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",isbn:"978-1-80356-420-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-419-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-421-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f188555eee4211fc24b6cca361983149",bookSignature:"Dr. Kim Ho Yeap",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11509.jpg",keywords:"Inductive Coupling, Resonant Inductive Coupling, Magnetic Coupling, Magnetic Resonance, Transmitter, Receiver, Rectenna, Antenna, Induction Coil, Stationery Charging, Dynamic Charging, Rectifier",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Kim Ho Yeap is a senior member of the IEEE, a Chartered Engineer registered with the UK Engineering Council, a Professional Engineer (PEng) registered with the Board of Engineers Malaysia, and an ASEAN Chartered Professional Engineer. In 2008 and 2015 he underwent research attachment at the University of Oxford (UK) and the Nippon Institute of Technology (Japan). Dr. Yeap has been given the university teaching excellence award and 21 research grants. He has published more than 100 research articles.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"126825",title:"Dr.",name:"Kim Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Yeap",slug:"kim-ho-yeap",fullName:"Kim Ho Yeap",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126825/images/system/126825.jpeg",biography:"Kim Ho Yeap is an associate professor at Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia. He is an Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) senior member, a professional engineer registered with the Board of Engineers, Malaysia, and a chartered engineer registered with the UK Engineering Council. He is the external examiner and external course assessor of Wawasan Open University. From 2017 to 2022, he was editor-in-chief of the Journal on Digital Signal Processing. He has also been a guest editor for the Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences and Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences. He has also been a recipient of the university teaching excellence award and twenty-too research grants. 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The universal character of repulsive forces between the tip and the sample, which are employed for surface analysis in AFM, enables examination of even single polymer molecules without disturbance of their integrity [2]. Being initially developed as the analogue of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) for the high-resolution profiling of non-conducting surfaces, AFM has developed into a multifunctional technique suitable for characterization of topography, adhesion, mechanical, and other properties on scales from tens of microns to nanometers [3].
A schematic representation of the basic AFM setup is shown in Figure 1. Using atomic force microscopy (AFM), a tip attached to a flexible cantilever will move across the sample surface to measure the surface morphology on the atomic scale. The forces between the tip and the sample are measured during scanning, by monitoring the deflection of the cantilever [1]. This force is a function of tip sample separation and the material properties of the tip and the sample. Further interactions arising between the tip and the sample can be used to investigate other characteristics of the sample, the tip, or the medium in-between [4].
To understand the mechanisms behind the interacting components in multi-component formulations, we have to take into account all the contributing forces. This is especially important if a quantitative analysis of the interaction is required, like in the case of interactions between polymers and biological macromolecules [6]. The forces between the tip and the substrate have short- and long-range contributions. When measurements are performed, it is crucial that we can separate the contributions of various forces and eliminate the undesired ones. This ensures the measurement of desired sample properties only and makes further quantitative analysis possible [7]. In vacuum, chemical forces of very short range (less than 1 nm), electrostatic, magnetic and Van der Waals forces can be determined, while in air forces with longer range, which can be up to 100 nm, cover them, making the measurements mostly qualitative [8]. At room conditions water moisture can condense on the tip, which is a source of capillary force. Capillary forces are relatively big and can cover the contributions of other forces; therefore they have to be avoided if possible. The latter is possible by measuring in special, water free conditions, like in a N2 or Ar atmosphere or in liquid environments.
To represent forces on the atomic level, different potentials corresponding to changes of potential energy at various particle positions, are used. Known empirical models used to illustrate chemical bonds are the Lennard-Jones and Morse potential [9]. These models quite satisfactory fit the force regime curve shown in Figure 2, which represents the course of tip-sample interaction.
Schematical representation of the AFM. The image was reproduced with permission of C. Roduit [
Force regimes governing the AFM measurement.
