Reported lethal effect toxicity of different pesticides toward honeybee workers.
\r\n\tThe development of the interpersonal model and the Kleinian school in the second half of the last century allowed the emergence of an original understanding of the unconscious mind. Within the intersubjective paradigm, the psychoanalytic situation is conceptualized as an interpersonal field to which both the analyst and the patient contribute substantially. We have shown elsewhere how the failure to give a full account of such an intersubjective dimension in both psychoanalytic theory and practice amounts to a core liability in contemporary psychoanalytic discourse.
\r\n\r\n\tThe present book will focus on a few areas where the insufficient development of our discipline is currently apparent: five wounds that mark the body of the psychoanalytic enterprise.
\r\n\r\n\tNew contributions are particularly needed in the following areas: Current conceptualization of the unconscious mind is mechanistic and not suited to incorporate the full network of interpersonal exchanges which unfolds in the analytic room; Furthermore, the development of interpersonal psychoanalysis and the theory of the object relations warrants a greater appreciation of the impact of extratranference relations (e.g., couple, family, peers) on the patient's inner life both within and without the psychoanalytic situation.
\r\n\r\n\tAn integration of theories and models from other psychological paradigms is clearly in order here; the book will also focus on Barangers’ theory of the bi-personal field that makes traditional unipersonal models of the psychoanalytic process untenable. Also, it will help in the understanding of the reciprocal interactions of the two partners in the psychoanalytic dyad in most psychoanalytic institutes the training format relies naively on models from the academic or the professional domains. This fosters rigidity, conformism, and a hierarchical organizational style in the institutional life; e) all over the long span of his creative life Freud showed consistent interest in the application of psychoanalysis to literature, the arts, religion, and politics. Contemporary psychoanalysis is getting more and shyer and is pressed at the margins of social and political debate. The psychoanalytic theory includes unique lore of knowledge about the conscious and unconscious mind. Without it, a comprehensive understanding of human reality will stay out of the reach of contemporary culture.
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It has been studied that 87.5% of flowering and edible plants are pollinated by animals such as honeybees. Honeybees also produce wax, honey, and venom. Economic global estimate concluded that a global economic value of €88bn was associated with bees pollinating crops and products [2]. Afterward, this is revised and estimate and recorded an increase of the economic value of €115bn [3]. This raising trend highlights the dependence upon pollinators in the global food supply. However, researchers noticed the disappearance of bees and their population has been decline [4]. Most important crops, fruits, vegetables, and fodder crops are badly affected by the decline in the honeybee population. Researchers have great concern about the honeybee population decline [5, 6]. In the United States 30–40% disappearance of the honeybee colonies attributed to colony collapse disorder A disease syndrome described as the sudden and speedy loss of honeybees population [7]. In the United Kingdom, 54% honeybee population lost in the last decades [8]. China has 6 million bee colonies of honeybees. Chinese beekeepers have faced inexplicable colony losses and a decline in the bee population [9]. Various factors such as biotic (parasites and pathogens) and abiotic (climate changes, habitat destruction) are blamed for this bee decline [10].
Several plant species depend on insect pollinators for seed set honeybees consume pollen and nectar of sunflower, oilseed rape, maize, etc. These plants can possess threatened honeybees if they are treated with systematic pesticides. Bee mortality is observed when bees contact with pesticide treated plants and consume flower pollen and sap plant or nectar e.g. sunflower,
An ultimate issue of pesticide poisoning to honeybees is the assessment of the exposure scenario. Honeybees are exposed to insecticides through the following routes.
Honeybees form direct contact with pesticides. The most common way of pesticide exposure is the aerial spray. They are straightly contaminated while foraging during spray treatment in a field. Treatment also influences by wind drift. Pesticide droplets made direct contact with the honeybee body in the air. In 2003 it was observed that the bee population decline due to direct contact of dust emitted from pneumatic drilling machine used to plant neonicotinoid coated seeds [21]. Bees flying over sowing fields directly exposed to pesticides at lethal levels especially under humid conditions. In Humid environments pesticides, dust particles stick to the bee abdomen [22]. Herbicides and fungicides were directly applied to the soil before sowing of crops and most insecticides were applied on crops through aerial spraying. Pesticide aerial droplets and dust pesticide particles can make direct contact with flying honeybees and create toxicity. Fine droplets may also carry hundreds of meters from treated site to untreated sites with wind, and cause bee mortality. In addition to food, bees make direct contact with pesticides during water drinking. Pesticide residues from nearby treated fields leach into the water resources or mix with water by drifting from spray applications. Honeybees drink water from trenches, water pools, and rivers, if these water resources are polluted with pesticide, the foraging bees will ingest them.
