Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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The advances in characterization techniques and their application have improved our understanding of the catalytic processes and mechanisms occurring in both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis.\r\nThe aim of this volume, although not exhaustive, is to provide a general overview of new progress of the hydrogenation reactions.\r\nThis volume comprises a series of various contributions, as reviews or original articles, treating heterogeneously and homogeneously catalyzed hydrogenation reactions. It is composed of three parts: hydrogenation reactions in fine organic chemistry, hydrogenation reactions in environmental chemistry and renewable energy, and special topics in hydrogenation.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0785-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4272-0",doi:"10.5772/3208",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"hydrogenation",numberOfPages:340,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"737b7439c2b3372d6c4b34ce28a37fe4",bookSignature:"Iyad Karamé",publishedDate:"October 10th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2874.jpg",numberOfDownloads:75218,numberOfWosCitations:224,numberOfCrossrefCitations:73,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:11,numberOfDimensionsCitations:191,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:13,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:488,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 29th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 20th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 25th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 23rd 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 23rd 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"145512",title:"Prof.",name:"Iyad",middleName:null,surname:"Karamé",slug:"iyad-karame",fullName:"Iyad Karamé",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/145512/images/3352_n.jpg",biography:"Iyad Karamé, PhD.\nHe is a professor at the Faculty of sciences in the Lebanese University in Beirut. Director of the Organometallic Catalysis and Materials Laboratory, in the department of Chemistry. He got his PhD degree from Claude Bernard-Lyon 1 university in France in January 2004. He was an assistant professor and researcher (ATER) at the Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, France, for one year (2004-2005). A researcher at the Leibniz Institut für Katalyse in Rostock (Germany) (2005-2006) and then at the Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry of surface, CPE-Lyon till 2008. His principal axis of research are Organometallic Catalysis, Green Chemistry, CO2 chemistry and Synthesis of chelating macrocyles for the complexation of metals.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Lebanese University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lebanon"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"496",title:"Environmental Chemistry",slug:"organic-chemistry-environmental-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"39727",title:"Asymmetric Hydrogenation",doi:"10.5772/48584",slug:"asymmetric-hydrogenation",totalDownloads:12092,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Tsuneo Imamoto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39727",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39727",authors:[{id:"146245",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsuneo",surname:"Imamoto",slug:"tsuneo-imamoto",fullName:"Tsuneo Imamoto"}],corrections:null},{id:"39725",title:"Asymmetric Hydrogenation and Transfer Hydrogenation of Ketones",doi:"10.5772/47752",slug:"asymmetric-hydrogenation-and-transfer-hydrogenation-of-ketones",totalDownloads:8415,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Bogdan Štefane and Franc Požgan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39725",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39725",authors:[{id:"146116",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Bogdan",surname:"Stefane",slug:"bogdan-stefane",fullName:"Bogdan Stefane"},{id:"147826",title:"Prof.",name:"Franc",surname:"Požgan",slug:"franc-pozgan",fullName:"Franc Požgan"}],corrections:null},{id:"39731",title:"Hydrogenation in the Vitamins and Fine Chemicals Industry – An Overview",doi:"10.5772/48751",slug:"hydrogenation-in-the-vitamins-and-fine-chemicals-industry-an-overview",totalDownloads:6817,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:48,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Werner Bonrath, Jonathan Medlock, Jan Schütz, Bettina Wüstenberg and Thomas Netscher",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39731",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39731",authors:[{id:"148959",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Netscher",slug:"thomas-netscher",fullName:"Thomas Netscher"},{id:"149099",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Medlock",slug:"jonathan-medlock",fullName:"Jonathan Medlock"},{id:"149100",title:"Dr.",name:"Bettina",surname:"Wüstenberg",slug:"bettina-wustenberg",fullName:"Bettina Wüstenberg"},{id:"149101",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan",surname:"Schütz",slug:"jan-schutz",fullName:"Jan Schütz"},{id:"149103",title:"Dr.",name:"Werner",surname:"Bonrath",slug:"werner-bonrath",fullName:"Werner Bonrath"}],corrections:null},{id:"39726",title:"Homogeneous Chemoselective Hydrogenation of Heterocyclic Compounds – The Case of 1,4 Addition on Conjugated C-C and C-O Double Bonds of Arylidene Tetramic Acids",doi:"10.5772/48739",slug:"homogeneous-chemoselective-hydrogenation-of-heterocyclic-compounds-the-case-of-1-4-addition-on-conju",totalDownloads:5414,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Christos S. 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1. Introduction