Many different variations of the basic AFM setup have been developed through the years of its use. Although most of them are applicable to all types of samples, not all yield the same amount and quality results. Proper use of these versatile measurement variations enables one to study and understand processes even at the fundamental, namely molecular level [10]. Considering various different samples, several modes have been developed and adapted to cope with the demand of field specific research [11]. In the scope of the next few paragraphs only some of the most popular will be presented.
Contact mode was the first developed mode of atomic force microscopy. In this mode, the tip is moving across the surface and deflects according to its profile (Figure 3). Two types of contact mode measurements are known, the constant force and the constant height mode. In the constant force type, a feedback loop is used to move the sample or the tip up and down and keep its deflection constant. The value of z-movement is equal to the height changes of the sample’s surface. The result of such measurement is the information about the surface topography. Since the tip is in constant contact with the surface, significant friction forces, which can destroy or sweep soft samples like polymers or biological macromolecules on the surface, appear [12].
Schematic representation of the contact mode. The image was reproduced with permission by C. Roduit [
The other type of contact mode AFM measurement is based on the constant height, while the forces are changing. In this case, the cantilever deflection is measured directly and the deflection force on the tip is used to calculate the distance from the surface. Since no feedback loop is required for this type of measurement, it is appropriate for quick scans of samples with small height differences (if height differences are big, the tip will very likely crash into the surface, by which it gets destroyed or damages the samples’ surface). With this type of measurements atomic resolution was achieved at low temperatures and in high vacuum. Such measurements are often used for quick examination of fast changes in biological structures [13].
In noncontact mode, the sample’s surface is investigated using big spring constant cantilevers. The tip attached to the cantilever is hovering very close to the surface (at a distance of approximately 5-10 nm), but never gets into contact with it, hence the name noncontact mode (Figure 4). A major advantage of this mode is negligible friction forces, making this mode capable for measurements of biological and polymeric samples without alteration of their surface. The biggest drawbacks of this mode are low lateral and z-resolution when compared to the contact mode. Recently it was used for characterization of single polymer chains [14].
Schematical depiction of the non-contact AFM mode.
This mode is often called the intermittent-contact or tapping mode and it eliminates major weaknesses of the noncontact mode (such as the low lateral and z-resolution). Instead of hovering above the sample, the cantilever vibrates above the surface and moves through the force gradient above the surface, during which it might momentarily touch the surface [15]. Due to interactions of the AFM tip with the sample surface, the amplitude of vibrations decreases and a phase shift occurs (Figure 5). We can choose either of these parameters (amplitude or phase shift) and keep it constant through the feedback loop by moving either the sample or the tip in z-direction. This gives us information about the surface topography similar to the contact mode. To measure in the amplitude modulation mode we need much stiffer cantilevers, which exhibit the smallest possible damping factors (this factor is commonly referred to as the Q-factor) [16]. Amplitude modulation mode is the most often used AFM mode due to its high resolution, almost non-destructive nature of the imaging and its applicability in air and also in liquid conditions [17].
Schematical representation of the amplitude modulation mode. Parts of the image were reproduced with permission by C. Roduit [
Force spectroscopy has proved to be one of the most promising techniques using AFM. In an AFM experiment, a tip is attached to a flexible cantilever, which is moved across the sample surface. During this procedure, the surface morphology is measured with a nanometer resolution. Upon contact with the sample surface, the tip experiences a force, which is monitored as a change in the deflection of the cantilever [18]. This force is a function of tip sample separation and the material properties of the tip and the sample and can be used to investigate other characteristics of the sample, the tip, or the medium in-between [4]. The procedure of an AFM force measurement is schematically depicted in Figure 6 and goes as follows: the tip attached to a cantilever spring is moved towards the sample in a normal direction, during this movement the vertical position of the tip and the deflection of the cantilever are recorded and converted to force-versus-distance curves, briefly called force curves [1].