A systematic characteristic of pesticides provides the translocation of pesticide residues inside all plant tissues, phloem, and nectar. Consequently, honeybees are likely to be vulnerable to the pesticide while feeding on pollen grains and flower nectar [23]. The pesticide used for seed dressing can also possess a noticeable threat to pollinators as they are transported through the plants and contaminate the pollen [17]. In the same way, Early morning when plants produced guttation drops and systematic pesticides appear in such guttation drops in a dose that are lethal to bees [23]. Several studies showed the existence of insecticide residues in seeds, pollen, and nectars. The pesticide used for the treatment of seeds can be transported throughout growing plants and contaminate the nectars and pollens. The presence of imidacloprid residues (3 μg/kg) in pollen grains has been reported in Gaucho seed dresses sunflower [17]. Similarly, in France, a survey study of pesticide residues in pollen loads has been conducted. A survey report was showing the presence of imidacloprid and its metabolites nicotic acid (49% of 81 analyzed samples), Fipronil, and its metabolites fipronil sulfone and fipronil disulfinile (12% of 81 analyzed samples) [24]. Freshly stored pollen and bee bread are considered to be the principal source of in-hive contamination for adult and larvae bees [25]. In the same way, miticides and fungicide residues are well reported in pollen grain [26]. In Germany, thiacloprid was the extensively abundant pesticide as study results show that it was present in about 33% of the pollen samples at concentration levels up to 199 μg/kg [12]. It is investigated the level of pesticide in the droplets exude by the treated plants [27]. Three different systematic pesticides (imidacloprid, clothianidin, and thiamethoxam) and on the non-systematic pesticide (fipronil) were tested in field and lab trials. Analysis of drops showed that systematic pesticide concentration near to that applied in field sprays. Systematic pesticides found in pollen samples and guttation drops compared to nonsystematic pesticides. In apiaries across Spain, both acaricides and agricultural pesticides were found in beebread. Cypermethrin, deltamethrin, and chlorpyrifos were found at sub-lethal levels [28]. In Slovenia, honeybee colonies present near insecticides treated apple orchards showed insecticide residues in beebread [24]. Pollen samples were collected from different areas of North America. About 5.4% of pollen samples were contaminated with thiacloprid and acetamiprid. Similarly, about 1.9% of bee wax samples were contaminated with thiacloprid [29].
Chemical pesticide hazards are stated as acute and chronic toxicity. In acute poisoning, the toxic reactions are more violent and occur unexpectedly. Honeybees usually die from contact and ingestion of pesticides [30]. While in case of chronic exposure pesticide absorbed in small and repeated doses, the reaction usually slow but continuous, they may lead to the elimination of the entire colony [31, 32]. Insecticide toxicity generally measured using LD50 values (Exposure concentration that create death of 50% of the exposed treated population [33]. Pesticide chemical toxicity thresholds for honeybees are generally set as high toxicity (acute LD50 < 2 μg/honeybee), Moderate toxicity (acute LD50: 2–10.99 μg/honeybee), Slightly toxic (acute LD50: 11–100 μg/honeybee), Non-toxic (acute LD50 > 100 μg/honeybee). According to the European regulation on risk valuation of pesticides on honeybees, the toxicity is evaluated by acute LD50 and LC50 values. These two parameters measure pesticide poisoning by calculating the number of dead bees that die after 24 hours of treatment. Therefore, the research and knowledge of pesticide toxicity on non-target species is vital to eliminate various agricultural pests without hurting the bees [34, 35]. Table 1 shows reported LD50 values of various pesticides toward honeybees.