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The facial and trigeminal nerves are cranial nerves (CN) responsible for the motor and sensory innervation of the craniocephalic muscles and skin of the face, respectively. All the classic texts of Human Anatomy describe with detail the origin, branching patterns and anatomical variants of both trigeminal (CNV) and facial (CNVII) nerves, and it can be think that little new can be say of these nerves. Nevertheless, nothing so far from the reality since complexes communications exists between them. In fact, almost all the terminal branches of CNVII receive numerous communications from branches of CNV whose fibers accompany those of CNVII until muscles form sensorimotor units. Therefore, CNVII, at least at the terminal level, is mixed and no purely motor. Although studies in humans do not exist, the data collected from animal models indicate that the nerve fiber interchange is always from CNV to CNVII and not on the contrary [1].
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The skeletal muscles contain an intrinsic mechanosensory system, the proprioceptive system, which provides information to the central nervous system about static and dynamic conditions of joints and muscles [2, 3]. The proprioceptive inputs originate in specialized sensory organs (proprioceptors) present in muscles (muscle spindles [4, 5]), tendons (Golgi’s tendon organs [6]), and joint capsules (Ruffini-like sensory corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, and free nerve endings [7]). Furthermore, it has been proposed that some kinds of cutaneous mechanoreceptors can also work as proprioceptors, but their physiological properties suggest they are not the alternative to muscle spindles [8, 9, 10, 11].
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Proprioception is a part of mechanosensation that involves all skeletal muscles, including the craniocephalic ones. But while muscles innervated by CNV contain typical proprioceptors [12, 13], i.e., muscle spindles, in those innervated by CNVII, they are absent (see [14]). However, facial proprioception, emanated from the facial muscles, plays key roles in facial expression and coordination of facial movement, regulation of the masticatory force in conjunction with jaw muscles, oromotor behaviors, and nonverbal facial communication, as well as in orofacial reflexes related to speech, swallowing, coughing, vomitting, or breathing [14]. Moreover, proprioceptive acuity of the orofacial muscles has been found to be more accurate than the jaw [15].
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Some decades ago, Baumel [16] suggested that proprioceptive impulses from facial muscles are conveyed to the central nervous system via different branches of CNV throughout multiple communications with the branches of CNVII, and actually it is accepted that the proprioception of the craniocephalic muscles depends on CNV [14, 17].
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All together, the above data suggest complex anatomical and functional intercommunication between CNV and CNVII which are of capital importance to understand the clinic of these nerves.
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Here we have reviewed the literature of the connections between CNV and CNVII as well as the actual knowledge about facial proprioception. Moreover we added our experience in those fields with results from anatomical dissections and analyzed the proprioceptors present in facial muscles.
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2. An overview of CNV and CNVII
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CNV and CNVII are both mixed cranial nerves that carry motor and sensory fibers responsible for both the sensory and motor innervation of the face, respectively. Moreover, CNVII and some branches of CNV contain preganglionic and postganglionic parasympathetic nerve fibers [18, 19].
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2.1. Trigeminal nerve: CNV
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CNV is responsible for the sensory innervation of the face, both skin and mucosae, and the motor innervation of the craniocephalic muscles originated from the first pharyngeal arch. It apparently originates by two roots at the midlateral surface of pons that reach the Gasser’s ganglion where it divides into three branches denominated ophthalmic (sensory CNV1), maxillary (sensory CNV2), and mandibular (mixed CNV3). The soma of the trigeminal somatosensory neurons is localized in the trigeminal ganglion (Gasser’s ganglion), whereas the proprioceptive ones, i.e., those innervating craniofacial muscles, are localized in the nucleus mesencaphalicus nervi trigemini [18, 19].