In the early nineties only skilled and specialized physicists were able to interpret the complex behavior, which occurs after an AFM tip gets close to a specific sample surface. But these days many more researchers try to explore these measurements to better understand mechanisms behind more and more phenomena. In addition to evaluation of interaction forces between the tip and model surfaces, AFM can also produce two-dimensional chemical affinity maps by modifying the cantilever tip with specific molecules [19]. In such a way, it is possible to characterize differently responding regions on the material’s surface, resulting in a better understanding and, consequently, application of the examined materials [20]. In this way even quantitative data can be gathered, which can be used to identify the forces involved in specific biological systems [21].
A typical force curve. When approaching the surface, the cantilever is in an equilibrium position (1) and the curve is flat. As the tip approaches the surface (2), the cantilever is pushed up to the surface – being deflected upwards, which is seen as a sharp increase in the measured force (3). Once the tip starts retracting, the deflection starts to decrease and passes its equilibrium position at (4). As we start moving away from the surface the tip snaps in due to interaction with the surface, and the cantilever is deflected downwards (5). Once the tip-sample interactions are terminated due to increased distance, the tip snaps out, and returns to its equilibrium position (6). The image was reproduced with permission by C. Roduit [
Mapping chemical functional groups and examining their interactions with different materials is of significant importance for problems ranging from lubrication and adhesion, to the recognition of biological systems and pharmacy [22]. Changing environmental conditions during the measurement has also been extensively used to monitor changes in the interactions between different functional groups and surfaces to simulate the material behavior upon exposure to a real environment [23].
At the moment, one of the most promising AFM related techniques for polymer examination is surely the chemical force microscopy (CFM) [2, 24]. CFM enables the measurement of interactions appearing between polymer molecules or polymers, and different surfaces [23]. This additional information allows the prediction of final material characteristics based on the examined polymers, even before their finalization. Quantitative assessment of the involved forces and their extent makes it easier to choose the correct polymers for achieving desired interactions between the materials used in several different interest fields (adhesion, adsorption, repelling etc.). Multilayer polymeric materials are lately also the first choice materials for the preparation of modern wound dressings. When sticking together layers of different polymeric origins, their interaction gains importance regarding the behavior of the final product. A CFM experiment has to be conducted with specially designed tips, which for themselves act as chemical sensors. Success of such measurements is impossible without proper tips, so choosing the right ones is crucial in this regard. Many commercial ones are available at the moment, but only some exhibit characteristics that allow for a simple and repeatable functionalization. Whilst the functionalization of tips may seem quite easy during the first iteration, it quickly becomes clear, that a lot of chemical skills are needed to bind the right species to the right place in the desired amount [19]. Additionally a lot of statistical evaluation is needed in order to prove and evaluate the success of any attachment [25].
Polymers have found their way into all fields of science and industry over the last decades. Their potential applications range from binders in batteries [26] to composite materials in drug delivery [27]. Whilst the range of possible combinations between different monomers is endless, polymers found or based on natural polymers have recently become the subject of thorough research, once again [28]. Synthetic changes to their native structure make them even more appealing; especially cellulose derivatives exhibit a lot of potential for satisfying most industrial needs [29].
Within the field of polymer sciences, AFM has been used to quantify the entropic elasticity of single polymer chains[30], the elastic moduli of nanowires [31], single polymer chain elongation [32], molecular stiffness of hyperbranched macromolecules [33], friction of single polymers on surfaces [34], influence of temperature on the stability of single chain conformation [35], and surface glass transition temperature [36]. It has also been used to perform stretching experiments on single carboxy-mehtylated amylase [37], and to differentiate between sugar isomers [38].
Recent progress in the understanding of the underlying mechanisms during AFM force measurements enabled thorough research of the interaction between different polymer molecules and the materials, with which these get in contact upon use. Such knowledge is of utter importance in the development stages of polymeric materials, because they allow prediction of materials behavior during use. The use of controlled environments during measurement enables the simulation of the exact conditions one desires, while the measurement in liquids allows measurements in even simulated physiological conditions, which is especially desired in the testing stages of drug delivery systems.