Pesticide | Exposure route | Toxicity LD50 | References |
---|---|---|---|
Imidacloprid | Direct contact | 18 to 104 ng/bee | [36] |
Imidacloprid | Ingestion | 4 to 60 ng/bee | [19, 37] |
Imidacloprid | oral routes | 0.0037 μg/bee | [38] |
Imidacloprid | topical application | 0.081 μg/bee | [37] |
Clothianidin | Oral route | 21.8 ng/bee | [34] |
Dinotefuran | Oral route | 75.0 ng/bee | [34] |
Nitenpryan | Oral route | 13.8 ng/bee | [34] |
Fipronil | Oral route | 3.45–3.86 ng/bee | [39] |
Thiacloprid | Contact and Oral route | 24.2 μg/bee | [40] |
Acetamprid | Contact route | 7.07 μg/bee | [34] |
Oleofin | Oral route | 50 μg/bee | [16] |
Thiamethoxam | Oral route | 0.004 μg/bee | [38] |
Reported lethal effect toxicity of different pesticides toward honeybee workers.
Pesticide lethal toxicity is the major cause of honeybee decline. Detection of pesticide residues inside the honeybee body is a measure of pesticide poisoning to estimate lethal effects. Pesticides possess high toxicity due to specific mode of action. Neonicotinoids show delay toxicity with sub-lethal effects at low concentrations [11] or they cause the killing of bees if exposed for a long interval of time [41]. Similarly, neonicotinoids and fipronil suppress the immune system and vulnerable them to various infections such as
Toxic effects of insecticides can be evaluated as sub-lethal toxicity when exposure to the insecticide does not induce death in the experimental population but may disturb biochemical, physiological, and behavioral changes such as by impairing foraging and learning behavior or disrupting another aspect of neurological and physiological functions [43]. Bees exposure at sub-lethal doses also have a negative impact on flower and scent recognition, the spatial orientation of bees, perturbations of the foraging patterns of the honeybee by disturbing navigation memory. In an experimental study, it was demonstrated contact of the honeybees to sub-lethal concentrations of thiamethoxam cause impairment of memory, brain and gut functions which ultimately lead to a shorter lifespan [47]. In laboratory analysis, sub-lethal concentration of deltamethrin disturbed body functions in honeybee at cellular level such as by causing marked dysfunctions in cardiac cells by changing frequency and muscle contraction [43]. The respiratory system is also badly affected after exposure to pesticides. Imidaloprid at sub-lethal exposure created marked changes in the respiratory pattern of bees and also in hypopharyngeal glands growing smaller in size as compared to untreated bees. Similarly, mobility behavior also affects after exposure to low doses of imidacloprid.
Negative impacts on mobility are dose-dependent and change with time [48, 49]. Honeybee foraging and spatial orientation is totally depend upon visual remembering or learning of landmarks. During foraging trips, bees memorized landmarks and used to navigate nectar and pollen sources as well as to communicate accurately to the rest of the colony members about direction of food source and its distance from hive. Exposure to pesticides disturbed the learning of visual landmarks during foraging round trips and the transfer of this information to other bees of the hive. The pyrethroid such as deltamethrin has been studied to change the foraging round trips of worker bees after treated topically with sub-lethal concentrations [50]. Bees exposed to the thiamethoxam treated pollen and nectar under semi-field conditions seem to reduce foraging trips and lost their ways. As a result, the colony becomes weaker and putting it at greater risk of collapse [31]. Similarly, fipronil applied topically at low doses to honeybees reduces their ability to sense sucrose smell by about 40% relative to the capacity of untreated bees [37]. Neonicotinoid pesticides have a toxic effects on the queen bee. They affect queen bee life span and egg-laying capacity. Thus colony size reduced and lead to colony collapse. Pesticides also repel the pollinator from treated crops. If pollinators avoid foraging the pesticide contaminated crops and flowers this would adversely influence crop yields dependent upon the pollinator for pollination [51]. Table 2 showed the sub-lethal toxicity of various pesticides toward honeybees.
Pesticide | Sub lethal toxicity | Reference |
---|---|---|
Deltamethrin | Cardiac dysfunctions in the heart cells | [43] |
Imidacloprid | Shorter queen life span and reduced egg lying capacity and colony size, Disrupt development | [52] |
Imidacloprid | Mobility and olfactory behavior | [51] |
Deltamethrin | Homing trips disturbed | [53] |
Thiamethoxam | Colony become weaker, affect foraging behavior, Impair brain and gut functions | [31, 50] |
Fipronil | Reduce capacity of bees to detect food sources, olfactory learning and memory | [43, 54] |
Diazon | Reduce reproduction and survival of queen, colony maintenance and foraging behavior. | [37] |
Reported sub lethal toxicity of various pesticides toward honeybee.
