Some compounds isolated from the genus
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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Design of control system is a complex issue, requiring the application of information technologies to link the robots into a single network. Human robot interface becomes a demanding task, especially when we try to use sophisticated methods for brain signal processing. Generated electrophysiological signals can be used to command different devices, such as cars, wheelchair or even video games. A number of developments in navigation and path planning, including parallel programming, can be observed. Cooperative path planning, formation control of multi robotic agents, communication and distance measurement between agents are shown. Training of the mobile robot operators is very difficult task also because of several factors related to different task execution. 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From 2006 to 2018, he collaborated with Industrial Research Institute for Automation and Measurements, Warsaw, Poland, concerning multi robotic inspection-intervention systems development and integration. He was granted a postdoctoral scholarship in the Royal Military Academy (RMA), Brussels, Belgium, funded by Center for Advanced Studies, Warsaw University of Technology. His research interests are: inspection intervention robot systems, semantic mapping including 3D cloud of points and video processing, 6D SLAM, mobile robot operator training with AR techniques and GPGPU computing. From 2017 he is involved in development of the continent scale Simultaneous Localization and Mapping Technologies for autonomous cars in TomTom. He commercialized robotic 3D mapping technologies within the MANDALA company (www.mandalarobotics.com). 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The muscular atrophy recessive autosomal in neuromuscular with characterized of alpha motor neuron in the spinal cord [1]. The neuromuscular disorders are one factor genetic of infant mortality [2]. The spinal muscular atrophy deletion or mutation the Survival motor neuron 1 (SMN 1 gene), reduction of levels functional survival motor neuron 1 (SMN 1 gene) and also resulting selective death of spinal motor neurons system in a pathway, it’s depends by the age of onset, symptoms and maximum function achieved [3]. By the age at the onset it causes at birth: Neuromuscular disease, congenital myotonic dystrophy and spinal muscular atrophy, other causes are systematic septicemia-induced disease, lung damage, intracranial pathologies, infection of the central nervous system, disorders of the peripheral nerves, disease of the neuromuscular junction, Prader-Willi syndrome and drug intoxication during pregnancy or delivery system and after 6 months of age were the neuromuscular disease: spinal muscular atrophy types II and III, polyneuropathies, childhood myasthenia gravis, muscular dystrophies and metabolic myopathy and besides that in other causes were congenital heart disease, malnutrition, rickets, metabolic diseases, nephropathies and lung diseases [4, 5]. The clinical prognosis of spinal muscular atrophy is variable and depends on types of spinal muscular atrophy continuous spectrum with the age of death by infancy to normal life expectancy condition system on cell pathway system [6]. The Muscular atrophy its described with characterized generalized muscle and atrophy in the proximal limb muscle and phenotype by four grades of severity, where the spinal Muscular Atrophy I, spinal Muscular Atrophy II, spinal Muscular Atrophy III and spinal Muscular Atrophy IV, it’s all depended by onset and motor spinal function [7, 8]. The muscular atrophy disease by the control mutation in the homozygous of survival motor neuron α (SMN 1) gene. The skeletal of muscular atrophy it’s adverse consequences and the mechanism such as wasting or decrease of injury time. Lack of use in the spinal muscular atrophy and event disease category of spinal muscular atrophy. The spinal muscular atrophy it’s usually considered by chronic diseases such as poliomyelitis, Diabetes mellitus, cancer, renal failure or pulmonary obstruction [1].
To activation of spinal muscular atrophy, we need the process to activation of the distinct pathway (ATP) in proteolysis pathway. The condition of spinal muscular atrophy it’s depends on the level of muscle protein nutrition system. To reduce the fiber muscle we need synthesis protein to innervate proximal hindlimb muscles and medical motor neurons axial muscles [9]. Mitochondrial is important in skeletal muscle to activation of function and subpopulation involved in cellular functions. Mitochondria play in role key on muscle fibers to the regulation of myonuclear apoptosis and serving uptake the calcium [10]. Mitochondria also continuously produce superoxide radicals and dismutated into hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), where H2O2 is a relatively and diffuse freely with cytosol, it’s very important as signaling to the molecule on cell, to affecting multiple control of the cell cycle, uptake to cellular stress response, activation energy metabolism and also to the expression of numerous redox-sensitive genes in spinal muscular atrophy disease [9].
According to the worldwide about a study into the prevalence and incidence of spinal muscular atrophy, where approximately 1–2 per 100.000 people and incidence around 1 in 10.000 live births have been estimated with the spinal muscular atrophy type I accounting for around 60% of all cases and estimation of the incidence of all types of spinal muscular atrophy of around 10 in 100.000 (1 in 10.000) live birth is cited [11]. Every incidence is a factor from a number of new cases of the disease in a particular time period. The evaluation of the incidence of all type SMA combined it’s around 8 per 100.000 live births. The incidence of spinal muscular atrophy type I is around 4–6 in 100.000 and for the type II and III it’s a high incidence combined 10,6 per 100.000 and for the gender, it’s a nearly even split male and female [12]. The indicated difference of spinal muscular atrophy types is the between ethnicities and differences in health system clinically diagnosed. The prevalence in Indonesia of neuromuscular in RSCM hospital from January – December 2017 is 2,6% of all patients who come to the neurology outpatient ward. The five most who have neuromuscular disorders are neuropathy peripheral, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, spinal muscular atrophy, Guillain barre syndrome and chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy [13].
Spinal muscular atrophy is a defect in survival motor neuron 1 (SMN 1) and it’s gene localized to 5q11.2-q13.3). SMN gene (SMN 1 and SMN 2) on chromosome 5q13 and the homozygous deletion of the SMN 1 gene result in Spinal muscular atrophy. Besides that, the SMN 2 gene it produces mostly a shortened, unstable the survival motor neuron mRNA and also to alternative splicing, a small amount of full – length on functional SMN mRNA. The SMN 2 gene is a good prognostic of the spinal muscular atrophy in clinical severity. The clinical severity management of spinal muscular atrophy disease is supportive to increase the survival motor neuron expression levels in motor neurons cells system. So, the management of spinal muscular atrophy depends on increase SMN expression levels in motor neurons [3].