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2.2. Facial nerve—CNVII
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CNVII is responsible for the innervation and control of the movements of all the craniofacial muscles, with exceptions of jaw muscles. Moreover, it innervates some muscles in the neck and middle ear. The sensory territory of CNVII includes the anterior two-thirds of the tongue, a part of the outer ear skin, and the so-called Ramsey-Hunt’s zone. CNVII originates at the pontocerebellar angle by two roots: the largest root motor and the smaller root sensitive (the so-called intermediate Wrisberg’s nerve; N. intermedius). Both roots enter the temporal bone, continue through the facial canal and fuse, and finally emerge at the foramen stylomastoideum. Within the parotid gland, CNVII bifurcates into two primary trunks: larger temporo-facial and a smaller cervicofacial trunk. The two primary trunks form the parotid plexus and thus form connections along six distinctive anastomotic types in 44% of the cases [20]. Thereafter, from the parotid plexus originates five major branches (with wide variations): temporal (r. temporales), the zygomatic (r. zygomatici), the buccal (r. buccales), mandibular (R. marginalis mandibularis), and the cervical (r. cervicales) [18, 19, 21, 22, 23].
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Nevertheless, the peripheral branching and intercommunication of the facial branches were highly variable [24]. In our experience on 10 hemi heads we observed a different pattern of facial nerve branching between subjects and between right and left sides from the same subject. According to the Davis et al. classification [25] of the facial nerve based on the patterns of facial nerve branching, we observed that type II (6/10) predominates, followed by type IV (3/10) and type V (1/10). But independently of the type communicating branches between the different the main terminal branches of CNVII were found (Figure 1; [26]).
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Figure 1.
Cadaveric dissection of the left facial nerve in the hemi-head of a male, 66 years old. The facial nerve branched within the parotid gland (removed) into five branches largely connected between them at the initial segments. 1, external jugular vein; 2, facial vein; 3, external carotid artery; 4, facial artery; 5, CN XI; 6, infraorbital branch of CNV2; 7, mental nerve CNV3; 8, CN VII; 9, temporal branches of CNVII; 10, zygomatic branch of CNVII; 11, buccal branches of CNVII; 12, mandibular branches of CNVII; 13, cervical branches of CNVII; *, connections between primary facial trunks. This image was obtained from our own dissections and was carried out at the area of anatomy and human embryology, Department of Morphology and Cell Biology, University of Oviedo, Spain. Similar image from the same dissection was published previously by Cobo et al. [42].
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In addition to the main primary branches mentioned above, in some cases an aberrant branch arose from the main trunk before bifurcation and numerous anatomical variants. Moreover connections between the facial nerve branches have been described [27, 28].
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The somatosensory and gustative peripheral neurons of CNVII are localized in the ganglion geniculatum, and their central branch terminates in the nucleus tractus solitarius of the brainstem. The motor axons originate from neurons located in nucleus nervi facialis. CNVII innervates the derivatives of the second branchial arch of the embryos, including facial muscles.
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3. Communications between CNV and CNVII
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CNVII exhibits a highly variable and complicated branching pattern and forms communications with several other cranial nerves, especially with branches of all three divisions of CNV [20, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42].
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The revision about trigemino-facial communications carried out by Hwang et al. [33] shows in cadaveric studies the highest frequency of communication of CNVII is with CNV2 (95.0% ± 8.0%), followed by CNV3 (76.7% ± 38.5%) and CNV1 (33.8% ± 19.5%). However using nerve impregnation methods, the communications reach 100% for CNV2 and CNV3 and 85.7% for CNV1 [39]. Interestingly, communication between the infraorbital nerve and the different branches of CNVII is regularly found just below the infraorbital foramen, forming the infraorbital plexus [30, 36, 42]. Another regular connection is between the mental nerve of CNV3 and the mandibular branch of the facial nerve [42]. On the other hand, CNVII can receive proprioceptive information from the cervical nerves which are frequency communicated (65.2 ± 43.5%; [33]), as well as with the auriculotemporal nerve [34, 43].