Pesticides react at their molecular target site, which may cause to effects impairing behavior and body physiology. Mostly pesticides act as a neurotoxin and disturb normal neurological function. Pesticides showed their lethal and sub-lethal poisoning by acting as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists, voltage-gated Na+ channel agonists, and GABA gated Cl− channel agonist.
Fipronil is a phenyl pyrozal insecticide class. When bees are exposed to fipronil reached to target site in brain and binds to the GABA gated Cl− channels, it prevent the Cl− channels from closing and maintained it in open. This state leads to hyperpolarization and the inability to transmit action potential. Phenyl pyrozal is a systemic insecticide and is detected in pollen at 1-4 ppb concentration [53].
Nicotinic mimics the action of acetylcholine, neurotransmitter, inside the body it react with nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) and bind to receptor. After binding it stimulate the repeated generation of action. The new class of pesticides neonicotinoids is synthetic analogs of nicotine with a higher affinity for the nAChR in the bee brain [16]. A study showed that neonicotinoid pesticides such as imidacloprid, clothianidin, and thiamethoxam are highly toxic to bees with acute LD50 from 0.004 to 0.075 μg/bees [55]. Imidacloprid metabolites such as 5-hydroxyimidacloprid and olefin have a high affinity for the honeybee nAChR [16]. Another neonicotinoid insecticide thiamethoxam also has affinity for nACh receptors, however, thiamethoxam rapidly degraded in to high affinity clothianidin metabolites. All neonicotinoid pesticides damage the capability of worker bees to forage and go back to the hive [56].
Organophosphate and methylcarbamate pesticides behave as neurotoxin and inhibit the AChE enzyme activity. AChE enzyme deactivates the acetylcholine neurotransmitter at neuron synapses [57]. Neuro pesticides have wide range of bee poisoning (LD50 = 0.018–31.2 μg/bees) [58]. In United State, about 117 bee poisoning incidents were investigated between 1994 and 2003. The maximum number of these poisoning incidents attributed to dimethoate and bendicarb [59]. Similarly, coumaphos is an organophosphate that is used by beekeepers against varroa mites [60] When beekeepers repeatedly used coumaphos it is concentrated and build up in the colony wax [61]. Poisoning of bee colonies with coumaphos is linked with significant mortality of bee queens and worker bees. It studied that bee larvae raised on food contaminated with 8 mg/L coumaphos were showed more mortality rate than control larvae [62].
A pyrethroid is an extensively used synthetic insecticides. Pyrethroids and DDT are organophosphate. They are neurotoxin and their target site inside brain is voltage-gated Na+ channels in the axon of the nerve cell. At their target site pyrethroids delay the closing of Na + channels and prolonged the recovery period after generation of the action potential. The pyrethroid flumethrin and tau-fluvalinate are extensively used to control
Habituation is a learning behavior that can be explain as steady reduction in the frequency of response to a repeated or useless stimulus. Habituation enable an individuals to tolerant the repeated stimulus and save energy. It is a predominantly vital practice for the honeybees because it permits them to escape both unusable and tedious stimuli. Thus, save time and energy. In honeybee habituation behavior involves the proboscis extension response (PER) stimulated by an antenna touch with a sugar solution. The frequency of antennal contacts with sugar solution calculated to perceive a detention of proboscis extension. Honeybee exposed to neonicotinoid pesticide at sub-lethal concentrations such as imidacloprid enhanced the PER habituation [51]. In another experiment, seven to eight days olds bees were used to elicit antennal receptor stimulations at shorter time intervals [64]. In this research trial approximately 7 and 8 days old bees were used, because in this age bees started their short orientation flight. At start of the exposure (start one hours), imidacloprid upsurges the number of trials required to attain habituation in 7-day-old bees but declines it in 8-day-old bees. As bees become aged or older the habituation behavior become more refine with time. The habituation profile obtained with imidacloprid evolves with time particularly. The development of the habituation learning with time due to the action of imidacloprid metabolites olefin and 5-hydroxyimidacloprid that pause and increase habituation, respectively [63]. These results proposed the presence of two different nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR), that are differentially expressed as young bees mature.