Without proper experiment design, quantitative measurements using AFM are not possible. In this light several preparation steps have to be included in the planning phase of an experiment (Figure 7). On the following pages, we will explain them a little further and expand them with our own results and experiences.
Schematical depiction of the necessary steps for successful AFM measurement.
Chemical force microscopy (CFM) was derived from AFM for the examination of interactions between different materials and even molecules by exploiting their chemical characteristics [39]. Quantitative assessment of such interactions can be used for identification purposes, for determination of compatibility between different materials to be put into one single final product, and to predict interactions with the target site in drug delivery systems [40].
CFM is best used with a defined experimental setup, comprising model surfaces, a controlled environment during measurements and materials of high purity. When using a high resolution technique like AFM, we have to be very careful not to confuse the information about the desired species with the substrate characteristics [41]. That is why atomically flat surfaces, apart from mica, which is commonly used for much longer, were introduced a couple of years ago, when researchers realized that not all of the data they gathered corresponded to actual species’ properties, but were in fact more related to the substrates’ characteristics [42]. Atomically flat surfaces are free of surface roughness and proper choice of an inert material for their preparation makes it possible to gather reliable high resolution data after desired sample attachment [43].
During our research we had to find the best possible technique to prepare such surfaces on a daily basis. Therefore we upgraded and combined different previous methods into one highly efficient preparation procedure, which enabled us to progress much faster in our experiments. A detailed explanation of this method can be found elsewhere [44], while a brief description is depicted in Figure 8 and goes as follows. Prior to any preparation steps, all used laboratory accessories were cleaned in a multi-step procedure, combining different chemicals, to assure extreme cleanliness. In the next step, high-grade mica was coated with gold of high purity. A two stage heating/annealing step was introduced afterwards, which yielded atomically flat gold terraces of sizes in the range from a couple hundred nm to 2 microns.
Scheme of the annealing procedure with corresponding photographs. The initial cleaning step comprises three passes of the gold coated mica piece through the hydrogen flame [
The value of such substrates cannot be evaluated without their inclusion into sample preparation. In our case, we tested them by preparing a sample with attached carbon nanotubes. If their morphology has to be evaluated, we have to use flat surfaces, which do not temper their actual properties, measured on the nanoscale. In our study, the substrates and samples were evaluated using two different types of microscopy, namely the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and AFM. Figure 9 shows the improvement from not annealed to annealed surface with attached test molecules.
Progress from non-annealed gold-coated mica to the actual sample preparation and examination.
Specific interaction mappings and identification of mechanisms behind processes require tip functionalization, which turns AFM cantilevers into chemical sensors. Depending on the degree of surface coverage with newly added functional species on the tip surface, one can measure even single molecule interactions. Such high resolution is desired, when interactions between biomolecules are tested, especially when novel drug targets are being investigated. Tip functionalization depends on the tip composition and on the desired functional groups, which in turn serve as anchoring points for more specific chemical sensing. Especially useful is CFM during the development of multilayered materials, which are commonly exploited in wound dressing preparation. The heterogeneity of the commonly used materials for this cause renders the preparation of their surfaces to stick together upon application on the wound, a tough job. CFM is capable of delivering such information in vitro. In our group, we introduced several ways of tip functionalization, which enable CFM measurements.
There are different types of commercially available AFM tips. We mostly use tips from two different groups. In the first are silicon-based tips, which can be functionalized in two step procedures. The first step involves the introduction of functional groups, which can serve as non-specific chemical sensors on their own. The second step adds specificity to them by binding desired molecules to these anchoring points, which serve as efficient sensors of desired species. In the second group are tips, which are coated with different coatings, which enable superior measuring capabilities, but on the other hand require different chemical means to transform them into chemical sensors. From this group, we use gold coated AFM tips the most, because of their relatively simple functionalization options, whilst bi-functional molecules, bearing on one end thiol moieties, which are known to stick to gold and on the other the desired species. Schemes of both mentioned preparation procedures are shown in Figure 10.