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Interestingly, although independent of CNV, the connection between the great auricular nerve (composed of branches of spinal nerves C2 and C3) and CNVII trunk has been regularly observed (100%) [44], which probably serves the platysma colli. Functionally, these communications consistently innervated some of the muscles of upper facial expression and presumably are also responsible of their proprioception. Anastomoses in the neck between the sensory transverse cervical nerve (C2 and C3) and the cervical branch of the facial nerve are common, but communications with more superior branches of the facial nerve are rare [45].
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4. Sensory innervation of the facial muscles
\n
All the craniofacial muscles except the jaw ones are innervated by CNVII. To understand the proprioceptive innervation of the facial muscles, it is necessary to know as they are innervated by CNVII branches and as terminal segments of the facial nerves contain sensory fibers coming from CNV that provide these muscles with proprioceptive fibers, although individual differences may exist. The innervation of the facial muscles is summarized in Figure 2 [46].
\n
Figure 2.
Schematic presentation of the communications between CNV branches and the main divisions of CNVII to provide sensory innervation to the facial muscles. Data are based on the literature cited in the manuscript.
\n
The facial muscles are devoid of proprioceptors, and therefore facial movements lack a conventional proprioceptive feedback system, which may be only in part vicariate by cutaneous afferents [10, 47]. Therefore, a putative facial proprioceptive system, if present, must be represented by other structures not identified yet.
\n
\n
4.1. Proprioceptors in facial muscles
\n
In the middle of the last century, Kadanoff [48] investigated the innervation of the human facial muscles using silver impregnation techniques and observed numerous and varied morphotypes of sensory nerve endings in the facial muscles, especially in the perioral ones. Nevertheless, as far as we know, no typical muscle spindles have been found in the human facial muscles [49, 50, 51, 52, 53] More recently, Cobo et al. [54] have not found any morphological or immunohistochemical evidence for the presence of muscle spindles in two facial muscles, while they were regularly present in the masseter muscle. Conversely, one muscle spindle was found in the muscle orbicularis oculi in one pediatric specimen [55], and abundant muscle spindles have been found in the platysma colli [56].
\n
Recently we have conducted a research focused to identify proprioceptors, other than muscle spindles, in human facial muscles [26, 54]. The identification of putative sensory receptors in the facial muscles was based on the following criteria: independence of the nerve trajectory, be placed in close relation to muscle fibers, display a morphologically differentiated aspect, and display immunoreactivity for any putative mechanoprotein (Figure 3).
\n
Figure 3.
Sensory nerve formations in the facial muscles (arrows) displaying immunoreactivity for the axonal marker neurofilament protein (NFP). a, buccal muscle; b, zygomaticus major muscle; c, orbicularis oris muscle.
\n
In no case were typical muscle spindles found, whereas in the masseter muscle (used as a control) typical muscle spindles were found (Figure 4). In agreement with the above premises, we identified capsulated and non-capsulated corpuscle-like structures of variable size and shape containing numerous axon profiles complexly arranged, which resembled elongated or round Ruffini-like corpuscles (Figure 5).
\n
Figure 4.
Longitudinal (a) and cross (b,c) sections of two typical muscle spindles in the human masseter muscle (arrows) containing a variable number of intrafusal muscle fibers. Nerve fibers supplying them display immunoreactivity for Schwann cells markers like S100 protein (d) and the putative mechanoproteins ASIC2 (e, arrows) and Piezo2 (f, arrows).
\n
Figure 5.
Different morphotypes of corpuscle-like structures (arrows) identified immunohistochemically using axonal markers (a–e) and putative mechanoproteins (f–l). In serial sections (k and l), apparent co-localization of two mechanoproteins in the axon is observed.
\n
Given the morphologic heterogeneity of the corpuscle-like structures that fulfill the preestablished criteria we attempt to classify them into three types: type I, capsulated by a thin capsule and the glial cells variably arranged and showing different morphologies (Figure 6a); type II, partially capsulated (the capsule being continuous with the perimysium), with variable morphology, and in most of the cases the direction of the long axis was parallel to the one of muscular fibers (Figure 6b); and type III, non-capsulated and both the axon and Schwann-like cells are variably arranged (Figure 6c).