The survival motor neuron 1 gene it should be sequenced mutations if both full SMN 1 present of diagnosis on spinal muscular atrophy is highly, but the SMN 1 gene should be sequenced if the striking typical phenotype, where if sequencing indicates and intact SMN 1 gene of phenotype suggestive of spinal muscular atrophy neurogenic. The survival motor neuron 2 gene should be routinely assessed and it’s important to factor system influencing the severity of the spinal muscular atrophy phenotype [1].
Factor oxidative stress of muscle atrophy it’s important to maintenance and quality to the rehabilitation of disease. The skeletal of muscle atrophy need continuously produce oxidants like as a reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) to an imbalance of skeletal muscle mechanism process. The soluble atrophy it’s produced different oxidative stress state species such as O2−, H2O2 and OH−. Where, it also needs antioxidant species state such as catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and the last to imbalance denominated of oxidative stress, it’s can produce oxidative damage in lipids, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and protein to impairing functional protein factor of cellular system [14].
Generation of ROS could uptake of oxygen, activation of NADPH oxidase and to production of the superoxide anion radical, see the reaction:
Where O2− is converted to H2O2 (Eq. (2) by SOD
The skeletal of muscle atrophy could inactivity increase of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production on the ways. The mitochondrial could uptake of calcium and increase mitochondrial levels state of fatty acid hydroperoxides and the last depressed protein could transport into the mitochondria system. So, if the mechanism responsible, it’s could increase mitochondrial fission [9].
The observation of muscle mass-specific overexpression of Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-y-coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) and the master regulator of mitochondria biogenesis could prevent activation of catabolic system and disuse of muscle atrophy system. The Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-y-coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) is mediated pathway and focuses on the role PGC-1α in the skeletal spinal muscular atrophy system by immobilization system. The Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-y-coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) is the master transcription stimulates of mitochondrial biogenesis pathway system with up the regulating system of the nuclear respiratory factors (NRF-1,2) and mitochondrial transcription factor A (Tfam) system, so it leads to increased mitochondrial DNA replication system and gene transcription system [15]. The Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-y-coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) to appears key to the role-play a protective against of muscular atrophy linked skeletal muscle deterioration. The Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-y-coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) interacts with the nuclear receptors and activate transcription factors to activated their target gene. The activity to responsive multiple stimuli including calcium ion, Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and ATP demand pathway system on the cell system in the spinal muscular atrophy. The metabolic stress mediated by PGC-1α downregulation plays a major role in muscle atrophy and to adaptation the soleus to mice hindlimb unloading (HU) in the defuse, we need antioxidant treatment (Trolox). Which, the HU caused of reduction in the cross-sectional area, redox status alteration (NRF2, Superoxide dismutase1 and catalase up-regulation) and the autophagy (Beclin1 and P62 mRNA up-regulation) [16]. The attractive of PGC-1α states in muscle mass could restore and promote the muscle metabolic system when normal physical activity impossible. The observation of the muscle fiber – specific event until overexpression of the attractive of PGC-1α states, where a master regulator of the mitochondrial biogenesis, to prevent activation produce of the catabolic system and also disuse muscle atrophy.
The natural antioxidant is one important to underlying to spinal muscular atrophy system. The natural antioxidant could effect to exercise the health-promoting increase muscle defenses [17]. The natural antioxidant which role-plays to activation integrity on the cell and to prevent the free radical configuration tissue damage of muscle atrophy to normal healthy condition system of muscle atrophy pathway [18].
The natural antioxidant increasing antioxidative defenses and develop a synthesis of endogenous enzymes or increased antioxidant utilization, practice to maintain optimal body function to especially of spinal muscular atrophy in the redox condition on cell [19]. The function from natural antioxidant: it reduces the free radical of spinal muscular atrophy, stimulates the growth of normal cells, to protects the cell against the premature and abnormal aging condition of spinal muscular atrophy, helps fight the age-related molecular degeneration of spinal muscular atrophy and the last to supports the body immune system [17]. The natural antioxidant is powerful electron donors and also to the reaction of free radicals to target molecules breaking damaged on skeletal muscular. The lipid phase of chain-breaking antioxidant can scavenge the radicals in membranes and lipoprotein particles to preventing lipid peroxidation of skeletal muscular atrophy. The lipid phase such as tocopherols, ubiquinol, carotenoids and flavonoids and the aqueous phase such as ascorbate, urate, glutathione and other thiols [20, 21].
Flavonoids are a group from based on natural substances by a variable phenolic structure, where are found from fruits, vegetables, grains, bark, roots, stems, flowers, tea and wine. Flavonoids are potential to anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory and anti-mutagenic on spinal muscular atrophy disease [22]. As an anti-inflammatory, we need of agent system, where the COX is an endogenous enzyme with catalyzes function, which the conversion of arachidonic acid into prostaglandins and thromboxanes, where the enzyme exists in two isoforms: COX - 1 is a constitutive enzyme and is responsible for the supply of prostaglandin and Cox – 2 is an inducible enzyme and is expressed an inflammatory stimulus and the stimulus prostaglandin to induction of inflammatory and pain. By using, the flavonoids can activate the molecular docking and knowledge bioinformatics in preventing chronic disease like as spinal muscular atrophy and to application and manufacturing in pharmaceutical medicinal industry [23]. Flavonoids subdivided of subgroup depending on the carbon of the C ring on which the B ring, which the degree of unsaturation and oxidation of the C ring. The firs isoflavone, which in the B ring is linked position 3 of the C ring. Second, the neoflavonoids, which the B ring is linked in position 4. Besides that, the subdivided into several subgroups on the basis which the B ring is linked position 2 on the basis of the structural features of the C ring. Flavonol (e.g. Quercetin, myricetin), flavone (eg. apigenin, luteolin), flavonolols (eg. taxifolin), flavan-3-ols (eg catechin, epigallocatechin), flavovone [24] (eg. hesperitin, naringenin), anthocyanidin (eg. cynidin, delphidin), isoflavone (eg. genistein, daidzein).