Schematical depiction of the AFM tips functionalization procedures: a) functionalization of silicon-based tips and b) functionalization of gold-coated tips [
Such custom made AFM tips serve as ideal chemical sensors for many different applications [23]. As mentioned before, functionalized AFM tips can be divided into two groups, differing by the extent of their specificity towards certain chemical species. In one of our studies, we prepared functionalized AFM tips with several different functional groups [45] and showed how differently they interact with a model surface. By this, we have proven that the functionalization actually resulted in different surface functional groups and how this successful functionalization can be confirmed by using AFM. Figure 11 shows some of the results of our measurements with corresponding SEM micrographs. A clear distinction between tips with different functionalizations can be observed.
Scheme of the functionalization process with the corresponding results: a) SEM micrograph of nonfunctionalized AFM tips, b) SEM micrograph of an AFM tip after functionalization and c) different forces as measured with the non- and functionalized AFM tips [
Our results suggest that by employing some alterations to the known functionalization procedures, we are now able to attach different functional groups to the tip surface, thus providing numerous possibilities for the further attachment of a wide variety of different species. All used procedures resulted in mainly decorating the edge of tips, leaving the surroundings almost as clean as before the functionalization. In this way, there is no decrease in the response of the AFM feedback system and therefore no resolution is lost.
Miniaturization demands and the characteristics of specialized AFM measurements are the origin of an increasingly more and more important field of cantilever biosensing. This technique enables the determination of material and molecule behavior upon exposure to a desired environment in vitro, and by this contributes to a decrease of overall development costs for modern drug delivery systems with targeted capabilities. The main research fields, which gained the most from this technique over the past years, are pharmaceutical technology (measurements in simulated body fluids and in vitro detection of interactions between different components in complex formulations [3]), supramolecular chemistry (real time follow up of formation of self-assembled monolayers [46]), biochemistry (simulating the binding of drugs to their targets [6]), and microbiology (measurements of interactions between materials and bacteria [47]).
Our main interest in this field was the evaluation of materials performance after different exposure times in simulated physiological environments. As a consequence of the products we develop (mostly materials for use in preparation of advanced wound dressings), we tried to simplify the testing environments to simple physico-chemical parameters, which enable logical correlation with the results of AFM force spectroscopy [48]. Accessible in vitro testing of material response to environments similar to the ones during their use is of high importance for modern product design. Wound dressing development is not different. Several different polymer based materials are used in this field and combinations of them are often found in the most advanced products. Cellulose derivatives are by far the most spread materials for development of all kinds of plasters, bandages, gauzes etc. Because we are also focused on the development of different products made of cellulose derivatives, we tried to extend our understanding of their behavior in different environments, to better predict and more efficiently choose the right derivate for the desired purpose.
In light of the mentioned facts, we designed an experimental setup, which serves as the platform for such testing. To be reproducible, effective and to allow proper evaluation, it had to be simplified as far as possible. It consists of a model surface (atomically flat silicon wafer), two different polymer molecules (carboxy methyl cellulose and amylose) and solutions exhibiting different pHs and ionic strengths. The setup is schematically depicted in Figure 12.
Scheme of the used procedure for evaluation of forces in different environments. This figure is partly reproduced from [
Force spectroscopy has proven to be a perfect method for assessing any interactions over a wide range of environmental conditions, especially in liquid media. The latter is especially important because capillary forces, if present (as in measurements in air), are capable of hiding smaller interaction contributions. Our research was focused on finding a reliable method for determination of environmental influences of polymer materials after exposure to a healing wound. During the healing process several physico-chemical parameters of the wound exudates change. While not all can be easily simulated, we tried to reproduce conditions, which are known to have a bigger implication on exposed materials, namely the pH and ionic strength. Both can induce structural changes in the polymeric chains, which in turn causes different behavior and material stability. By simplifying the setup to only two changing-parameters separately, it was possible to show that our proposed technique could serve as a good platform for assessing any changing wound-environment during healing. Some of our results are shown in Figure 13. A more detailed explanation of the measurement results can be found elsewhere [48].
