Studies on architects’ attitudes towards the use of EWPs for construction.
\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8952",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research",title:"Coffee",subtitle:"Production and Research",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Coffee – Production and Research presents a diversity of important issues related to coffee, with an emphasis on the science of coffee growing. Coffee is one of the highest value commodities traded worldwide. Cultivated and consumed widely, it generates progress for both the economy and society. Divided into six sections, this book examines two coffee species of commercial importance, Coffea arabica L. and Coffea canephora Pierre ex. A. Froehner. Chapters cover such topics as biotechnology, growing, harvesting, post-harvest handling, quality, chemistry, commercialization, and byproducts of coffee.",isbn:"978-1-83880-885-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-884-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-886-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82913",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"coffee-production-and-research",numberOfPages:170,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ec7add8fac804b29cdb70b142414b49e",bookSignature:"Dalyse Toledo Castanheira",publishedDate:"June 10th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8952.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9242,numberOfWosCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:28,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:53,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 30th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 30th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 29th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 17th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 17th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"303770",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalyse",middleName:null,surname:"Toledo Castanheira",slug:"dalyse-toledo-castanheira",fullName:"Dalyse Toledo Castanheira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/303770/images/system/303770.jfif",biography:"Dalyse Toledo Castanheira has a BSc (2013), MSc (2015), and PhD in Agronomy (2018) from the Federal University of Lavras (UFLA). She also completed a postdoctoral program at UFLA with a scholarship from the Coffee Research Consortium. She has experience with coffee crops, with emphasis on their sustainable management. Dr. Castanheira has worked on the study of agronomic techniques to optimize the use of water in order to mitigate the effects of climatic variations on coffee culture. She is currently professor and researcher at the Federal University of Viçosa (UFV). She works in teaching, research, and technology transfer activities (with direct relationship with coffee growers) focusing on the sustainability of the coffee production system.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Viçosa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Viçosa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"27",title:"Agricultural Science",slug:"agricultural-science"}],chapters:[{id:"70799",title:"Observations on Somatic Embryogenesis in Coffea arabica L.",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90853",slug:"observations-on-somatic-embryogenesis-in-em-coffea-arabica-em-l-",totalDownloads:934,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Somatic embryogenesis contributes to coffee breeding programs. This is a process of asexual reproduction which is based on the concept of cellular totipotency. Each haploid or somatic cell of the plant tissue has the genetic information necessary to generate a complete and functional plant. The somatic embryogenesis can occur either indirectly or directly. Coffea arabica genotypes may respond to direct, indirect, or both. In this species, the indirect somatic embryogenesis is composed of two phases, the callogenesis and the embryogenesis, while the direct pathway occurs in a single phase, without the callogenesis. In Coffea, in general, the indirect pathway is induced by the auxin and cytokinin, and the direct pathway with cytokinin only. C. arabica genotypes usually respond easily to the indirect route with high production of somatic embryos. But these are inefficient by the direct route because they present low production of embryos and the process occurs for a long time. In this review, emphasis will be given to different events that are part of the somatic embryogenesis of C. arabica occurring indirectly and in the direct pathway as well as factors that may affect its control.",signatures:"Julieta Andrea Silva de Almeida",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70799",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70799",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69412",title:"Soil Management and Water-Use Efficiency in Brazilian Coffee Crops",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89558",slug:"soil-management-and-water-use-efficiency-in-brazilian-coffee-crops",totalDownloads:781,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Brazil is a world leader in coffee production. However, currently, it coexists with recurrent and severe droughts, accompanied by intense heat, strong insolation and low relative humidity. As the cultivation is carried out primarily in the rainy season, these world climate variations have affected crops yields and fruits quality, requiring innovative actions that promote efficient use of water stored in the soil. Among several soil management practices that promote a more rational use of water, deep tillage combined with liming, gypsum and fertilizer amendments lead to an increase in effective depth of coffee roots, therefore reducing water stress. Moreover, intercropping with Urochloa sp. is highly efficient in enhancing soil structure, water infiltration and plant available water capacity. Additionally, other innovative techniques and practices are also introduced in this chapter.",signatures:"Bruno Montoani Silva, Geraldo César de Oliveira, Milson Evaldo Serafim, Carla Eloize Carducci, Érika Andressa da Silva, Samara Martins Barbosa, Laura Beatriz Batista de Melo, Walbert Junior Reis dos Santos, Thiago Henrique Pereira Reis, César Henrique Caputo de Oliveira and Paulo Tácito Gontijo Guimarães",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69412",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69412",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71301",title:"Soil Electrochemical and Physical Properties in Coffee Crops in the State of Paraná, Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91352",slug:"soil-electrochemical-and-physical-properties-in-coffee-crops-in-the-state-of-paran-brazil",totalDownloads:582,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In aerated soils, pH is considered to control available nutrients to plants. Also, pH is related to soil charges and is a key property expanding double layers of colloids. These electrochemical properties are affected by soil management and are related to soil physical properties like water-dispersible clay, aggregation indexes, and infiltration rate. Water-dispersible colloids are the fraction of clay that disperse in water and are affected by nature of soil including mineralogy of clay fraction, soil management in terms of crop sequence, application of organic manures, field traffic, and mechanical stress by time of shaking for the analysis. Traffic of machines, soil tillage, and weed control methods are the main causes of change in soil physical properties in coffee crop. However, management of soil acidity with limestone and use of gypsum also can change soil physical and electrochemical properties, which are related with dynamic processes like soil air and hydraulic permeability into soil which are essential to root development and growth. Therefore, soil management in coffee crops requires comprehension of the effects of changes in soils caused by addition of amendments like limestone and gypsum, traffic of machines, and weed control methods on behavior of soil properties for better management.",signatures:"Cezar Francisco Araujo-Junior, Vinicius Cesar Sambatti, João Henrique Vieira de Almeida Junior and Henrique Hiroki Yamada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71301",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70151",title:"The Harvest and Post-Harvest Management Practices’ Impact on Coffee Quality",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89224",slug:"the-harvest-and-post-harvest-management-practices-impact-on-coffee-quality",totalDownloads:1723,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Coffee is one of the most important agricultural commodities in the world. The coffee quality is associated with pre-harvest and post-harvest management activities. Each step starting from selecting the best coffee variety for plantation