Compound | Name | |
---|---|---|
1 | Hyperoxide/ Hyperin | Dihydroxyphenil)-3-{3R,4S,5R,6R)-3,4,5-trihydroxy-6(hydroxymethyl)oxan-2-yl}oxy-4H-chromene-4,5,7-triol |
2 | Isoquercetin | 2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-5,7-dihydroxy-3{(2S,3R,4S,5S,6R)-3,4,5-trihydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxan-2-yl} oxychromen-4-one |
3 | Myricetin | 3,5,7-Trihydroxy-2-(3,4,5)-trihydroxyphenyl-4-chromenone |
4 | Hibifolin | quercetin 3-beta-robinobioside; 3{(6–0-(6-Deoxy-alpha-L-mannopryranosyl)-beta-D-galactopyranosyl}oxy)-2-(3,4-dihydroxy phenyl)5,7-dihydroxy-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one |
5 | Quercetin | 3-O-robinoside: Quercetin 3 –beta-robinobioside; 3-{(6-O-(Deoxy-alpha-L-mannopyranosyl)-beta-D-galactopyranosy}oxy)-2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one |
6 | Coumarin scopoletin | 7-hydroxy-6-methoxychromen-2-one |
Some compounds isolated from the genus
Ethanomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological profile of genus
This plant is believed to have medicinal based properties, because are many compound vitamins, like as: A, B1, B2, B3, C and E, compound the calcium, potassium, copper, zinc and many collagen. This plant also contains secondary metabolites like as: Flavonoids, Saponin and phonolite, where it has used as an antioxidant. The evaluate total antioxidant arrest activity using the DPPH (IC50) of
Name of Test Substance | Antioxidant Activity DPPH IC50 (mg/mL) |
---|---|
Leaf | 3,45 |
The antioxidant activity DPPH (IC50) of leaf
Graph of total antioxidant of
NO | Name of Test Substance | Test Conc. (μg/ml) | % Cytotoxicity | CTC50 (μg/ml) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Leaf extract (Ethanol) | 1000 | 261.84 ± 0.13 | |
500 | ||||
250 | ||||
125 | ||||
62.5 | ||||
31.25 | ||||
2 | Leaf extract (Ethyl Acetate) | 1000 | 66.28 ± 0.016 | 288.29 ± 0.10 |
500 | 57.02 ± 0.007 | |||
250 | 54.45 ± 0.019 | |||
125 | 40.81 ± 0.025 | |||
62.5 | 28.17 ± 0.011 | |||
31.25 | 12.29 ± 0.020 | |||
3 | Leaf extract (N-Heksan) | 1000 | 94.45 ± 0.006 | 185.06 ± 0.12 |
500 | 67.77 ± 0.014 | |||
250 | 52.36 ± 0.038 | |||
125 | 37.50 ± 0.005 | |||
62.5 | 25.33 ± 0.015 | |||
31.25 | 16.55 ± 0.017 | |||
4 | Doxorubicin | 100 | 68.24 ± 0.007 | 13.57 ± 0.10 |
50 | 62.50 ± 0.007 | |||
25 | 53.51 ± 0.017 | |||
12.5 | 47.09 ± 0.109 | |||
6.25 | 42.29 ± 0.009 | |||
3.12 | 40.00 ± 0.002 |
Cytotoxic properties of test substances of leaf
CTC50- Cytotoxicity concentration.
No | Name of Test Substance | Test Conc. (μg/ml) | % Cytotoxicity | CTC50 (μg/ml) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Leaf extract (Ethanol) | 1000 | 57.98 ± 0.051 | 588.39 ± 0.13 |
500 | 56.43 ± 0.062 | |||
250 | 23.33 ± 0.027 | |||
125 | 19.74 ± 0.006 | |||
62.5 | 9.29 ± 0.006 | |||
31.25 | 0.00 ± 0.038 | |||
2 | Leaf extract (Etil Acetat) | 1000 | 65.34 ± 0.005 | 451.41 ± 0.11 |
500 | 54.98 ± 0.003 | |||
250 | 38.52 ± 0.006 | |||
125 | 25.75 ± 0.002 | |||
62.5 | 9.39 ± 0.002 | |||
31.25 | 0.77 ± 0.006 | |||
3 | Leaf extract (N-Heksan) | 1000 | 68.44 ± 0.005 | 559.12 ± 0.13 |
500 | 37.07 ± 0.101 | |||
250 | 31.55 ± 0.004 | |||
125 | 26.42 ± 0.010 | |||
62.5 | 12.58 ± 0.056 | |||
31.25 | 0.00 ± 0.030 | |||
4 | Doxorubicin | 100 | 99.71 ± 0.011 | 60.85 ± 0.13 |
50 | 94.77 ± 0.005 | |||
25 | 84.60 ± 0.065 | |||
12.5 | 58.95 ± 0.057 | |||
6.25 | 52.95 ± 0.064 | |||
3.12 | 37.27 ± 0.008 |
Cytotoxic properties of test substances against on Vero cells [32].
CTC50- Cytotoxicity concentration.