In social insects honeybee learning and memory is an important behavior for absolute adaptation of the individual to their environment. This behavior enables the honeybees to fulfill the colony requirement. Various pesticides have lethal and sub-lethal toxicity on the honeybee brain and interrupt honeybee learning and memory behavior. A sub-lethal dose of parathion induced an alteration in time of foraging to the early morning. This modification in foraging time can be elucidated by the alteration in the circadian clock [65]. In one study toxic effects of OP methyl-parathion on honeybee foraging, visual and olfactory tasks have been described [66]. Since methyl-parathion is recognized as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. The methyl-parathion toxicity stimulated actions has been understood in terms of the advance of cholinergic signaling by inhibiting AChE. Proboscis extension reflex (PER) responses have been studied to evaluate the honeybee learning and memory process. This allows the path to streamlined laboratory procedures and studied the various memory phases. Bees exposed to sub-lethal doses of pyrethroid through tarsal contact may show a weakening of the conditioned responses, which point out that during forging activities pesticide residual contact impair learning and cognitive process [67]. In another laboratory test, the honeybees were feed on different pyrethroid insecticides contaminated sucrose solution for 11 days. It was concluded that deltamethrin impairs the proboscis extension responses, whereas λ- cyhalothrin, cypermethrin, and τ-fluvalinate did not disturb behavior patterns. This demonstrated that lethal toxicity induced by pesticides is more substance-specific than family-specific. Similarly, under a semi-field environment, the presence of deltamethrin prompts a significant decrease in the honeybee foraging trips, which is retreated when the pesticide contact terminates. Results inferred that deltamethrin was considered to be lethal in this study. Similarly, in another study both lethal and sub-lethal doses of imidacloprid elicits a reduction in learning activities, studied by the conditioned PER responses [68]. This effect also depends on the seasonal pattern, as results showed that during the summer season honeybees are more sensitive to imidacloprid, compared to in winter. In the semi-field experiment, the imidacloprid residues in foraging plants generate a considerable decline in the foraging bees. The decline in the foraging bee population is linked with a falling-off of olfactory and learning behavior. T-tube maze is a behavioral approach that is associated with learning by integrating visual and spatial orientation. Honeybees that are exposed to sublethal doses of imidacloprid in a T-tube maze showed a considerable reduction in visual learning capacity and diminished olfactory responses in the PER assay [69]. The toxicity of fipronil on honeybee learning and memory behavior has also been explained by olfactory conditioning of the PER. Sub-chronic exposure of bees to fipronil causes a considerable decrease in the learning process [70]. Results showed that cuticle contact of a sub-lethal dose weakens the olfactory memory whereas a lethal dose administration through thorax changes antennal tactile learning [71].
Olfaction and gustation are vital senses in the life of the honeybee colony both at the individual and colony levels. Both responses are trigger and processed at the neural level [69]. They are intricate in odor and sense of taste recognition which is required for the bee to forage and visit flowers, identify foreign bees in the hive, forager workers, social communication for social cohesion of the colony and, recognize allelochemicals and nectar in plants [72, 73]. Pesticides may disturb the honeybee olfactory and gustatory senses by disturbing physiological processes control scent recognition or other neuronal signals [74, 75]. The toxicity of pesticides on gustation can be estimated by reviewing the gustatory threshold modules, which is defined as the minimum dose of a sugar solution make contact with antenna and able to elicit a PER. Bees topically treated with imidacloprid show an escalation of the gustatory threshold [51]. This effect is upsurges with time. This contrasts with acetamiprid that upturns sensitivity of the antennal stimulation sugar solution by oral route. Thiamethoxam induces no toxicity on sugar sensitivity at the lowest concentration [76] and a reduction in sucrose stimulation detected at higher concentrations [72].
