytechnic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"107520",title:"Dr.",name:"Maja",surname:"Krzelj",slug:"maja-krzelj",fullName:"Maja Krzelj",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Split",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"114771",title:"Dr.",name:"Jin-Ho",surname:"Yoon",slug:"jin-ho-yoon",fullName:"Jin-Ho Yoon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pacific Northwest National Laboratory",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"118065",title:"Ms.",name:"Viviane",surname:"Silva",slug:"viviane-silva",fullName:"Viviane Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"134347",title:"Dr.",name:"Vernon",surname:"Kousky",slug:"vernon-kousky",fullName:"Vernon Kousky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"138580",title:"Dr.",name:"Wan-Ru (Judy)",surname:"Huang",slug:"wan-ru-(judy)-huang",fullName:"Wan-Ru (Judy) Huang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"City University of Hong Kong",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"orders-and-delivery",title:"Order and Delivery Info",intro:'
IntechOpen books are published online and are accessible for free.
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However, if you are interested in ordering your hardcover copy, you can do so by contacting our Print Sales Department at orders@intechopen.com. All IntechOpen books are printed on demand in full-colour and delivered in signature packaging through FREE DHL Express delivery.
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For a quote or assistance please contact us directly at orders@intechopen.com The quote will be sent to you within 1-2 business days.
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Our entire portfolio of over 5,500 books is also available through Amazon.
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Hardcover, Printed Full Colour
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Our books are available hardcover, printed in full colour and produced to the highest standards on PEFC™ and FSC certified paper, complying with principles of responsible forestry worldwide. The paper size is 180 x 260 mm (7 x 10.2 inches).
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IntechOpen Books are printed specifically for your order
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IntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
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Prices and Discounts
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IntechOpen books retail price range is:
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100 - 159 GBP ex. VAT (available in USD and EUR)
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Discounts available:
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All IntechOpen contributors can buy the print copies of books for an Author Exclusive price with discounts from 30% to 50% on retail price. Log in to your Author Panel to purchase a book at the discounted price.
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We currently accept the following payment options:
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When paying with a credit card, you will be redirected to the PayPal.com online payment portal.
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IntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
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In accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
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General Handling and Delivery Info
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The combined printing and delivery time for orders vary from 7-15 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
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If you do not receive your order within 30 days from the date your order is shipped, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
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Tax and Customs
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Tax: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax Rate based on their country of residence. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing IntechOpen with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Customs: free shipping does not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
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P.O. Boxes
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P.O. Boxes cannot be used as a Ship-To Address.
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Restricted Countries
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IntechOpen partners do not provide shipping service from Europe to the countries listed below. Please refrain from mailing items addressed to the countries listed below, until further notice.
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Return Policy
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Print copies of our publications are most often purchased by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions.
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Books International
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Representative for: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam (ASEAN)
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China Publishers Services Ltd - CPS
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Representative for: China, Taiwan, Hong Kong
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India - CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
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Representative for: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Iran, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunis, United Arab Emirates and Yemen
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LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V
Our books are available hardcover, printed in full colour and produced to the highest standards on PEFC™ and FSC certified paper, complying with principles of responsible forestry worldwide. The paper size is 180 x 260 mm (7 x 10.2 inches).
\n\n
Print On Demand (POD)
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen Books are printed specifically for your order
\n\t
Ordered, printed, and delivered in 7-15 business days
\n\t
Available for purchase at any time no minimum or maximum threshold on book order quantity
\n
\n\n
IntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
\n\n
Prices and Discounts
\n\n
IntechOpen books retail price range is:
\n\n
100 - 159 GBP ex. VAT (available in USD and EUR)
\n\n
Discounts available:
\n\n
\n\t
All IntechOpen contributors can buy the print copies of books for an Author Exclusive price with discounts from 30% to 50% on retail price. Log in to your Author Panel to purchase a book at the discounted price.
\n\t
Libraries are offered a 20% discount.
\n\t
Book resellers receive a 20% standard trade discount.
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\n\n
Bulk discounts are granted for orders of 10 copies and more.
\n\n
There is no minimum or maximum threshold on the quantity of book orders.
\n\n
Terms and Conditions
\n\n
Payment Terms
\n\n
Orders have to be paid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD.
\n\n
We currently accept the following payment options:
\n\n
\n\t
Credit Card
\n\t
PayPal
\n\t
Bank Transfer
\n
\n\n
When paying with a credit card, you will be redirected to the PayPal.com online payment portal.
\n\n
IntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\n
In accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
\n\n
General Handling and Delivery Info
\n\n
The combined printing and delivery time for orders vary from 7-15 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
\n\n
If you do not receive your order within 30 days from the date your order is shipped, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
\n\n
Tax and Customs
\n\n
Tax: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax Rate based on their country of residence. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing IntechOpen with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Customs: free shipping does not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
\n\n
P.O. Boxes
\n\n
P.O. Boxes cannot be used as a Ship-To Address.
\n\n
Restricted Countries
\n\n
IntechOpen partners do not provide shipping service from Europe to the countries listed below. Please refrain from mailing items addressed to the countries listed below, until further notice.
\n\n
When ordering our books from the countries listed below, please provide an alternative mailing address. For any further assistance, please contact us at orders@intechopen.com.
\n\n
Restricted Ship-to Countries:
\n\n
\n\t
Afghanistan
\n\t
Belarus
\n\t
Central African Republic
\n\t
Cote d'Ivoire
\n\t
Congo
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Cuba (US only)
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Eritrea
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Iran, Islamic Republic of
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Iraq
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Korea, DPR
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Lebanon
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Libya
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Mali
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Myanmar
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Niger
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Somalia
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South Sudan
\n\t
Sudan
\n\t
Syria
\n\t
Yemen
\n\t
Zimbabwe
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\n\n
Return Policy
\n\n
POD products are non-returnable and non-refundable, except in the event of poor print quality or an error in quantity. If we delivered the item to you in error or the item is faulty, please contact us.
\n\n
Inspect your order carefully when it arrives. Any problems should be immediately reported to orders@intechopen.com.
\n\n
Representatives
\n\n
Print copies of our publications are most often purchased by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions.
\n\n
Our books are available at our direct Print Sales Department and through selected representatives throughout the world.
\n\n
Books International
\n\n
Representative for: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam (ASEAN)
\n\n
China Publishers Services Ltd - CPS
\n\n
Representative for: China, Taiwan, Hong Kong
\n\n
India - CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
\n\n
Representative for: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Iran, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunis, United Arab Emirates and Yemen
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LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). 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His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. 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Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"2",type:"subseries",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",keywords:"Osseointegration, Hard Tissue, Peri-implant Soft Tissue, Restorative Materials, Prosthesis Design, Prosthesis, Patient Satisfaction, Rehabilitation",scope:"
\r\n\tThe success of dental implant treatment is not solely dependent on the osseointegration around the implant. Aside from the criteria used to describe the hard tissue response at the implant level, the success criteria in implant dentistry include three additional aspects: peri-implant soft tissue, prosthesis, and patient’s satisfaction.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry topic will provide readers with up-to-date resources on the prosthodontics factors such as aesthetics, restorative materials, the design of prosthesis, case selection, occlusion, oral rehabilitation, among others, all of which play an important role in determining the success of a well osseointegrated implant. With the help of digital dental technology, these can now be accomplished more predictably.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe end goal of prosthesis is always considered when planning successful implant placement. The readers in this field will be able to learn more about taking a holistic approach when treating their dental implant cases.
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