\n
Figure 6.
Types of sensory structures identified in the facial muscles as observed using immunohistochemistry for neurofilament proteins.
\n
On the other hand, the relative density of proprioceptors in the facial muscles varied from one to another (Table 1), the greater density being observed in the buccinator and orbicularis oris muscles, and the type II of proprioceptors being the predominating morphotype.
M. orbicularis oculi pars palpebralis pars orbitalis
\n
3
\n
11
\n
9
\n
Yes
\n
\n
\n
M. orbicularis oris pars marginalis pars labialis
\n
5
\n
19
\n
12
\n
Yes
\n
\n
\n
M. zygomaticus major
\n
1
\n
4
\n
4
\n
Yes
\n
\n
\n
M. zygomaticus minor
\n
1
\n
2
\n
0
\n
Yes
\n
\n
\n
M. buccinator
\n
19
\n
28
\n
10
\n
Yes
\n
\n
\n
M. depressor labii inferioris + mentalis
\n
0
\n
8
\n
2
\n
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Relative density of proprioceptors in human facial muscles. Counts were made on 10 sections separated de 200 μm between them.
Isolated nerve fibers displaying immunoreactivity for any of the mechanoproteins investigated.
\n
All sensory modalities involve different ion channels, and at the basis of mechanosensibility are mechanically gated membrane ion channels [5, 57]. At present acid-sensing ion channel 2 (ASIC2), transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4), and Piezo2 have been detected in muscle spindles and are strong candidates to initiate the mechanotransduction in proprioceptors [57, 58, 59, 60, 61]. In the studies, we have carried out [54] regularly found is immunoreactivity for ASIC2, TRPV4, and Piezo2 in the axon of types I, II, and III facial sensory corpuscles, thus confirming that these structures may serve as proprioceptors (Figure 5f-l). In serial sections (Figure 7a and b) with our use of double immunofluorescence and laser confocal microscopy (Figure 7c-j), it was observed that a subpopulation of nerve fibers displays immunoreactivity for the putative mechanoproteins and that these proteins are localized in the axon of the sensory structures within the facial muscles, thus confirming their proprioceptive function.
\n
Figure 7.
Serial sections processed for the detection of neurofilament protein (NFP) and ASIC2 showing that a subpopulation of the axons in nerves supplying the facial nerves contains mechanoproteins (a,b). Nerves and capsulated corpuscle-like structures (types I and II) immunostained with anti-ASIC2 (c) or anti-Piezo2 (e,h) antibodies conjugated with Alexa fluor 488 (green fluorescence) and with anti-NFP antibody conjugated with CyTM3 (red fluorescence). The localization of the putative mechanoproteins ASIC2 and Piezo2 in the large axons was evident while it was not so clear in the thick axons.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Concluding remarks
\n
The facial muscles are richly innervated by sensory fibers that form at the periphery of different types of sensory structures of variable complexity which express putative mechanoproteins and therefore can be regarded as proprioceptors. Conversely facial muscles lack typical muscles spindles. Presumably, the sensory fibers forming the facial muscle proprioceptors originate in CNV. Because of the high variability in the pattern of branching and distribution of CNVII as well as of their communications with other CNs especially CNV, a correct knowledge of the anatomy of those nerves to preserve it when performing surgical or medical procedures in the face is necessary since a disruption of these connections might alter facial muscle proprioception. These communications have clinical significance for recovery of damaged facial expression muscles, treatment of hemifacial spasm, and surgical procedures for facial reconstruction and neck dissection.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"facial muscles, facial nerve, trigemino-facial communications, proprioception, innervation, mechanoproteins",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65792.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65792.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65792",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65792",totalDownloads:1491,totalViews:139,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 23rd 2018",dateReviewed:"January 16th 2019",datePrePublished:"May 13th 2019",datePublished:"May 29th 2019",dateFinished:"February 22nd 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Proprioception is a quality of somatosensibility that informs the central nervous system about the static and dynamics of muscles and joints. In muscles, the proprioceptive originates in the specialized sensory-organ-denominated muscle spindles. Nevertheless, facial muscles lack muscle spindles, but the facial proprioception plays key roles in the regulation and coordination of facial musculature and diverse reflexes. At the basis of these functional characteristics are the multiple communications between the facial and the trigeminal nerves, and neuroanatomical studies have