until the final coffee drink preparation determines the cupping quality. The overall coffee quality influenced by the factors which involve in changes the physicochemical properties and sensorial attributes, including the post-harvest operations. The post-harvest processing activities contribute about 60% of the quality of green coffee beans. The post-harvest operations include pulping, processing, drying, hulling, cleaning, sorting, grading, storage, roasting, grinding, and cupping. This chapter comprises the harvest and post-harvest operations of coffee and their impacts on coffee quality.",signatures:"Mesfin Haile and Won Hee Kang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70151",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70151",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71528",title:"A Detail Chemistry of Coffee and Its Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91725",slug:"a-detail-chemistry-of-coffee-and-its-analysis",totalDownloads:2252,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This review article highlights the detailed chemistry of coffee including its components; chemical constituents like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and caffeine; aromatic principles; oil and waxes; and minerals and acids. The high extent of caffeine can be found in the coffee plants; hence, in the second part of the study, various analytical methods are designed for the proper identification, separation, optimization, purification, and determination of caffeine present in coffee, tea, and marketed coffee. These analytical methods are appropriated for the separation and quantification of caffeine. The various analytical methods include spectroscopy methods like UV, IR, and NMR spectroscopy; chromatographic methods like paper, TLC, column, HPLC, and gas chromatography; and hyphenated techniques like LC–MS, GC–MS, and GC–MS/MS. This article compares and contrasts the amount of caffeine by various analytical methods.",signatures:"Hemraj Sharma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71528",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71528",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70308",title:"Coffee Commercialization in the Bolaven Plateau in the Southern of Lao PDR",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90105",slug:"coffee-commercialization-in-the-bolaven-plateau-in-the-southern-of-lao-pdr",totalDownloads:805,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Coffee commercialization is a part of agricultural commercialization, which is recently tended to be increasingly integrated into the national, regional, and global market to increase the export earnings. In this context, coffee commercialization is discoursed in pertinent to six perspectives involving agricultural commercialization, the linkage of agriculture and commercialization, new thinking of agricultural commercialization, productive resources for coffee commercialization, process of coffee commercialization, and impact of coffee commercialization. Agricultural commercialization has to reconstruct of relation to food security and gender role in agricultural commercialization. The implication of empirical analysis of FATE research project in the Southern of Lao PDR highlights three novel features of coffee commercialization including productive resources for coffee commercialization, process of coffee commercialization, and impact of coffee commercialization. The primary conditions required for coffee commercialization are productive resources including land, capital, and labor. The coffee commercialization is essentially processing through plantation, nurturing, harvesting, and marketing. The commercialization provides livelihood impact arena for local farmers’ food security and employment opportunities including for women and creates compact gender division of labor in different processes of coffee commercialization.",signatures:"Saithong Phommavong, Maliphone Douangphachanh and Khanhpaseuth Svengsucksa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70308",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70308",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69900",title:"Coffee By-Products: Nowadays and Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89508",slug:"coffee-by-products-nowadays-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1124,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Coffee is one of the most consumed products around the world; 2.25 billions of coffee cup are consumed everyday in the world. For coffee crop production, different by-products are produced, such as coffee peel, coffee husk, parchment, and spent coffee grounds. These by-products have several problems associated at the final disposition. In this book chapter, we study the main coffee varieties produced in the world, the by-products produced, and its composition and finally assess the potential of supramolecular solvents (SUPRAS) and water as green solvents for high-added-value compound extractions. Bioactive compounds were extracted from fresh and dried coffee peel in an acceptable rate for industrial applications. SUPRAS offer advantages in terms of rapidity (5 min) and simplicity (stirring and centrifugation at room temperature), thus avoiding costly processes based on high pressure and temperature. Extractions carried out using water as solvent is another technique of extraction mixing temperature (above 60°C) and time (4.5 min) obtained a beverage or solution with presence a bioactive compounds how caffeine, chlorogenic acid and polyphenols.",signatures:"Laura Sofía Torres-Valenzuela, Johanna Andrea Serna-Jiménez and Katherine Martínez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69900",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69900",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"72082",title:"Revalorization of Coffee Waste",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92303",slug:"revalorization-of-coffee-waste",totalDownloads:1041,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"One of the household methods most used to prepare the coffee beverage is the coffee dripping method, which generates millions of tons of coffee waste (CW). Its disposition without control causes environmental matters due to the high consumption of oxygen during its discomposing process. However, the high availability, low cost, and chemical composition of CW (cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, ashes, protein, aliphatic acids, fats, and water) make them useful material for obtaining added-value products and bioenergy. In this chapter, the state of the art of different sustainable alternatives to revalorize CW is shown. CW has been successfully applied as an adsorbent for removing pollutants from wastewater and gas, a precursor for obtaining activated carbon, and a feedstock for producing energy and valuable products using mono-process extraction and biorefinery.",signatures:"Felipe J. Cerino-Córdova, Nancy E. Dávila-Guzmán, Azucena M. García León, Jacob J. Salazar-Rabago and Eduardo Soto-Regalado",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72082",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72082",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8135",title:"Agricultural Development in Asia",subtitle:"Potential Use of Nano-Materials and Nano-Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3b5f35c39fb76b1853e4d480457462d",slug:"agricultural-development-in-asia-potential-use-of-nano-materials-and-nano-technology",bookSignature:"Md. 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An Overview of PET Radiopharmaceuticals in Clinical Use: Regulatory, Quality and Pharmacopeia Monographs of the United States and Europe",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66068.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66068",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66068",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66068",chapter:{id:"62269",slug:"an-overview-of-pet-radiopharmaceuticals-in-clinical-use-regulatory-quality-and-pharmacopeia-monograp",signatures:"Ya-Yao Huang",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"July 24th 2019",book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"247754",title:"Prof.",name:"Ya-Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Ya-Yao Huang",slug:"ya-yao-huang",email:"careyyh@ntuh.gov.tw",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"62269",slug:"an-overview-of-pet-radiopharmaceuticals-in-clinical-use-regulatory-quality-and-pharmacopeia-monograp",signatures:"Ya-Yao Huang",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"July 24th 2019",book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"247754",title:"Prof.",name:"Ya-Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Ya-Yao Huang",slug:"ya-yao-huang",email:"careyyh@ntuh.gov.tw",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11936",leadTitle:null,title:"Fly Ash - Recent Development, View Point and Utilization",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tFly ash is a combustible material derived from the burning of pulverized coal to generate electricity in a coal power plant. An enormous amount of fly ash is produced through this combustion process and is usually dry/wet disposed of and stockpiled in a dump. The efficient management of the fly ash in a dump has been a serious concern to the environmental experts. In recent, various attempts have been made to alternatively harness mammoth quantities for various applications in the industrial, agricultural, and civil construction sectors of the economy. Some of the applications are in water treatment, soil amelioration, construction pavement, construction bricks, etc. Some of these advances are fraught with new development and some challenges. This book is intended to have a collection of some of these recent advances in the utilization of fly ash. We will also shed light on some of the limitations, problems, and challenges encountered in these new scientific developments.