Force spectroscopy results for the measurements in two solutions with different pHs. TOP: retract force curves for amylose at two different measurement durations with two pHs, BOTTOM: retract force curves for carboxymethyl cellulose at two different measurement durations with two pHs. The results are reproduced from article [
One of the greatest contributions of AFM to scientific community in the last decade is its ability to probe interaction forces between different species (surfaces, molecules, functional groups) on a quantitative basis [49]. Many researchers know that quantitative interaction mappings between species, interacting in real systems, are the basis for the comprehension of their appearance. AFM force spectroscopy yielding information about single molecules interactions was used for several important discoveries. For example, Allison et al. measured forces between adenine coated AFM tips and thymine coated surfaces, which led to the development of a methodology to study the required forces for unraveling immunoglobulin [50]. Several other research groups used the same type of experiment (attachment of specific molecules to the AFM tip edge to probe the interaction with a desired surface) to gain interaction mappings, which they used as the basis for understanding of processes on the molecular scale [51].
The mechanisms behind appearing interactions between surfaces are of utter importance for many research areas, ranging from the development of polymers for protective films to preparation of implants for medical use [52]. Quantitative assessment of these mechanisms can be used in many ways. For example, it can act as the input data for sophisticated modeling of polymer behavior [53], it can lead to understanding of processes on the molecular level, by which novel drugs can be developed or pathological factors filtered out several stages earlier in the development of a disease [54] or it can be used as the input data for the design of novel drug delivery systems, by which the development of such gets cheaper and less time consuming [55].
In our case, we wanted to understand a process, involved in the working process of Li-ion based battery system. Such systems comprise several components, which are connected into a sort of net via polymers, which act as the binding material [56]. Although such systems do not comprise a lot of different components, are the present ones not easy to include into calculations either due to their complex molecular structure or due to the fact that their morphology is not the same throughout the whole material. Therefore we had to develop a novel methodology of data assessment and analysis, which enables us to get more insight into the ongoing reactions during the preparation of this material [57]. The latter serves as the basis for the prediction of the loss of initial characteristics during prolonged use (the durability). By this we were able to show what binding occurs in the material, and how to correlate such data with the choice of binding material. The developed methodology is shown in Figure 14.
LEFT: typical force curve (black – approach curve, red – retract curve); RIGHT: typical plot of the extracted parameters as a function of measurement duration (approach labels were removed to increase plainness of the scheme). Reproduced with permission of the Royal Society of Chemistry from [
Upon introducing measurements with different durations and the final extraction of four parameters form the force curves, we were able to first define both borderline scenarios, namely the case, where a covalent bond occurs and the other, where the bond type is reversible. The next experiment was carried out at conditions, which are known to be present during the material preparation. After the comparison of this set of measured data with the previously taken ones, we found a remarkable similarity for three of the four extracted parameters. Due to the fact that the similarity was highly pronounced and due to the fact that other publications suggest the same, we are certain that the bond type in the examined material between the used binder molecules and the silicon particles is covalent. Some of the results are depicted in Figure 15, while a more detailed version can be found in our article [57].
Plots of extracted data (determination procedure shown in
Such an approach is certainly not limited for the present study, but is a very good method for all other samples, where either by theory or experiment, no unambiguous data can be obtained. Additionally it can be used also for more complex molecules, where direct measurements cannot result in quantitative data or bond type confirmation. The latter is especially important in testing of polymeric materials for medical use, where the bond type between material and tissue is of high importance for the actual outcome of the healing process.