Graph of cytotoxic effect on 4 T1 cells line of
Graph of the cytotoxic effect of
The muscular atrophy recessive autosomal in neuromuscular with characterized of alpha motor neuron in the spinal cord, the neuromuscular disorders is one factor genetic of infant mortality and the spinal muscular atrophy deletion or mutation the Survival motor neuron. Spinal muscular atrophy is a defect in survival motor neuron 1 (SMN 1) and it’s gene localized to 5q11.2-q13.3). SMN gene (SMN 1 and SMN 2) on chromosome 5q13 and the homozygous deletion of the SMN 1 gene result in Spinal muscular atrophy. The spinal muscular atrophy disease need of natural antioxidant as a reduces the free radical of the fiber muscle cell, stimulates the growth of normal cells, to protects the cell against the premature and abnormal aging condition of spinal muscle fiber, helps fight the age-related molecular degeneration of spinal muscular cell and the last to supports the body immune system. The medicinal plant of leaf
Especially Praise the father, praise the Son, praise the spirit three in one God of glory, Majesty praise forever to the King of King my lovely Jesus Christ. But He said to me, “My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness (2 Corinthians 12:9).
The authors have no conflict of interest.
Orthodontics and orthodontists have always worked towards delivering better care for patients. This has led to the invention of various bracket systems along with the changes in the protocol of management of extraction cases.
The Self Ligating Brackets (SLB) has come into orthodontic practice since 1930’s with the invention of Boydband bracket. These bracket systems along with the thermally activated NiTi wires have reduced the treatment duration, chair-side time, and improved the treatment efficacy and patient co-operation. This led to the invention of Damon’s system by Dr. Dwight Damon in the year 1996. It is called as “System” rather than “Brackets” because it utilizes the benefits of both the brackets and copper NiTi wires, thus delivering a “low force- low friction” mechanics for the management of dental malocclusion [1].
There has been lot of evidence in literature which states that “atraumatic” remodeling of periodontal tissues was rarely achieved using conventional orthodontic bracket system. This is mainly because the tooth was always moved in group. In Damon’s system, the tooth is allowed to move individually, yet stay in the group. The bracket system allows for easy sliding of the tooth along the path of least or no resistance thus leading to faster leveling and alignment and reduced treatment duration [2]. The aim of this chapter is to describe the bracket prescription, efficiency of the appliance, the possible outcomes and its influence on orthodontic therapy.
Damon philosophy uses the concept of passive self-ligation technique which claims to have the lowest frictional resistance of any ligation system. Reduction in friction helps the force to transmit directly from the arch wires to the teeth and its supporting structures without any force dissipation by the ligature system [3].
Comparing the other prescriptions, Damon system has lots of benefits:
Limitations in the use of intraoral expansion appliances such as quad-helix or jack-screw as the optimal forces from the arch wires completely allows the connective tissue and alveolar bone to follow tooth movement with uninterrupted vascular supply to the tooth and its surrounding system thereby providing the necessary expansion [3, 4, 5].
In a study stated that Damon System produced a significant transversal increase in the posterior region of the arches with differences in teeth buccolingual inclinations at post-treatment [6].
Faster alignment of teeth as passive self-ligation produces lower resistance thus allowing a wire to slide.
Reduced amount of pain experienced by patients, and higher treatment efficiency as this friction-free system produces less forces on the teeth [4, 5].
Reduction in the need for extraction as the force applied is minimal that the pressure from lips can control unwanted tipping of incisors during alignment stage [5].
Decreased demand for the use of anchorage devices comparing the conventional appliances as there is reduced friction between the ligation for better tooth control [7].
Reduction in the overall duration of orthodontic treatment up to 7 months and also reduced number of appointments have been found in few researches [8, 9].
Control of tooth position because there is an edgewise slot of adequate width and depth [3].
Decreased discomfort experienced by the patients with the Damon prescription as the forces applied to the teeth are kept minimal throughout the treatment [4].
More efficient chair-side due to reduced ligation time [10].
Promotes periodontal health with better infection control [11].
In orthodontics achieving ideal inclination of anterior using the edgewise system is challenging. In an attempt to overcome this drawback, Damon’s system has different torque prescription. This includes:
These brackets can be used in cases where the incisors or cuspids are severely retroclined or palatally placed. Examples are:
Class I extraction cases with proclined of anterior.
Class II division 1 malocclusion.
Class II division 2 malocclusion with retroclined incisors.
Palatally placed incisors or cuspids.
These brackets can be used in cases where the inclination of anterior is satisfactory and when there will not be any obvious change in the inclination during the course of the treatment.
Examples of the cases include:
Anterior open bite cases with severe proclination of anteriors.
Moderate and severe crowding.
Treatment mechanics which may result in proclination of anteriors.
Incisors with palatally positioned roots.
In class II fixed functional cases or class II elastics cases where control of lower incisor proclination is necessary.
Lingually placed lower incisors [3].
The tip and torque values of Damon’s system are as in Tables 1 and 2.
Upper arch | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
U1 | U2 | U3 | U4 | U5 | U6 | U7 |
+5° | +9° | +6° | +2° | +2° | ||
Lower arch | ||||||
L1 | L2 | L3 | L4 | L5 | L6 | L7 |
+2° | +2° | +5° | +2° | +2° |
Tip values in Damon’s system.
Upper arch | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
U1 | U2 | U3 | U4 | U5 | U6 | U7 | |
High torque | +17° | +10° | +7° | ||||
Standard torque | +12° | +8° | 0° | −7° | −7° | −18° | −27° |
Low torque | +7° | +3° | |||||
Lower arch | |||||||
L1 | L2 | L3 | L4 | L5 | L6 | L7 | |
High torque | +7° | ||||||
Standard torque | −1° | −1° | 0° | −12° | −17° | −28° | −10° |
Low torque | −6° | −6° |
Torque values in Damon’s system.
Clinically proven
Enhances facial esthetics
More comfortable than traditional braces
Reduced friction and faster tooth movement
Shorter treatment duration
Lesser visits
Expensive than traditional braces
“Metal Mouth” look
The phases of tooth movement are generally.
Initial leveling and aligning – where initial round wires made of multistranded steel or NiTi are used, starting from the smaller dimensions then proceeded with the larger dimensions.
Retraction and space closure – where rigid rectangular wires are used for major mechanics like torque expression and space closure.