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-573-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-572-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-574-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"04515b4342cd12c9b2717d2ae2286f73",bookSignature:"Dr. Segun Akinyemi and Prof. Mugera Gitari",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11936.jpg",keywords:"Coal, Fly Ash, Beneficiation, Combustion, Disposal, Management, Environment, Concerns and Challenges, Utilization of Fly Ash, Scientific Development, Water Treatment, Soil Amelioration",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 26th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 24th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 23rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 11th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 10th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Akinyemi has over 15 years of experience as a professional academic and research scientist with a proven record of accomplishment in leading multidisciplinary research and development. He is a leading researcher in fossil fuel geochemistry, environmental geochemistry, and nano-geochemistry, former head of the Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Ekiti State University, Nigeria.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Prof. Gitari is a full professor of Environmental/Analytical Chemistry at the School of Environmental Sciences, University of Venda, South Africa. He has worked in Tertiary Education institutions for over 14 years. He has published 75 articles in peer-refereed journals, and 5 book chapters, and holds 4 patents in Acid Mine Drainage and drinking water treatment. He has also mentored 21 MSc, Ph.D., and Postdoctoral candidates.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"147114",title:"Dr.",name:"Segun",middleName:null,surname:"Akinyemi",slug:"segun-akinyemi",fullName:"Segun Akinyemi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/147114/images/system/147114.jpg",biography:"Dr. Akinyemi had his undergraduate training in the Department of Geology, Ondo State University, now Ekiti State University, where he finished with a strong Second Class Upper division, in honours Geology (1995). He obtained both his MSc (2008) and PhD (2011) degrees in a reputable university, University of the Western Cape, South Africa. He won a German DAAD Postdoctoral Research Fellowship in Sub-Saharan Africa (2015–2016), which he undertook at the School of Environmental Science in the University of Venda, South Africa.\nDr. Akinyemi has over 15 years of experience as a professional academic and research scientist with proven record of accomplishment in leading multidisciplinary research and development. He has conducted research in many areas of fossil fuel and environmental geochemistry, besides many other areas of applied geochemistry. He has also taught at both the undergraduate and graduate levels in Applied Geology since 2009.",institutionString:"Ekiti State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ekiti State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"185380",title:"Prof.",name:"Mugera",middleName:null,surname:"Gitari",slug:"mugera-gitari",fullName:"Mugera Gitari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185380/images/4467_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Mugera Gitari W was born in Kenya, where he completed a Bachelor of Educ Sci (Chem and Maths) and a Masters degree(App Chem) in 1999. In 2003, Prof. Gitari was awarded a NRF-WRC bursary for doctoral studies in Chemistry at the University of the Western Cape(UWC) and graduated with a PhD in 2006. His thesis focused on the chemistry and geochemistry of utilization of coal fly ash (CFA) for treatment of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) and was rated the best among projects sponsored by ESKOM power utility with huge potential for solving disposal and environmental challenges associated with CFA in South Africa. He went to work on as postdoctoral Associate at Environmental and Nanosciences Research Group, Chemistry Department from 2006-2009. He pioneered in South Africa, the application of residues resulting from treatment of AMD with CFA blended with Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) as backfill material for mine voids. He further conceptualized and pioneered a new research area in South Africa on Utilization of CFA for simultaneous CO2 sequestration and brine effluents clean-up among other projects on utilization of coal fly ash such as conversion to zeolites. Prof Gitari has worked in Tertiary Education institutions for over 14 years. Worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in University of the Western Cape from 2006-2009. He is a full professor of Environmental/Analytical chemistry at School of Environmental Sciences, University of Venda, South Africa. His research interests are environmental remediation through beneficial and innovative utilization of industrial and mining waste products, development of functional materials for household water treatment and water quality monitoring and management. He has published 75 articles in peer refereed journals, 5 book chapters and holds 4 patents in Acid Mine Drainage and drinking water treatment. He has also mentored 21 MSc, PhD and Postdoctoral candidates.",institutionString:"University of Venda",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Technical University of Kenya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kenya"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"455410",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Jusic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/455410/images/20500_n.jpeg",email:"dajana.j@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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My goal is to make it known to medical researchers dealing with immunity (resistance) of human organisms to diseases. I feature not only basic notions, problems, and solutions occurring in BPI, but also selected mathematical concepts and tools which proved to be instrumental in developing BPI. I do believe that such information has a good chance to be useful in creation of immunity against particular diseases. Bond investors are called immunizers if, possessing
Although, as it will be demonstrated in Sections 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3, immunization against all shifts is never possible, there are many results giving sufficient, or necessary and sufficient, conditions for immunization against a certain classes of shifts (certain diseases). It is worth to know that in the financial immunization, there is no such thing as
Such types of immunization might theoretically take place on a bond market only if a bond holder had the right to change the coupon payments, which is completely out of the question. In other words, the immunization in financial reality has features of
Theorem 1 (Section 2.4.2) as well as Theorems 3 and 4 allows one to look at immunization from a different perspective. They enable one to identify all shifts a(t) (diseases) of the term structure s(t) of interest rates against which BP is already (fully) immunized, that is, protected against loss of its value at time
Below, I shall present (i) what are bonds and bond portfolios; (ii) what is meant by standard (and general) immunization problem; (iii) historical development of immunization theory; (iv) overview of some recent results; (v) the concept of a Hilbert space, and a base in a linear space; (vi) application of orthogonal polynomials to description of the class IMMU of all shifts (diseases) against which a given bond portfolio is immunized; (vii) triangular functions as a base for the linear space IMMU; and (viii) the crucial role of the notions of duration and convexity in choosing the “best” immunized (immune) bond portfolios.