demonstrated that facial proprioceptive impulses are conveyed via branches of the trigeminal nerve to the central nervous system. Substituting muscle spindles facial muscles contain other kinds of proprioceptors of variable morphology that display immunoreactivity for some putative mechanoproteins known to participate in proprioception (acid-sensing ion channel 2, transient receptor potential vanilloid 4, and Piezo2).",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65792",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65792",signatures:"Juan L. Cobo, Antonio Solé-Magdalena, Sonsoles Junquera, Teresa Cobo,\nJosé Antonio Vega and Juan Cobo",book:{id:"7131",type:"book",title:"Selected Topics in Facial Nerve Disorders",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Selected Topics in Facial Nerve Disorders",slug:"selected-topics-in-facial-nerve-disorders",publishedDate:"May 29th 2019",bookSignature:"Isam Al-Zwaini and Mohammed Jalal Hussein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7131.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-178-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-177-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78923-933-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"30993",title:"Prof.",name:"Isam Jaber",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Zwaini",slug:"isam-jaber-al-zwaini",fullName:"Isam Jaber Al-Zwaini"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. An overview of CNV and CNVII",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Trigeminal nerve: CNV",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Facial nerve—CNVII",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Communications between CNV and CNVII",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Sensory innervation of the facial muscles",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1. Proprioceptors in facial muscles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Concluding remarks",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bowden RE, Mahran ZY. Experimental and histological studies of the extrapetrous portion of the facial nerve and its communications with the trigeminal nerve in the rabbit. Journal of Anatomy. 1960;94:375-386\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Dijkerman HC, de Haan EH. Somatosensory processes subserving perception and action. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 2007;30:189-201\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Butler AA, Héroux ME. Gandevia SC. Body ownership and a new proprioceptive role for muscle spindles. 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Amiloride-sensitive channels are a major contributor to mechanotransduction in mammalian muscle spindles. The Journal of Physiology. 2010;588:171-185\n'},{id:"B59",body:'Chen CC, Wong CW. Neurosensory mechanotransduction through acid-sensing ion channels. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine. 2013;17:337-349\n'},{id:"B60",body:'Gautam M, Benson CJ. Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) in mouse skeletal muscle afferents are heteromers composed of ASIC1a, ASIC2, and ASIC3 subunits. The FASEB Journal. 2013;27:793-802\n'},{id:"B61",body:'Woo SH, Lukacs V, de Nooij JC, Zaytseva D, Criddle CR, Francisco A, et al. Patapoutian. Piezo2 is the principal mechanotransduction channel for proprioception. Nature Neuroscience. 2015;18:1756-1762\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Juan L. Cobo",address:null,affiliation:'
Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Grupo SINPOS, Universidad de Oviedo, Spain
Servicio de Cirugía Máxilo-Facial, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Spain
Departamento de Cirugía y Especialidades Médico-Quirúrgicas, Universiada de Oviedo, Spain
Instituto Asturiano de Odontología, Spain
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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"39599",doi:"10.5772/50046",title:"Encapsulation Technology to Protect Probiotic Bacteria",slug:"encapsulation-technology-to-protect-probiotic-bacteria",totalDownloads:12380,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:83,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"María Chávarri, Izaskun Marañón and María Carmen Villarán",authors:[{id:"150285",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"Chávarri Hueda",slug:"maria-chavarri-hueda",fullName:"María Chávarri Hueda"},{id:"151613",title:"MSc.",name:"Izaskun",middleName:null,surname:"Marañon",slug:"izaskun-maranon",fullName:"Izaskun Marañon"},{id:"151621",title:"Dr.",name:"Mª Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Villarán",slug:"ma-carmen-villaran",fullName:"Mª Carmen Villarán"}]},{id:"39607",doi:"10.5772/50121",title:"Recent Application of Probiotics in Food and Agricultural Science",slug:"recent-application-of-probiotics-in-food-and-agricultural-science",totalDownloads:10144,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:74,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"Danfeng Song, Salam Ibrahim and Saeed Hayek",authors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim"},{id:"150202",title:"Dr.",name:"Danfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"danfeng-song",fullName:"Danfeng Song"},{id:"151025",title:"MSc.