Finishing and detailing – round steel wires are usually used.
There are two sequences which are generally followed in pre-adjusted edgewise prescription.
An older concept of a sequence which initially uses round steel wires from sizes.014, .016, .018 and .020 followed by rectangular steel wires from dimensions.018 × .025, .019 × .025 and.021 × .025 in.022 slots.
Multi-stranded wires of dimensions .015 and .0175 were used for initial aligning before .014 round Steel wire came into practice and finishing and detailing was done with.014 steel wires.
Later with the introduction of MBT prescription, arch wire sequencing started with initial .016 CuNiTi wire followed by .019 × .025 CuNiTi and then .019 × .025 Steel wire was used for major biomechanics and detailing was done with .014 round steel wire [12, 13].
A clinical research by Mandall, in which three wire sequences were randomly allocated to patients to compare are as follows:
Group A - 0.016 NiTi, 0.018 × 0.025nNiTi, and .019 × 0.025 Steel wires.
Group B- 0.016 Niti, 0.016 SS and finally 0.020-inch Steel wires.
Group C - 0.016 × 0.022 CuNiTi wire, followed by 0.019 × 0.025 CuNiTi, and ending with 0.019 × 0.025 Steel wire,
And found that all sequences were equally effective. However, the CuNiTi may be preferred by the clinicians as it reduces the number of appointments [14].
In another study by Ong, the three different archwire sequences were applied are as follows:
0.014 Niti, 0.017×0.017 HANT, 0.016×0.022 Steel
0.014 Sentalloy, 0.016×0.022 Bio force, 0.016×0.022 Steel
0.014 CuNiTi, 0.014×0.025 CuNiTi, 0.016×0.022 Steel,
And found that there were no differences among the archwire sequences in terms of aligning or discomfort [15].
Phase 1: Light Round Wires
This phase of treatment uses 0.013, 0.014, or 0.016 CuNiTi arch wires. The aim of this first phase of treatment is to achieve tooth alignment including rotation correction except second molars, level the arches and initiate arch development with light forces to permit the soft tissues to desired arch shape. This phase of treatment normally extends from 10 to 20 weeks and the intervals between appointments are about 10 weeks.
Phase 2: High Rectangular Wires
Phase 2 uses two arch wires: 0.014 × 0.025 CuNiTi followed by 0.018 × 0.025 CuNiTi wires. In case of well aligned arches only 0.016 × 0.025 CuNiTi are used in this phase. If intrusion of anteriors is planned, 0.017× 0.025 or 0.019× 0.025 CuNiTi arch wires with preformed curves or reverse curves of Spee or additional torque can be applied anteriorly in this stage.
The main purposes of this phase are:
Continue arch development
achieve complete alignment of all teeth including second molars,
consolidate anterior spaces and maintain tooth contact,
Initiate torque control and bite opening,
The duration of this phase ranges from 20 to 30 weeks. The first archwire is placed from 8 to 10 weeks and the second is from 4 to 6 weeks.
Phase 3: Major Mechanics
Preposted stainless steel arch wires of size 0.019 × .025 are used. Presence of cross bite at this stage when persisted can be corrected with the use of 0.016 × 0.025 preposted stainless steel arch wire with the use of cross elastics where buccal and lingual tipping can be achieved at this stage.
The main purposes of this phase are:
Finish torque control,
Consolidate posterior space and
Maintain the arch form which developed during the initial two phases,
Completely correct the tooth position in all the three relationships.
This phase of treatment extends from 8 to 10 weeks with an interval about 10-weeks between appointments.
Phase 4: Finishing and Detailing
The stainless steel arch wires continued in this phase with elastics for achieving proper interdigitation. But for individual teeth position 0.019× 0.025 ß-titanium arch wires may also be used [2, 3, 16].
In a study by Handem, used the arch sequence with initial round wires 0.014 or 0.016, followed by rectangular 0.016 × 0.025, 0.018 × 0.025, and 0.019 × 0.025 CuNiTi arch wires subsequently, rectangular 0.017 × 0.025 or 0.019 × 0.025 Steel arch wires [17].
Various clinicians have put forth bracket placement methodologies of the Damon bracket system to achieve the desired smile arc protection, functional occlusion and enhancing the facial esthetics.
Standard bracket placement by Dwight Damon [18]:
According to him, the arch wire slot should be at the distances mentioned below from the incisal edge.
Maxillary
U-l 4.75 mm.
U-2 4.50 mm.
U-3 5.00 mm.
U-4 4.50 mm.
U-5 4.25 mm.
Mandibular
L-l 4.75 mm.
L-2 4.50 mm.
L-3 5.00 mm.
L-4 4.50 mm.
L-5 4.25 mm.
The upper brackets open occlusally and the lower brackets open gingivally.
The mesiodistal width of the pad and the mesiodistal edges of the teeth should be given importance.
Panorex view prior to bracket placement allows to identify root position.
The internal slot and the horizontal components should be parallel to the occlusal plane. This is of greater importance in the lower anteriors.
The scribe line of the bracket and crown long axis should be focused while placing the bracket.
Dr. Dwight Damon advises placement of the bracket within the green zone (in between the green lines). The Damon prescription has variable torque prescriptions to foster the need for different clinical cases. A clinician can place the upper and lower mid-bracket slot within the green lines without dramatically impacting torque.
Dr. Thomas. R. Pitts Protocol [19]:
Dr. Thomas. R. Pitts worked with a philosophy of “beginning with the end in mind”. He believed that developing acumen in precise bracket placement is the single most important protocol to achieve an esthetically pleasing smile and functional occlusion.
Basic principles of the Pitts placement protocol:
Detailed bonding plan before the day of bonding and to select brackets of appropriate torque based on the demand of the case.
Ensure tray setup entails all items for an efficient bonding.
Use two assistants to assist in bonding.
Recontour teeth for esthetics and bracket fit.