\nBelow, we will introduce the concept of bonds, formulate the standard and general immunization problem, and outline the development of immunization theory in finance, from the beginning to the latest achievements.
\nEach bond with a face value (par value) of F dollars is a financial instrument which generates to its buyer (holder) specified payments every 6 months (or every quarter, every year) in the form of coupons, plus par value paid only at the termination (maturity) of the bond. The face value represents the amount borrowed by the seller (issuer) of a bond from the bond buyer. The coupons represent a predetermined percentage, say 3%, of face value F; if F = $10,000, then all coupons paid per year sum up to $300. Each bond has its own life span (maturity) of
A bond portfolio (BP), by its definition, is a collection of different bonds with various maturities. Thus, each BP generates a more complicated cash flow pattern than a single bond does. A cash flow generated by a BP consists of various size payments \n
The present and future value of each bond, and consequently each bond portfolio, depends solely on current interest rates \n
The standard immunization problem relies on a construction of such a bond portfolio with the present value of
Besides, an investor may already possess bonds and would like to buy additional ones so that the created, in this way, portfolio BP with the present value of
On the other hand, the general immunization problem relies on a construction of such a bond portfolio BP with the present value of
Immunization as a concept dates back as far as to articles [1, 2]. However, not until work [3] of Fisher and Weil was the impact of interest shifts on the design of immunization strategies rigorously studied. In a vast majority of publications, immunization was based on a specific stochastic process governing interest rate shifts a(t). In [2], Redington discussed immunization in the context of an actuarial company which had projected liability outflows
In such a situation, the company’s task was to choose inflows
where \n
Twenty years later, Fisher and Weil [3] restricted themselves to a single liability at a specified date
They applied (popular already at that time) continuous compounding of cash flows
while the duration \n
It was stated in [3] that immunization was secured if the duration of the assets \n
In subsequent 20–30 years of development of immunization theory, the strong assumption made so far that interest rates were subject to random shifts of the form \n
Few years later, it was demonstrated in [5] that these differences may be significant. For example, when a multiplicative stochastic process \n
and the additive one
\nwere studied in [7], where suitable implicit formulas for the respective immunizing durations were derived.
\nAnother approach, called contingent immunization, was developed in [8]. It consists of building a bond portfolio with a duration shorter or longer than the investor’s planning horizon, taking into account “personal” expectations of a bond manger with regard interest rates. The idea standing behind such approach is to take advantage of the manager’s ability to forecast interest rate movements (diseases) as long as his/her predictions are accurate.
\nThe contingent immunization was implemented in many situations for various term structures of interest rates; see [9]. Other than mentioned in Eqs. (4) and (5), stochastic process governing admissible shifts was analyzed in [10].
\nStriving to offer a more general approach, the authors of article [11] did not confine ourselves to a specific process governing shifts, but allowed them to belong to a certain class of functions, such as, for example, polynomials of degree less than some specified number
The larger class of shifts (diseases) against which the immunization will work, the better. Having this in mind, the interval \n
with \n
where \n
for immunization when the term structure
As of today, no one was successful in building up a bond portfolio BP immunized (immune) against all shifts of interest rates (diseases). What is more, in Section 3, we demonstrate that the set IMMU is always a proper subset of all admissible shifts, being in fact a linear subspace of all shifts.
\nIn a recent paper [13], the authors found a strong evidence that momentum across various asset classes is caused by macroeconomic variables. By properly modifying their portfolio, in response to changes in macroeconomic environment, their strategy performed particularly well in times of economic distress. The obtained results allowed them to establish a link between momentum and sophisticated predictive regressions.
\nAiming at securing higher effectiveness of their investment in fixed income bonds, the authors of [14] successfully used simulations of the portfolio surplus, measuring the inherent risk by means of the value-at-risk methodology. In another very recent publication [15], the authors studied immunization assuming that shifts were parallel or symmetric. A quite different approach to immunization was proposed in [16]. The authors concentrated on hedging risk inherent in bond portfolio. They divided the entire problem into two parts, by formulating a two-step optimization problem. They focused first on immunization risk, and next maximized the portfolio wealth.
\nIn this section, it is proved that the set of all continuous shocks
From now on, we assume that \n
generate only payments \n
One of two classes of admissible shifts studied in [14] was the class of polynomials.
\nThe new term structure was assumed to be of the form:
\nwith \n
The most well-known linear spaces are probably the set of all real numbers R, a two-dimensional Cartesian plane \n
All bases have the same size and there are many of them in each linear space S. \n
with weights
\nHow to determine IMMU is demonstrated in [11] in pp. 858–860.