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Hayek",slug:"saeed-hayek",fullName:"Saeed Hayek"}]},{id:"51065",doi:"10.5772/63499",title:"Role of the Biofilms in Wastewater Treatment",slug:"role-of-the-biofilms-in-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:6802,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:"Biological wastewater treatment systems play an important role in improving water quality and human health. This chapter thus briefly discusses different biological methods, specially biofilm technologies, the development of biofilms on different filter media, factors affecting their development as well as their structure and function. It also tackles various conventional and modern molecular techniques for detailed exploration of the composition, diversity and dynamics of biofilms. These data are crucial to improve the performance, robustness and stability of biofilm-based wastewater treatment technologies.",book:{id:"5197",slug:"microbial-biofilms-importance-and-applications",title:"Microbial Biofilms",fullTitle:"Microbial Biofilms - Importance and Applications"},signatures:"Shama Sehar and Iffat Naz",authors:[{id:"180364",title:"Dr.",name:"Iffat",middleName:null,surname:"Naz",slug:"iffat-naz",fullName:"Iffat Naz"},{id:"183345",title:"Dr.",name:"Shama",middleName:null,surname:"Sehar",slug:"shama-sehar",fullName:"Shama Sehar"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4671,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:57,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9163,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7236,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:86,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4358,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"50992",title:"Probiotics: A Comprehensive Review of Their Classification, Mode of Action and Role in Human Nutrition",slug:"probiotics-a-comprehensive-review-of-their-classification-mode-of-action-and-role-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5381,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Probiotics are live microorganisms that live in gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are beneficial for their hosts and prevent certain diseases. In this chapter, after a complete introduction to probiotics, definition, mechanism of action, and their classification, currently used organisms will be discussed in detail. Moreover, different kinds of nutritional synthetic products of probiotics along with their safety and drug interaction will be noticed. This chapter mentions all clinical trial studies that have been done to evaluate probiotic efficacy with a focus on gastrointestinal diseases.",book:{id:"5193",slug:"probiotics-and-prebiotics-in-human-nutrition-and-health",title:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health",fullTitle:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"Amirreza Khalighi, Reza Behdani and Shabnam Kouhestani",authors:[{id:"179560",title:"Dr.",name:"Amirreza",middleName:null,surname:"Khalighi",slug:"amirreza-khalighi",fullName:"Amirreza Khalighi"},{id:"185238",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Behdani",slug:"reza-behdani",fullName:"Reza Behdani"},{id:"185239",title:"Dr.",name:"Shabnam",middleName:null,surname:"Kouhestani",slug:"shabnam-kouhestani",fullName:"Shabnam Kouhestani"}]},{id:"72109",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Biofilm",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-biofilm",totalDownloads:1445,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Biofilms can be found on several living and nonliving surfaces, which are formed by a group of microorganisms, complex assembly of proteins, polysaccharides, and DNAs in an extracellular polymeric matrix. By forming a biofilm, bacteria protect themselves from host defense, disinfectants, and antibiotics. Bacteria inside biofilm are much more resistant to antimicrobial agents than planktonic forms since bacteria that are unresisting to antimicrobial agents in any way can turn resistant after forming a biofilm. Low penetration of antibiotics into the biofilm, slow reproduction, and the existence of adaptive stress response constitute the multiphased defense of the bacterium. This antibiotic resistance, which is provided by biofilm, makes the treatments, which use effective antibiotic doses on the bacterium in planktonic shape, difficult. Biofilm formation potential of bacteria appears as an important virulence factor in ensuring the colonization on the living tissues or medical devices and makes the treatment difficult. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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