Navigation and orientation are important which enable the honeybees to collect the food vital for colony development. It is an integrative component of vision, olfaction, orientation and signal treatment [77, 78]. Navigation involves the food source location communication with other colony members, chiefly when foraging site located at a distance of more than 100 m. The influences of insecticides on the foraging communication dance have been studied in various experiments. Parathion avoids the honeybees to share the correct location of the foraging site by shifting the wrong angle during communication dance. Forager bees showed shorten distances through an intensification of waggle dance rhythm, with no alteration on horizontal and vertical combs. The foraging communication error may be due to a disturbance in neural function [54, 79]. The homing flight is the flight made by the bees from the foraging sites to the hive location. It is a return flight. This flight pattern is used in evaluating the adverse sub-lethal effects of pesticides on honeybees. Deltamethrin hampers return flight or homing activity behavior. Various approaches have been developed for studying honeybee movements and flight in diverse space scales and dimensions [80]. Harmonic radar and radiofrequency identification are two approaches that appear appropriate for investigating navigation and return flight to home. In harmonic radar approach bees are fitted with a transponder to analyze movement in the landscape. This approach allowing researchers to monitor free-flying bees [81]. This approach is utilized to detect specific behaviors of orientation and navigational flight, particularly trip duration related with flight speed that escalate with time [82] and to establish the use of map-like spatial memory in honeybee navigation [83]. Another approach is based on radiofrequency identification (RFID) [84]. Honeybees are tagged with a passive RFID microchip that releases a specific individualized radio signal after activation by a radio frequency. RFID technique widely applied to evaluate the foraging behavior and the circadian foraging rhythm of bees [85]. This technique has been shown that fipronil leads to a decline in the number of individual foraging flights and increased the homing flight time. In the same way contact of imidacloprid and clothianidin cause a lessening of foraging activity.
Foraging behavior important to maintain the food supply in honeybee colony and so determine honeybee colony’s survival and proliferation fortune. Repellent pesticides or anti-feedant usually modify bee foraging behavior, However, prolong exposure to it causes colony starvation and nutritional deficiency. Carbamate and Organophosphate pesticides disturb cholinesterase enzyme i.e. acetylcholinesterase, a vital enzyme control nerve impulse transmission. Organophophte fenitrothion causes an intense reduction in the foraging bees on flowering. When bees make acute contact with organophosphate, the toxicity effects are more intense [86]. Infield, a reduction in the food at visiting site could simply be elucidated in term of repellent effect. Neonicotinoid insecticides such as imidacloprid show a moderate toxic action [87]. Toxicity of imidacloprid comprised a reduction in the number foraging trips, less number of active bees at foraging sites, an enhanced in time intervals between visits, irregularities in communication or waggle dance, and disrupt in visual learning and navigatio. This demonstrates that the excessive stimulation of the acetylcholinesterase, inhibition of organophosphate or an agonist action on nAChR, with neonicotinoids [88, 89].
Muscle contraction is important in almost all physiological functions and plays an important role in the accomplishment of tasks such as communication dance, flight, digestion of food, and heart and wing thrashing. The pesticides effects on the muscles of honeybees have been studied. In the honeybee research has been carried out on deltamethrin and prochloraz fungicide. In a laboratory study a semi-isolated heart exposed to prochloraz and deltamethrin diluted solutions showed a rapidly reduction in the frequency and the cardiac contractions force [90]. Results indicated that prochloraz seems more cardiotoxic than deltamethrin. Deltamethrin is a neurotoxic substance whereas prochloraz is an inhibitor and an inducer of cytochrome P450 enzymes, which are involved in the detoxication and metabolism of xenobiotics. An association of prochloraz and deltamethrin provokes synergistic effects that entirely and quickly stops heart muscle contractions, thus endorsing the neural basis of the deltamethrinprochloraz lethal and thermogenic synergy. Phenoxyacetic herbicide 2, 4-D also prompts parallel effects. Conversely, triazine herbicides subsidize tranquil neurotransmitter release that results in a boosted frequency and cardiac contractions force [91, 92]. Pyrethroids toxicity correlated with action on voltage-dependent sodium channels. In fact, pyrethroid pesticides and azole fungicides combine together and produce synergistic effects, and disturb normal functioning of target cells such as ATPase and potassium and calcium channels, that play a vital role in muscle and nerve activity [93, 94].
Thermoregulation is a phenomenon in honeybees to regulate their body temperature. Thermoregulation comprises thermogenesis by unremitting flight muscles contraction, fanning and beating wings, and evaporation of water at the individual as well as colony level. The thermoregulation allows the bees to fly at temperatures ranging from 11–46°C and heat their swarms and their broods. It is also plays a vital role in the exchange of information during foraging, waggle dnce, social communication and speedy nectar processing [95, 96]. Insecticides disturbed the normal thermoregulation process. Pyrethroid pesticides and azole fungicides (imidazoles and triazoles) usually act synergistically to prompt lethal toxicity. Azole fungicides act as both inhibitors and inducers of cytochromes P-450 enzymes involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics [97]. This initially suggested the action of azole fungicides on pyrethroid metabolism. Pyrethroids display a negative temperature coefficient below 28–30°C and induce higher toxicity at low temperatures. Honeybees were exposed to sub-lethal doses of deltamethrin to evaluate the toxicity. It was concluded that sub-lethal concentrations of deltamethrin triggers extreme hypothermia conditions for about 4 h [98]. Similar organophosphate also created thermogenesis process impairment by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. These finding suggested association of a cholinergic pathway in the negative control of thermogenesis. Deltamethrin exposure induces hypothermia and leads to disruption of homing flight during foraging. The results of these study showed that condition of hypothermia created after impairment of muscle contraction rhythms and disturb nerve impulse process. Hence, honeybees would be capable of coordinated flight muscle contraction but would not be able to perform the neural program to attain shivering. Hypothermia become more sever in winter and spring when temperature already low and necessitating efficient thermogenesis [99].