\nThe other class of admissible shifts studied in [11] was the class of all continuous functions (CF) defined as always on interval \n
We shall demonstrate that the notion of a Hilbert space is very useful in the study of immunization theory. It was named after a German mathematician David Hilbert (1862–1943) who is recognized as one of the most influential and universal mathematicians of the nineteenth century and the first half of twentieth century. By definition, a Hilbert space is a linear space, say H, which is additionally equipped with so-called scalar product (a generalization of the scalar product of two vectors from \n
A specific Hilbert space
It is good to know that in each Hilbert space H, one can measure a distance between any two elements \n
Clearly, \n
In Theorem 3 to follow, we identify a base for
where the
It is worth to notice that after determination of polynomials \n
A strict definition of triangular functions is given by Eqs. (20)–(23) below. Roughly speaking, a triangular function (sometimes called a tent function, or a hat function) is a function whose graph takes the shape of a triangle. Among our
They also have applications in pulse code modulation as a pulse shape for transmitting digital signals, and as a matched filter for receiving the signals. Triangular functions are used to define the so-called triangular window, also known as the Bartlett window. Since they occur in the formula for Lagrange polynomials used in numerical analysis for polynomial interpolation, they are also called Lagrange functions. Their other applications include the Newton-Cotes method of numerical integration, and Shamir’s secret sharing scheme in cryptography.
\nIn the financial context, tent functions were employed in [17] for modeling shifts of the term structure of interest rates. The framework and assumptions made in this section are the same as in Section 3.2. Our purpose is to characterize the subspace IMMU of the Hilbert space
In this section, \n
The following result is well known.
\nIt is a nice exercise to prove the following result.
\nTwo examples illustrating how to identify IMMU are worked out in detail in [18], pp. 531–537. A special attention is given to continuity properties of subspace IMMU; see [18], pp. 534–537.
\nThe natural question arises of how to select the “best” portfolios among those which are (have been) protected (immunized) against admissible shifts (movements) of interest rates? In finance, by best portfolios are meant those which yield the highest rate of return (the highest increase in the present value of a BP), resulting from a sudden shift of interest rates. Below, we present the results obtained in [19]. Rewriting a sufficient and necessary condition (13) and (14) for immunization of portfolio BP generating payouts (9), one obtains:
\nand
\nFor each vector \n
With s(t) standing for the current interest rates, \n
Set \n
where lim O(a) = 0 when \n
Finally, another interesting question arises, to what extend does the dedicated duration of the best immunized portfolio BP
For a specific situation, when shifts a(t) of interest rates s(t) satisfied the “proportionality” condition \n
Let us summarize what we have said so far. Each bond portfolio BP (a human body? or a human body organ?) generates cash at various dates \n
In bond portfolio theory, the greater payouts generated by BP, the higher is the present value (PV) and future value (FV) of BP. An analogous statement is therefore expected in the medical context. Having settled what is Z, it would be probably easy to find out what is the counterpart in medicine of the duration concept defined for the first time by Macaulay (in 1938) and independently by Redington (in 1952); see Formula (1).
\nLet us formulate the following hypothesis: the higher values (levels) of Z, the more healthy is a human body (a human body organ).
\nIn the financial immunization context, there is a fixed date
In the financial theory context, when interest rates s(t) change due to a shift a(t), that is, \n
We still do not know what should (could) be substituted for interest rates s(t), knowing that changes (movements, shifts) in interest rates mean a disease.
\nUsing the concept of
By its very nature, one cubic meter of wood stores almost a ton of CO2, so wood reduces the carbon footprint of the construction industry while evaluating the entire life cycle from raw material to production, use, and recycling, and timber buildings play an important role in supporting to the sustainable bioeconomy [1, 2].
Studies indicate that increasing the use of EWPs in the construction sector has environmental benefits, as wood is a renewable and lightweight material [3, 4], where utilization of EWPs instead of conventional building materials e.g. concrete or steel, the total fossil fuel footprint of building construction can be diminished to a considerable extent through environmental-friendly-material replacement [5, 6]. Also, based on some estimates, substituting concrete with wood could lessen the energy used by construction processes by 40%, while greenhouse gas emissions could be reduced by 35% [7, 8]. Extensive use of EWPs may have helped make the transition towards more carbon-free production of building materials [9, 10].
A construction project involves a large number of participants with various roles, goals, and concerns [11] as in the case of high-rise timber buildings e.g. Mjøstårnet (Norway, 2019) (Figure 1), HoHo (Austria, 2020) (Figure 2). Besides, the building material selection process includes many parameters, e.g. cost, structural performance, environmental friendliness, fire performance, availability, and speed of construction [12, 13]. Moreover, the material selection procedure is a complex non-linear process involving various actors such as contractors, structural designers, developers, and architects [14, 15, 16].
Mjøstårnet (Norway, 2019) (Source: Wikipedia).
HoHo (Austria, 2020) (Source: Wikipedia).
Among these parties involved, architects play a critical role in material selection [17, 18], their perceptions influence their choice of material in the structural frame [13, 15, 19, 20]. Perhaps more importantly, architects’ perceptions could lead to an increase in the use of EWP for construction [19, 21].
In the literature, many studies have been carried out on the ecological, technological, economic, and social aspects of engineered wood products and various technical solutions in buildings [22]; while there is a relatively limited number of studies concentrating on the EWPs for construction from the stakeholders’ perspective (e.g. [11, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]).
This chapter presented a comprehensive overview of the perceptions, attitudes, and interests of architects in the use of EWPs together with their perceived benefits and barriers for construction. This study gathered, mapped out, and systematized scattered and multifaceted knowledge on architects’ attitudes towards EWPs employment in buildings, and chronologically presented them in an accessible and manageable discourse. Notably, the chapter also revealed how this perception has changed over time.
An increasing emphasis on the climate impact of building materials in the construction sector should therefore increase the likelihood that future EWPs will be favored to a greater extent. In this sense, attempts to increase the awareness of architects about EWPs will have a positive effect, e.g. regarding the economic aspects. In this study, wood or timber refers to engineered timber products such as cross-laminated timber, laminated veneer lumber, glue-laminated timber/glulam.
In the literature, several studies from different countries such as Australia, America, Sweden are concentrating on wood as a structural material in the buildings from architects’ perspective through questionnaires and/or interviews (e.g. [13, 20, 23, 24, 26, 27]).