Follow an exacting placement protocol to achieve an ideal smile arc in the anteriors and leveling buccal cusps and marginal ridges in the posteriors.
Dr. Pitts bonds the maxillary anteriors to achieve a consonant smile arc at the end of the treatment, the mandibular anteriors for overjet and overbite and the remaining teeth for a good occlusion. He first bonds the mandibular teeth, from the second molar to canine on one side, and repeats the same on the opposite side, followed by lateral to lateral. This is followed to achieve symmetry on either side. The same sequence is repeated in the upper arch. He believed in keying off the maxillary canine to ensure that the canine-lateral and canine- premolar contacts are esthetic and functional.
In the posteriors, to achieve leveled marginal ridges and contact points, the teeth are bonded using the contact points as reference. This is done up to the canine and then the incisors are bonded based on the slot of the maxillary canine to give a sweep in the smile arc which gives a pleasing appearance Figures 1 and 2.
Standard bracket placement of damon bracket.
Picture depicting the “green zone” for bracket placement in the Damon system.
Dr. Pitt’s occluso gingival positioning of brackets is slightly more gingival to the conventional placement on both arches. He believed positioning the brackets more incisally will prevent us from achieving the ideal smile arc and hinders torque control (Figure 3). Dr. Pitts along with Dr. Mike Steffan developed a method to making the bracket positioning easier by drawing lines on the stone models from contact points for the canine, premolars and molars to prevent mistakes in bracket positioning in the transition of contact points from posteriors to anteriors (Figure 4).
Gingival bracket placement for smile arc protection by Dr. Thomas Pitts.
Marking the contact points reference for establishing occlusogingival positioning of brackets.
The position of the maxillary canine is given the prime importance for the sweep in the smile arc. Based on the positioning of this bracket, other anterior brackets were placed. In this method, the incisal edge of the canine bracket wing needs to be placed on a line drawn from mesial to distal contact at the height of contour interproximally. This line was called the mesiodistal (M-D) contact line. The level of the slot of this bracket was used as a reference for maxillary central and lateral incisor positioning. The maxillary lateral incisor bracket is placed 0.5 mm gingival to the canine bracket and central incisor bracket 0.25 mm gingival to this to achieve the ideal smile arc (Figure 5) Further to avoid the bracket positioning error, the author advises the use of a two inch large front surface mirror to avoid any error in bracket positioning (Figure 6).
Bracket positioning in the maxillary incisors and canines.
Use of a large front surface mirror to prevent errors in bracket positioning.
The maxillary premolars are positioned by aligning the scribe line with the crown long axis at the height of contour paralleling the central groove and the M-D buccal line angle. Following correct bracket placement, the bracket on the first premolar would seem too distal to the height of contour and the second premolar at times would appear mesial to the height of contour when viewed from the buccal aspect. The occlusal edge of the brackets should touch the M-D contact line (Figure 7).
Bracket positioning in the maxillary premolars.
The mesiodistal positioning of the buccal tube is done by centering the buccal tube pad over the buccal groove of the teeth and the occluso gingival positioning is done by placing the occlusal edge of the pad on the M-D contact line of the first molar. The second molars follows the same rule for mesiodistal positioning but placed 1.5 mm more occlusally to the first molar tube (Figure 8).
Bracket positioning in the maxillary molars.
The mandibular incisors are placed such that the scribe line is aligned with the long axis of the tooth. The bracket position is viewed from the incisal aspect. For deep bite, the position of the top of the slot is 3.5 mm from the incisal edge to reverse the curve of spee and for open bite; the position of the top of the slot is 5 mm from the incisal edge to open the curve of spee (Figure 9).
Bracket positioning in the mandibular anteriors.
The mesiodistal positioning is done by aligning the scribe line to the long axis of the crown at the height of contour. The position is verified by viewing from the incisal aspect. The occluso gingival positioning is placing the incisal edge of the bracket wing at the M-D contact line (Figure 10).
Bracket positioning in the mandibular canine.
The mesiodistal positioning is done by aligning the scribe line to the crown long axis and viewed from the occlusal aspect. The occluso gingival positioning is based on positioning the occlusal edge of the bracket wing 0.5 mm gingival to the M-D contact line (Figure 11).
Bracket positioning in the mandibular premolars.
The mandibular molars are placed in the same way as the maxillary molars in terms of mesiodistal positioning by orienting the center of the buccal tip of the buccal tube with that of the buccal groove of the tooth. Unlike the maxillary molars, both the mandibular molars are placed at the same height, which is 0.5 mm gingival to the M-D contact line (Figure 12).
Bracket positioning in the mandibular molars.
Another technique that was proposed was the bracket placement in Beethoven’s Orthodontic center. The bracket placement was similar to that given by Dr. Pitts except some modifications that were made in the maxillary canines. According to him, the maxillary canine bracket is placed by aligning it 1 mm mesially away from the long axis of the crown. The slot of the canine was used as a reference for placing the incisor brackets. The slots of the central and lateral incisor brackets are raised 0.5 mm consecutively (Figure 13).
Figure showing placement of brackets in the maxillary anteriors.
Dr. Damon has said that force applied to the bracket should be as light as possible to stimulate tooth movement. His philosophy was to employ the concept of biological adaptation and facially driven treatment plan that focuses on facial esthetics as a critical foundation for diagnosis.
The treatment objective in Damon cases is to
Gain maxillary and mandibular arch length.
Establish upper and lower incisor position to give lip support.
Establish maxillary and mandibular posterior arch width to support mid-face.
Establish ideal maxillary lip-to-tooth relationship.
Design treatment mechanics to eliminate need for higher force rapid palatal expansion.
With low-force mechanics to work with the orofacial muscle complex, bone, and tissue to establish a physiologic tooth position
Damon system can be used in the following cases
Class I- Non Extraction- Young patient with severe crowding and a flat profile
Class I- Non Extraction- Adult patient with severe crowding and a flat profile
Class I- Non Extraction- Young patient- Open bite with posterior crossbite and very narrow deep palate.