Reproduction is an important natural phenomenon that guarantee the existence and proliferation of the colony population. Indeed, a loss of reproductive brood consider as more detrimental for the bee colony than the loss of older bees (foragers). In hive, bees showed eusocial perform division of tasks to maintain the colony. Worker bees accomplish numerous chores throughout their lifespan. A few studies have revealed the adverse effects on larval development after exposure to pesticides [100]. It is evaluated a delay in hatching and development of honeybee when fed with imidacloprid contaminated food.
The threats to pollinators are significant and complex. Managing all threats in an integrated way will be an immense and fundamentally necessary task. Transforming the current chemical-intensive agriculture system into an ecological farming system will have much positive impact on the environment, pollinators, and human food security. However, these methods are often neglected as potentially effective tools for protecting the bee population. A recent study in Sweden clearly showed how strawberry crops benefited from organic farming. Organic strawberries received more pollinators and achieved higher pollination success than conventionally grown strawberries, and this difference was evident quickly after the conversion from conventional to organic farming. The authors concluded that organic agriculture benefited crop pollination in terms of both the quantity and quality of the yield [99]. Diversified farming systems, like those under organic or ecological production methods, bring out many benefits in addition to increased pollination services; they enhance the control of weeds, diseases, and insect pests. However, these systems have received significantly less public funding for research as a means of improved management, compared to conventional farming systems. This lack of support is remarkable, given that ecological and organic farming systems can produce approximately the same amount of food and profits as conventional farming while generating far less environmental and social harm [101]. More public and private funding are needed for research and development on ecological farming practices that enhanced ecological services, alongside food production and environmental protection, while at the same time helping social and economic development.
Scientists accepted that a world without honeybees would have a critical situation of food shortages and possibly leads to famine. There is much debate over whether Albert Einstein once said, that “if bees disappeared off the face of the Earth, humans would have only four years left to live. If all bees completely vanished, it would not cause humans to go extinct”. Among all the edible crops that fulfill about 90% of food requirements throughout the world, among them 70% are pollinated by honeybees and other pollinators. Pollinators also improve the quality and shelf-life of crops and, also increase the genetic variability. It is estimated that the economic value of insect pollinating crops is about 761 € per ton [102]. Further, the majority of calories of human bodies also fulfill from insect-pollinated plants. The decline of the pollinator population cause decrease of a substantial amount of high economic values crops and fruits. These crops are a key element of the majority of calories and vitamins. In terms of nutrients in the human diet, they account for more than 90% of vitamin C, 100% of Lycopene and almost 100% of the antioxidants β-cryptoxanthin and β- tocopherol, the majority of the lipids (74%), vitamin A (>70%) and related carotenoids (98%), calcium (58%) and fluoride (62%), and a large portion of folic acid (55%). In total, pollinator-mediated crops account for about 40% of the global nutrient supply for humans [103]. Pollinators are essential to fulfill all nutrient requirements as they are responsible for essential crop pollination. If all the insect pollinators kill it would lead to a drastic decrease in fruit setting and growth of edible crops, which would affect all the population that is depending on it. It would also disturb the herbivores population that depends upon plants, which in turn disturb carnivores. In simple whole food chain will be disturb. Honeybees are under great threat due to the combined effects of global warming, intensive agriculture practices, habitat loss and, insecticide uses. FAO’s Director-General said that the absence of honeybees and other pollinators will lead to wiping out coffee, orange, apple, peaches, tomatoes, and other cereal crops that rely upon pollination. Countries need to move toward more pollinator-friendly practices. It is estimated that only in North America 30% of consuming food is produced from bee pollinating vegetation. The value of bee pollination is estimated at $16 billion only in the USA. In the last few years particularly between 2007 to 2016 honeybee population size has been dramatically reduced, dropping by 89 percent. In the United States, 40 percent of honeybee colonies were lost in 2018 alone. In the USA annual income of fruits, seed, and nuts plants, corn crops decrease due to the decline or disappearance of 90% pollinator decline. In the USA extensive use of insecticides has been considered as a prominent factor for colony disappearance, bee population decline, honey production, and wax yield and cause losses of about $283 million per year. In Africa, the economic value of insect-pollinating crops is $11.6 million per year. In Pakistan yield of some fruit reduces up to 33.4% due to pollinator decline [104]. In the Himalayan region of Pakistan, the population of pollinators declines due to farmers’ and institutions’ unawareness about pollination benefits.