Among the studies, Truskett undertook surveys and interviews with architects in Victoria (Australia) to explore factors influencing the specification of wood products [28]. The findings showed that while the vast majority (90%) of those surveyed ‘always or mostly’ used structural timber for residential purposes, only 20% frequently used structural timber for non-residential applications. According to the architects, timber as a structural and finishing material has strong aesthetic appeal, but the factors such as maintenance and durability, professional networks, industry practice, information, and environmental issues hamper its general use.
Kozak and Cohen focused on the construction material selection of architects (n = 594 out of 3,986) and structural engineers (n = 384 out of 1,822) for non-residential buildings through an online survey in the United States and Canada [26]. The results showed that steel and concrete continue to be the most common material in non-residential applications, whereas wood governs the construction market for elderly housing and is also frequently employed in religious buildings, restaurants, and commercial/residential combinations. It was also pointed out that as the building height increases, the use of wood decreases. However, the attitudes of architects were encouraging towards the use of timber-frame if they had previously specified it.
In 2004, Wagner and Hansen scrutinized material preferences among architects and engineers in America and Chile by a cross-cultural comparison to establish a procedure for choosing a customer group of a company and then classifying its demands and needs [27]. They stated that American architects did not give much weight to issues concerning cost and ecological properties of the building material when deciding on wood construction, whereas other considerations e.g. dimensional stability were thought to have more potential for development when compared with competing materials like steel. Similarly, surveyed architects from Chile were not interested in the environmental features of the wood. Besides this, both sample groups of architects had a positive attitude towards the aesthetical properties of wood, and they perceived uniform quality as an essential asset. It was also noticed that fire-related issues received less concern among the architects than the relevant literature suggests [26].
O’Connor et al. studied architects’ and engineers’ perceptions regarding the use of wood in the North American non-residential construction sector through an extensive mail survey applied to a series of specifier’s focus groups [15]. This research identified several perceived challenges for wood utilization in construction: building code concerning fire safety; cost-competitiveness with steel especially in terms of complicated structures or structures with a longer span; design performance related to strength, durability, stiffness, and lack of established practices. They also proposed short- and long-term recommendations for addressing these obstacles.
The research of Bayne and Taylor also examined the barriers to the use of wood in Australian non-residential buildings to understand the reasons behind the common use of non-wood products e.g., concrete and steel [29]. They aimed to identify the reasons for the lack of confidence in specifying wood as a structural material in these buildings. As a result of interviews with 34 architects, engineers, building designers, and project managers, a range of strengths and weaknesses regarding the structural application of wood to non-residential use were underlined. Findings suggested that aesthetics, easy construction, and adaptability of design and fire performance were evaluated as advantages, while cost and speed of erection were taken as the most common obstacles by the specifiers. It was also concluded that the use of wood was found more suitable and promising by the architects for smaller building types such as housing for the elderly, schools, public buildings, and churches.
In 2008, Roos et al. presented perceptions of 23 Swedish architects and structural engineers about the material selection process, which also included a comparison of wood with other materials, the effects of main stakeholders, and the relation of wood construction with professional roles and knowledge [30]. Both architects and engineers were interested in using wood but perceived it as complicated. This study as a prospect highlighted the issues such as clear demonstration of business-sound wood compared with concrete and steel; functional information flows from the construction industry to wood sector; expression of smart solutions enabling flexibility and appropriate span lengths from an architectural standpoint; putting emphasis on aesthetic and visual aspects of timber-frame, and importance of providing more information about environmental benefits of wood by suppliers.
Bysheim and Nyrud investigated Norwegian architects’ perceptions regarding the use of wood as a structural material in urban construction via a questionnaire to measure attitudes towards the physical, mechanical, and fire-related properties of wood [31]. They found that many architects show a tendency to use structural timber, but few are planning to do so. They were also positive; fire and aesthetically related properties, costs of using structural timber compared to substitutes, and the energy-related properties of the material, the physical and mechanical properties of timber-frame. They felt qualified to specify timber-frame in buildings but did not perceive the choice of using structural timber as being entirely up to them. The architects had positive attitudes towards timber-frame in residential buildings but were negative towards use in other building types. Additionally, they were positive to utilize in buildings up to 3-story. The architects had little experience with timber-frame in other building types other than residential ones. Most of the respondents strongly agreed that other architects would have a positive tendency to them employing timber-frame, whereas contractors and real estate developers were perceived as negative towards the use of timber-frame.
Robichaud et al. explored the challenges to the use of wood in the North American non-residential construction sector [32]. This study aimed to examine the possible role of communication in this emerging market among architects through a survey (n = 165 out of 5,000). The results showed that generally, the architects assessed wood to be a ‘sincere’ but ‘unexciting’ structural material. When compared to concrete and steel, wood was perceived as the most environmentally friendly material. However, wood was rated with the lowest score in terms of durability, fire-resistant, structural performance, and contribution to the high building value. In the recommendation part of the study, the issue of better communication on the part of wood producers and product information was highlighted.
The research of Roos et al. analyzed architects’ and structural engineers’ attitudes and perceived factors that hinder or facilitate the specification of wood construction in Sweden [20]. The main finding of this research was that the material preference of architects and structural engineers is affected by attitudes concerning the properties of wood and beliefs about the control and ease of building in wood. Wood was generally perceived as a suitable building material. Issues about decay, instability, and sound transmission were assessed as negative aspects, while the features of strength, environmental friendliness, simple handling, and suitability for use along with industrial methods were taken as advantages of wood. Besides this, developers and contractors were perceived as the most influential parties by both Swedish architects and structural engineers in the material selection process.
The result suggests that if the following measures are taken into consideration, perceived obstacles could be lessened: (i) developing clearer business concepts for timber-based transparent and affordable construction approaches that decrease the uncertainty, (ii) creating prefabrication methods for wood to reduce the risk factor in the construction, (iii) developing education and training in building design and construction in wood, (iv) providing information about the environmental performance of wood as a building material, (v) improving the ‘professional status’ of wood via interesting design, (vi) supporting architects and engineers in pursuing wood construction and developing a dialogue among all the related professions.