Probably the most advanced study with an AFM is the examination of single molecule behavior in its natural environment. AFM was proven as the perfect tool for identification and characterization of single polymer chains [35]. Our future efforts will be in conducting measurements on single polymer chains, compare them with results of other mechanical methods and finally try to correlate both sets of results with the final polymer material characteristics. If successful, we will be able to design and predict several novel materials, with a far greener and cheaper approach, which is the result of a drastically reduced number of needed experiments for desired material preparation. Our goal is to define methods, which enable effective correlation of easy obtainable laboratory data with final products characteristics even in the development stages.
The present chapter introduces some basic concepts of AFM measurements on polymers and explains the most used modes for their examination. Our own results are added at sections, where our knowledge represents good ground knowledge for other researchers to examine their own materials. The chapter is divided into sections, which follow the steps, needed for a thorough, and more importantly a correct analysis. Nearing the end of the chapter the complexity increases, which climaxes in the future research section, where our efforts lie at the moment.
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport of the Republic of Slovenia through the contract No. 3211-10-000057 (Centre of Excellence for Polymer Materials and Technologies).
The IPCC’s sixth assessment report [1] has laid to rest any doubts about the genuine and very urgent impacts of climate change that our planet is facing. Global temperature change and changing precipitation patterns due to climate change have resulted in an increased frequency of extreme environmental events. Such devastating events have already taken up the form of large-scale forest and bush fires, hurricanes, increase in heat waves, droughts, water scarcity, and extreme storm conditions globally. According to the United Nations [2], climate and weather-related disasters have increased five-fold over the past 50 years. The impacts of this exponential increase have been clearly articulated by the World Meteorological Organization’s Atlas of Morality: Economic losses from weather, climate, and water extremes (1970–2019)—between 1970 and 2019, natural disasters have accounted for 50% of global disasters (11,000 in total) resulting in 45% reported deaths (91% in developing countries) and 74% reported economic losses globally (amounting to $3.64 trillion) [3].
Interestingly, the WMO and the IPCC report have rightfully attributed the underlying cause for such widespread natural calamities to human doing. The WMO, after conducting a thorough review of the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society concludes that within a time frame of 3 years (2015–2017) alone, a staggering 62 of the 77 disastrous natural events can be attributed to human influence. Sever heat waves impacts being the most apparent of these human impacts have even soared since 2015. The IPCC report further emphasizes the role of human doing attributing to global temperature rise and continued sea-level rise, which are seemingly irreversible over years to come. Human-made and natural wonders in the form of dense low-lying mega-cities, beautiful islands, delta regions as well as coastal regions are all now under-threat and are increasingly feeling the impact of climate change. The recent outcry from some such impacted countries for climate justice has been voiced in the recent COP 26 summit held in Glasgow.
Reducing current emissions by 45% is the new global challenge that must be attained to limit warming to the 1.5°C mark by 2100. This limitation is not surprising considering that most of the energy produced globally has been reliant on burning fossil fuels (primarily coal). A clear trend can be seen in the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration since the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth century—this coincides with the time when coal came into everyday use [4]. The scientific principle behind the global warming trend is relatively simple to comprehend—burning fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass release carbon that was otherwise sequestered, thus exponentially adding to the current stock of carbon globally. This burning process releases gases accompanied by tiny carbon particles (ranging from PM 10 to PM 2.5)—black carbon that tend to trap the sun’s energy in the atmosphere (at a much higher rate than CO2), resulting in an increase in temperature. Forest fires, transportation, industries, buildings, electricity, and heat production are all black carbon and greenhouse gas (GHG) sources.
Fossil fuels and the associated use of coal and petroleum play a vital role in contributing greenhouse gasses (GHG) and black carbon and are fundamental to be discussed in the context of this chapter. However, industries, such as agriculture, including animals, chemical-intensive farming, clearing forests for agricultural land, etc., are among the highest contributors of GHGs to the atmosphere. For instance, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), methane gas, produced during combustion processes and anaerobic decomposition, has 28–36 times more potential to result in warming than CO2 [5]. Similarly, nitrous oxide, fluorinated gases, sulfur hexafluoride are all GHGs with higher potential to retain warmth in the atmosphere.