Globally, pollination has an estimated market value of up to $577 billion annually which represents about 10 percent of the global crop market [105]. Without these biotic pollinating services, decreases in crop production could both surge prices for consumers and lead to producers a loss of nearly $2 billion annually. It argues a future with compromised pollination due to the absence of pollinating insects points to a dominant urge for hand pollination or any other innovative technology. But this involved labor cost in terms of hand pollination or investment by innovative technology. The labor costs involved in hand pollination are potentially significant, estimated at $90 billion per year in the United States alone.
Pesticide exposure can induce more or less harmful effects on neural functions and cause disturbance of maintenance behavior and physiological functions. The mechanisms by which pesticides produce their lethal and sub-lethal effects are not limited to the exclusive interaction between the pesticide active substance and the target molecular. The effects of pesticides encompass several molecular targets sites of diverse affinities at various exposure and contact levels. Exposure time was also studied as a significant factor in insecticide and pesticide toxicity. The toxicity of pesticides is correlated to circadian rhythms, the exposure duration, the developmental stage of the bees exposed to pesticides, and the seasonal stress. The route and the mode of exposure (acute, sub-chronic, or chronic) play a predominantly decisive role in pesticide toxicity. Metabolic processes modulate the intrinsic toxicity and resultant metabolites may cause high or low toxicity than that of the parent pesticide. Researches on synergistic effects of pesticides should take a more dominant place in honeybee toxicology in the future. The practices of a large number of pesticides at a single site, synergistic effects by pesticide combinations will need to be prioritized. This could be based on the spatio-temporal presence of pesticide active substances. A promising approach to avoiding side effects of pesticides on pollinators has been derived by improving the mode of action of pesticides in targeted pests and honeybees. Mode of action can be improved by selecting the active substances that act selectively on pests [106].
With the extensive use of pesticides, the conservation of foraging honeybees is challenging. Even if a single worker of bee brings pesticide-contaminated pollen it can harm large numbers of honeybees. Systematic insecticides are a great threat to bees. Systemic insecticide disrupts the foraging behavior by impairing cholinergic signaling. Pesticide exposure also disturbs long and short-term memory. Insecticide treatments are not recommended in plantations and crops during flowering. Based on these findings it is recommended to apply methods of integrated pest management (IPM) of crops should be used, avoiding the use of chemical products. This report shows scientific evidence about the harmful effects of pesticides on honeybees and proving that pesticides play important role in bee decline. As consequence policymakers should ban the bee-harming pesticides. Through national action plans to support and promote agricultural practices such as crop rotation and organic farming that benefits the pollinator population. For this purpose promote research on ecological and organic farming practices that move away from reliance on chemical pest control.
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He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"87",type:"subseries",title:"Economics",keywords:"Globalization, Economic Integration, Growth and Development, International Trade, Environmental Development, Developed Countries, Developing Countries, Technical Innovation, Knowledge Management, Political Economy Analysis, Banking and Financial Markets",scope:"
\r\n\tThe topic on Economics is designed to disseminate knowledge around broad global economic issues. Original submissions will be accepted in English for applied and theoretical articles, case studies and reviews about the specific challenges and opportunities faced by the economies and markets around the world. The authors are encouraged to apply rigorous economic analysis with significant policy implications for developed and developing countries. Examples of subjects of interest will include, but are not limited to globalization, economic integration, growth and development, international trade, environmental development, country specific comparative analysis, technical innovation and knowledge management, political economy analysis, and banking and financial markets.
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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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