Hemström et al. assessed Swedish architects’ perceptions, attitudes, and interest towards steel-, concrete-, and timber-frames in multi-story buildings through a web-based questionnaire (n = 412 out of 3,600) [11]. The results indicated that concrete was found the most favorable frame material for multi-story construction mainly because of its performance of engineering-based issues e.g., stability and fire safety that was considered critical for the selection of frame material. The general attitude towards, and interest in, timber-frame utilization was positive and related to its perceived environmental features. Differing from findings in North America [15], this study showed that costs and time to construct a building are not perceived as major barriers to the use of wood among architects in Sweden. Contradictory to the perception of wood being a less suitable multi-story frame material than concrete and steel, the interest in the use of wood frames was large. Contrary to Norwegian findings [16], the overall attitude towards the use of wood frames in residential buildings presented here was not different from the attitude towards the wood in non-residential buildings. Besides this, the results showed that contractors, structural engineers, and building commissioners have a great influence on the choice of frame material.
In 2014, Xia investigated the reasons as perceived obstacles for comparatively limited use of the timber-frame in multi-story non-residential buildings (compared to low-rise housing) among industry professionals - also including architects - in Australia by a questionnaire survey (n = 74 out of 176) [13]. The results indicated five main groups of identified obstacles: (1) lack of support in official regulations, (2) lack of interest in the industry, (3) lack of experience in professionals, (4) perception of drawbacks, and inadequate knowledge about merits of timber-frame utilization. This study also made several recommendations concerning more supportive legislation by the governmental side to stimulate the use of wood in multi-story building construction, industry training to raise the awareness and knowledge of the technological improvements regarding EWPs, the attitudes of developers and investors as the most influential decision-makers towards increasing the awareness of timber-frame advantages.
Viluma and Bratuškins conducted research among architects and other stakeholders in Latvia to find out the main barriers to using wood for buildings through 38 interviews and questionnaires [33]. There were 73 answers from 85 registered persons of which 36 were architects, 25 were students and lecturers, as well as representatives from timber production and media. In this study, the main motivating factors and seven main barriers to the selection of wood constructions were identified. Research results showed that architects’ attitude towards timber-frame, in general, is positive, but they thought that due to the Latvian Fire Safety Regulation, it is not easy to find solutions for wood construction. Additionally, the architects emphasized the
Conroy et al. investigated familiarity, use, and perceptions of EWPs among the AIA-certified architects across Washington, Oregon, and California through an online questionnaire (n = 533 out of 3,469) [18]. The results indicated that durability, fire resistance, and strength were assessed as weaknesses of engineered wood products, unlike other studies such as [16, 29] that found architects saw wood fire performance as a strength. The architects from Washington and Oregon projected the use of wood in the construction industry to develop more in the next five years compared to steel and concrete. To boost the use of wood as a construction material for the structure and building enclosure in non-residential buildings, it was recommended that the forest products industry enhances its internet presence, developing interdisciplinary communication strategies.
As one of the most recent studies, Kuzman et al. attempted to better understand the specification process of EWPs and to provide an updated overview of the perceived identity of these materials among architects in Slovenia, Austria, France, Sweden, Croatia, and Bosnia, and Herzegovina [34]. The results indicated that generally, participating architects have a positive attitude towards wood utilization in all countries. Thermally modified wood was perceived as positive, whereas the architects were unfamiliar with more recently introduced wood modification methods e.g., acetylation, furfurylation (which are not well known). Their findings suggested that the opportunities for wood to gain a greater market share will grow.
Markström et al. probed Swedish architects’ perception of the use of EWPs in buildings and the parameters which positively influence the preference of these products via a survey questionnaire [24]. Findings highlighted that in general, and as per the more recent study by [34], the perception of EWPs is positive among Swedish architects, and most of them think that their use will increase in the future. They also added that other decision-makers with greater influence over the material selection, such as contractors, developers choose other materials. A lack of knowledge, as well as uncertainties about the quality over time, were other common reasons for not preferring EWPs. The results also indicated that environmental concerns and aesthetic appearance are the main reasons to select these materials for the architects involved in building projects. It was stated that knowledge, familiarity, and architects’ attitude play a role in increasing the use of EWPs.
Therefore, it can be said that perceived positive aspects of EWPs have markedly changed from earlier studies in 1997. By that year, in one of the studies by [28] entitled
[24] | architects in Sweden |
|
|
[18] | architects in the US West Coast |
|
|
[33] | stakeholders (including architects) in Latvia |
| |
[13] | industry professionals (including architects) in Australia |
| |
[11] | architects in Sweden |
| |
[20] | architects and structural engineers in Sweden |
|
|
[32] | architects in North America |
|
|
[31] | architects in Norway |
| |
[30] | architects and building engineers in Sweden |
|
|
[29] | architects, engineers, building designers, and project managers in Australia |
|
|
[27] | architects and engineers in the US and Chile |
| |
[26] | architects and structural engineers in the US and Canada |
|
|
Studies on architects’ attitudes towards the use of EWPs for construction.
In terms of the major benefits and barriers to using EWPS for construction, similar findings were identified in different studies such as [11, 24, 32]. Architects mostly had a positive attitude towards aesthetic quality (e.g. [24, 31]) and environmental performance (e.g. [18, 26]) of EWPs.
Also, in Bayne and Taylor’s study on the barriers to the use of EWPs, it was found that the use of timber is more suitable for smaller buildings such as housing development [29]. Similarly, Bysheim and Nyrud found that architects took a positive attitude towards the use of timber as frame material in three-story houses [31].
Some other studies among architects such as [11, 18, 24, 32] highlighted
In studies conducted among architects in the USA [18, 32] and those in Sweden [30],
As many studies (e.g. [13, 33]) reported,
Besides, according to the participants in the study by Xia et al.,
Overall, architects’ perceptions of EWPs’ engineering performance can deter them from employing EWPs for construction. Such a change can be driven by an increase in examples of promising timber building applications. e.g. high-rise buildings (over 8-story), and so the general attitude of architects towards EWPs will be more positive in terms of engineering-based features such as sound insulation, fire safety, durability, and structural performance.