Class I- Non Extraction- Adult patient- Open bite with posterior crossbite and very narrow deep palate.
Class I- Extraction- Bimaxillary protrusion and crowding.
Class II division I subdivision with functional shift- Non Extraction
Class II division I- Severe crowding and deep bite
Class II division II- Severe crowding and deep bite
Class III- Severe crowding.
Using the light forces from the Copper NiTi wires and friction less passive self-ligating brackets along with Superelastic NiTi open coil springs wherever required we can achieve a desired treatment outcome with the Damon system.
In case of Class II patients with retrognathic mandibles we can go for Phase 1 therapy with functional appliances or fixed functional appliances.
The Damon self-ligating appliances have certain characteristics such as ease in ligation, wire engagement without undesirable force relaxation of elastomeric modules, which helps in maintaining a constant active status of engaged wires. This makes the Damon appliance more suitable than conventional appliances. This is in agreement with the findings by various other orthodontists, Berger [20], Harradine [9], Turnbull and Birnie [4].
Ormco, Damon Company keeps evolving over the years, coming out with different and more compatible bracket systems. Starting from Damon 3©, to Damon 3mx©, to Damon Q©, to Damon Q2© followed by the latest development, the Damon Ultima™© system. In clear ceramic braces from Damon clear© they have recently developed the Damon Clear 2© system.
They are completely esthetic passive self-ligating brackets made of polycrystalline alumina (PCA) material, which is resistant to staining from coffee, mustard, red wine and other agents. It eliminates the need for the use of elastomers (modules) which generally stain and collect bacteria during the course of the treatment.
Damon Clear 2© brackets have a sturdy base with a fortified slide, window channel and tie wings for extra strength and durability. The four solid walls enable effective torque expression and rotation control for a good and meticulous finishing (Figures 14 and 15).
Damon clear 2© bracket.
Enhanced strength for effective torque expression.
The base design of the Damon Clear 2© brackets is a patented laser etched pad that provides optimal bond strength for greater reliability (Figure 16). The contours of the brackets are smooth and rounded, which ensures patient comfort. The is an option to switch to brackets that have discrete contoured hooks for elastics and other auxiliaries (Figure 17).
Laser etched base for enhanced stability.
Discrete contoured hooks for auxiliaries.
Generally ceramic brackets are thought of as messy, while debonding as they tend to crack and splutter while using a debonding plier to remove the bracket. Whilst, for Damon Clear 2©, Ormco has a patented debonding instrument, the Damon Clear Debonding Instrument ©, which results in fast and comfortable debonding experience for patients (Figure 18). There is also no requirement for removing flash after the debonding procedure.
Debonding of the bracket with Damon clear Debonding instrument ©.
Removable positioning gauge with scaler notch is present in each of the clear brackets for easy and efficient placement of the bracket (Figure 19). There are color-coded positioning gauges on brackets (13–23) present that denote torque values.
Removable position gauge with scalar notch.
For a higher efficient and quality treatment, proper wire sequencing must be employed. The initial arch wires being the Damon Optimal-Force Copper Ni-Ti® to low-friction TMA and stainless-steel arch wires. Each wire must have sufficient time to express itself before progression to the next wire. For anterior torque expression, either pre-torqued nickel titanium arch wires or TMA arch wires are to be used. For rotational bends, TMA arch wires or titanium niobium arch wires are to be used. However, care should be taken in employing finishing bends in stainless steel wires, since such bends may result in fractures.
Damon Ultima ™ © was designed and introduced for a faster and a more precise finishing. Traditional passive self-ligating brackets and wires have significant play which generally results in poor control, manual adjustments and extended treatment time. The Damon Ultima ™© system is the first system that is completely reengineered to virtually eliminate play, for a precise control of rotation, angulation and torque [3].
The enhanced features in Damon Ultima ™© are as follows:
Completely re-engineered tie-wing is said to improve the ability to engage and ligate elastomeric chains (Figure 20).
Smoother tie wings were designed for a better patient comfort and minimal occlusal interference (Figure 21).
The base of the bracket with 80 gauge mesh designed for reliable and increased bond strength throughout treatment and for a predictable debonding experience (Figure 22).
Easy to open and close the slot door design with low reciprocal forces and tactile feedback. The bracket door and wire are designed to reduce door closure interference (Figure 23).
Rhomboid shaped pad with enhanced scribe line help in guiding bracket placement (Figure 24).
Presence of vertical slot for convenient placement of drop-in hooks (Figure 25).
Reengineered tie wing in Damon Ultima ™©.
Smoother tie wings for patient comfort.
Base of the bracket of Damon Ultima ™©.
The enhanced bracket door design.
Rhomboid shaped pad in Damon Ultima ™©.
Vertical slot for placement of drop-in hooks.
The retrocline and procline bracket options were introduced for enhanced torque control. Brackets were designed from the centre point of the clot to the line-up with the FA point to express desired torque and provide easier and more precise placement (Figure 26).
Adversity of procline and retrocline brackets in the Damon Ultima ™© system, that can be used to incorporate torque whenever needed.
Additionally, extra arch wire options were included, for torque control when needed. Sizes available are: 0.019*0.0275, 0.0020*0.0275, and 0.021*0.0275 in Copper NiTi, TMA and SS (Figure 27).
Reengineered arch wire for better torque control.
Passive self-ligation offers the most direct transmission of force from the arch wire to the tooth with very low friction, a very secure ligation along with excellent control of tooth position. Every contemporary modality of orthodontic treatment achieves tooth alignment; however passive self-ligation achieves the results effectively and efficiently. With the evolution of various systems like Damon Clear2 and Damon Ultima ©, the orthodontic tooth movement is achieved at its best.
Dr. Suvetha Siva- No conflict of interest with the product (ORMCO).