Future scenarios for wooden buildings could improve if there is a new trend towards greater importance of environmental factors in the choice of structural material facilitated by policies, which can make a difference in the demands of customers and the tendencies of contractors.
Moreover, architects can play an important role as prime marketers in increasing EWPs for construction, but it seems that more initiatives are required to enhance their familiarity since the lack of experience and level of knowledge may prevent architects from proposing timber in their projects.
The aim of this chapter was to understand the architects’ perceptions, attitudes, and interests in the use of EWPs for construction. In doing so, this research attempted to identify perceived major benefits and barriers to EWPs utilization.
Overall, architects mostly had a positive attitude towards the use of EWPs. Among EWPs’ positive aspects, aesthetic quality, environmental performance, energy efficiency, and speed of erection were the highlights. Durability, fire resistance, and strength were assessed as the most critical barriers to the common use of EWPs. These were followed by a lack of cost competitiveness, knowledge gaps or lack of expertise, and lack of developer interest.
In this sense, the following recommendations may help to overcome identified barriers by improving overall attitudes towards EWPs for construction:
(1) providing architecture students with more education and inspiration at university, more information about wood-based products, better design aids, and more design examples (2) supporting architects in timber construction by creating a sharing environment with members of these professions (3) developing more active participation in EWP-based problem solving and better interdisciplinary communication strategies among timber suppliers, the timber construction industry and the architectural community (4) developing business-oriented approaches for timber compared to traditional materials e.g. concrete in construction (5) developing effective timber prefabrication methods to reduce the risk factor in construction (6) Enhance the collaboration of different stakeholders such as government, client, designer, contractor, and supplier by issuing more supportive regulations and guidelines to increase the use of EWPs for construction.
It is believed that this chapter will help to deepen the understanding of various considerations shaping the decision-making process in the use of EWPs for construction.
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\n\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
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\n\nIntechOpen requires:
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\n\nAll Authors are obliged to declare every existing or potential Conflict of Interest, including financial or personal factors, as well as any relationship which could influence their scientific work. Authors must declare Conflicts of Interest at the time of manuscript submission, although they may exceptionally do so at any point during manuscript review. For jointly prepared manuscripts, the corresponding Author is obliged to declare potential Conflicts of Interest of any other Authors who have contributed to the manuscript.
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Ovarian cancers are heterogenous cancers where each subtype possesses a varied morphology and biologic behavior. Accumulating evidence has identified each of these subtypes characterized with specific pathways activated in each along with specific gene alterations. For example, high-grade serous ovarian cancer is characterized by universal TP53 mutation, mucinous ovarian cancer with KRAS mutation and clear cell or endometrioid ovarian cancers with ARID1A mutations. With the current focus of molecular-targeted therapies for cancer, such druggable markers serve as excellent targets for precision therapy and combination therapy. This chapter, provides an overview of the critical molecular pathways activated in the ovarian cancer subtypes with its druggable targets studied in ovarian cancer. We also highlight the implications of miRNAs in chemoresistance and sensitivity in the regulation of ovarian cancer.",book:{id:"10342",slug:"ovarian-cancer-updates-in-tumour-biology-and-therapeutics",title:"Ovarian Cancer",fullTitle:"Ovarian Cancer - Updates in Tumour Biology and Therapeutics"},signatures:"Febina Ravindran and Bibha Choudhary",authors:[{id:"334121",title:"Prof.",name:"Bibha",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhary",slug:"bibha-choudhary",fullName:"Bibha Choudhary"},{id:"335007",title:"Dr.",name:"Febina",middleName:null,surname:"Ravindran",slug:"febina-ravindran",fullName:"Febina Ravindran"}]},{id:"42501",title:"Implication of Clear Cell and Mucinous Histology",slug:"implication-of-clear-cell-and-mucinous-histology",totalDownloads:2332,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3449",slug:"ovarian-cancer-a-clinical-and-translational-update",title:"Ovarian Cancer",fullTitle:"Ovarian Cancer - A Clinical and Translational Update"},signatures:"Jun Naniwa, Hiroaki Itamochi and Junzo Kigawa",authors:[{id:"158925",title:"Prof.",name:"Junzo",middleName:null,surname:"Kigawa",slug:"junzo-kigawa",fullName:"Junzo Kigawa"}]},{id:"74781",title:"The Anti-Cancer Effects of Anti-Parasite Drug Ivermectin in Ovarian Cancer",slug:"the-anti-cancer-effects-of-anti-parasite-drug-ivermectin-in-ovarian-cancer",totalDownloads:853,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Ivermectin is an old, common, and classic anti-parasite drug, which has been found to have a broad-spectrum anti-cancer effect on multiple human cancers. This chapter will focus on the anti-cancer effects of ivermectin on ovarian cancer. First, ivermectin was found to suppress cell proliferation and growth, block cell cycle progression, and promote cell apoptosis in ovarian cancer. Second, drug pathway network, qRT-PCR, and immunoaffinity blot analyses found that ivermectin acts through molecular networks to target the key molecules in energy metabolism pathways, including PFKP in glycolysis, IDH2 and IDH3B in Kreb’s cycle, ND2, ND5, CYTB, and UQCRH in oxidative phosphorylation, and MCT1 and MCT4 in lactate shuttle, to inhibit ovarian cancer growth. Third, the integrative analysis of TCGA transcriptomics and mitochondrial proteomics in ovarian cancer revealed that 16 survival-related lncRNAs were mediated by ivermectin, SILAC quantitative proteomics analysis revealed that ivermectin extensively inhibited the expressions of RNA-binding protein EIF4A3 and 116 EIF4A3-interacted genes including those key molecules in energy metabolism pathways, and also those lncRNAs regulated EIF4A3-mRNA axes. Thus, ivermectin mediated lncRNA-EIF4A3-mRNA axes in ovarian cancer to exert its anticancer capability. Further, lasso regression identified the prognostic model of ivermectin-related three-lncRNA signature (ZNRF3-AS1, SOS1-IT1, and LINC00565), which is significantly associated with overall survival and clinicopathologic characteristics in ovarian cancer patients. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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