Dr. Shreya Kishore- No conflict of interest with the product (ORMCO).
Dr. Suganya Dhanapal- No conflict of interest with the product (ORMCO).
Dr. Janani Ravi- No conflict of interest with the product (ORMCO).
Dr. Chandhini Suresh- No conflict of interest with the product (ORMCO).
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",metaTitle:"Waiver Policy",metaDescription:"We feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. With the need to make scientific research more publically available and support the benefits of Open Access, more institutions and funders have dedicated funds to assist their faculty members and researchers cover the APCs associated with publishing in Open Access. Below we have outlined several options available to secure financing for your Open Access publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/waiver-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
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\\n\\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
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\\n\\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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Turick, A.S. Knox, J.M. Becnel, A.A. Ekechukwu and C.E. Milliken",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64746",title:"HyStem®: A Unique Clinical Grade Hydrogel for Present and Future Medical Applications",slug:"hystem-a-unique-clinical-grade-hydrogel-for-present-and-future-medical-applications",totalDownloads:4468,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Medicine needs targeted, minimally-invasive delivery of protein-based and cell-based therapeutics to increase efficacy and reduce occurrence and severity of side effects. Local delivery requires a matrix to sequester and protect the medicine until its effect can be realized. The problem is, unlike stable small molecule drugs, proteins and cells cannot be co-packaged with a matrix in a prefilled syringe—they must be mixed with their matrix at the point of care. HyStem hydrogels fix this problem: They are arguably the first commercially available, GMP-qualified biodegradable hydrogels both with the ability to formulate with either proteins or cells in the hospital/surgical suite and with a history of safe use in humans. HyStem is designed to be protein, cell-friendly and in situ crosslinkable, permitting homogeneous mixing of therapeutics. One HyStem formulation is 510(k) cleared and another the subject of two European clinical trials. Key applications include localized delivery of therapeutic growth factors, antibodies, and cells. In the future, we envision HyStem’s flexibility and clinical use history forming the basis for a new generation of therapeutics. Two examples described here include HyStem’s use for patient-derived organoid culture to develop new drugs as well as for bioprinting to manufacture new organs.",book:{id:"8353",slug:"hydrogels-smart-materials-for-biomedical-applications",title:"Hydrogels",fullTitle:"Hydrogels - Smart Materials for Biomedical Applications"},signatures:"Thomas I. 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The stimuli-responsive hydrogels find a wide variety of biomedical applications including drug delivery, gene delivery, and tissue regeneration. The advanced functionalities can be imparted to textile materials by integrating stimuli-responsive hydrogels into them and stimuli-responsive hydrogels including thermoresponsive, pH-responsive, and dual-responsive improve moisture and water retention property, environmental responsiveness, esthetic appeal, display, and comfort of textiles. Stimuli-responsive hydrogels loaded with various kinds of drugs are applied for textile-based transdermal therapy as these hydrogels as drug carriers show controlled and sustained drug release. In this chapter, drug delivery and textile applications of thermoresponsive, pH-responsive, and dual-responsive (pH and temperature) hydrogels are discussed and analyzed.",book:{id:"8353",slug:"hydrogels-smart-materials-for-biomedical-applications",title:"Hydrogels",fullTitle:"Hydrogels - Smart Materials for Biomedical Applications"},signatures:"Sudipta Chatterjee and Patrick Chi-leung Hui",authors:[{id:"19338",title:"Dr.",name:"Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Chi Leung",slug:"hui-chi-leung",fullName:"Hui Chi Leung"},{id:"267430",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudipta",middleName:null,surname:"Chatterjee",slug:"sudipta-chatterjee",fullName:"Sudipta Chatterjee"}]},{id:"64338",title:"Hydrogels Based on Chitosan and Chitosan Derivatives for Biomedical Applications",slug:"hydrogels-based-on-chitosan-and-chitosan-derivatives-for-biomedical-applications",totalDownloads:2293,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Chitosan (CS) is a polymer obtained from chitin, being this, after the cellulose, the most abundant polysaccharide. The fact of (i) CS being obtained from renewable sources; (ii) CS to possess capability for doing interactions with different moieties being such capability dependent of pH; (iii) plenty of possibilities for chemical modification of CS; and (iv) tuning the final properties of CS derivatives makes this polymer very interesting in academic and technological points of view. In this way, hydrogels based on CS and on CS derivatives have been widely used for biomedical applications. Other important technological applications can be also cited, such as adsorbent of metals and dyes in wastewater from industrial effluents. In pharmaceutical field, hydrogels based on CS are often used as drugs’ and proteins’ carrier formulations due to the inherent characteristics such as the biocompatibility, nontoxicity, hydrophilicity, etc. This chapter is an attempt for updating and joining the plenty of available information regarding the preparation, characterization, and biomedical application of hydrogels based on chitosan and chitosan derivatives. More than 260 references are provided, being the majority of them published in the last 10 years.",book:{id:"8353",slug:"hydrogels-smart-materials-for-biomedical-applications",title:"Hydrogels",fullTitle:"Hydrogels - Smart Materials for Biomedical Applications"},signatures:"Kessily B. Rufato, Juliana P. Galdino, Kamila S. Ody, Antonio G.B. Pereira,\nElisangela Corradini, Alessandro F. Martins, Alexandre T. Paulino,\nAndré R. Fajardo, Fauze A. Aouada, Felipe A. La Porta, Adley F. Rubira\nand Edvani C. 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Many of these hydrophilic polymers have been already approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for various applications. However, many of their potential uses required for many biomedical applications often are hindered by their low mechanical strength, antimicrobial and/or antifouling activity, biological interactions, water sorption and diffusion, porosity, electrical and/or thermal properties, among others. Thus, new advanced hydrogels have been developed as multicomponent systems in the form of composite or nanocomposite materials, which are expected to exhibit superior properties to increase the potential uses of these materials in the biomedical industry. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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