Within this context of climate change and the increasing responsibility on the shoulders of all citizens of planet earth, the building sector, coupled with the behavioral change we need to acquire toward the production, usage, and storage of energy, is of high importance for the future of our existence. According to the World Green Building Council’s “Bringing Embodied Carbon Upfront” report [6], building and construction activities together account for 39% of energy-related CO2 emissions while they use 36% of final global energy. Besides this, the building also accounts for approximately one-third of black carbon emissions [7]. Of particular, importance within this emission is the 72.5% share belonging to the residential sector owing to its propensity for energy consumption—the third-largest energy consumer sector in the world. According to the IPCC’s report, energy consumption-related indirect emissions in residential buildings have quintupled while it has quadrupled for the commercial building sector (from 1970 to 2010). With a projected increase in the world population by half—almost 3.6 billion people toward the end of this century and a total of 11.6 billion people by the year 2100, the demand for housing and thus the increase in energy consumption and emission production could lead to disastrous climatic scenarios. Upfront carbon or the carbon emission released before the built asset/building is in-use is projected to constitute half of the carbon footprint of new constructions until 2050. The grave responsibility on the building sector thus revolves around addressing the tension between dwindling fossil fuel reserves and the ever-increasing energy demand. The Global Status Report 2017 published by UN Environment and the International Agency [8] further proposes that to address this complexity, the energy intensity per square meter of the global building sector needs to be improved by a minimum of 30% by 2030. Efforts to decarbonize the building sector or, in other words attaining a net-zero or nearly-zero building target is thus quintessential.
The chapter adheres to a hybrid methodology involving empirical research and simulation-driven design. A systematic review and data extraction from scientific journals, environmental organization websites, governmental regulatory bodies, and informational data specifically meant for the builder community are interfaced with a simulation-driven design for retrofitting an existing building. This interface was established to test theoretical and professional advice rendered through the study of literature and the actual impact of these propositions in the retrofitting of a common existing building typology. Section 2 of the chapter firstly reasons and establishes the need for retrofitting existing buildings. Once established, Section 3 systematically describes the concept of nearly-zero and situates the building industry within it. Section 3 emphasizes three essential components that need consideration while retrofitting existing buildings: Visual comfort (daylight-based zoning, shadings); thermal comfort and ventilation (Solar radiation-based zoning, openings, insulation, and window replacement); energy consumption (efficient lighting system and controllers, building material and HVAC system optimization, PV panels as the renewable energy sources). Section 3, while elaborating upon the technicalities involved in the three components, simultaneously presents the findings of the simulation-driven design as a proof of concept, thus elaborating upon the effectiveness of the promoted solutions. Section 4 serves as the conclusion of the chapter and future suggestions for developing a nearly-zero building future.
Given the context of climate emergency and the pivotal role that the building industry must play in reducing carbon emissions, the question is whether to focus on retrofitting existing buildings or tearing down existing buildings and building new net-zero buildings? Retrofitting existing buildings could offer an excellent opportunity for reducing our carbon emissions at a faster pace. The low rate—1% per year of building demolition and rebuilding in most parts of the world [9] and the fact that almost two-thirds of the existing global building stock will still constitute buildings that exist today are reasons enough to opt for the retrofitting path. Not attending to this significant building stock would imply continual carbon emission even in 2040, resulting in a failure in achieving the 1.5°C target set forth via the Paris agreement. The 2021 Pritzker Architecture prize laureates Anne Lacaton and Jean Phillipe Vassal echo this view of retrofitting via their unique approach to building a smarter, greener, and inclusive built environment—never demolish, remove or replace, always add, transform, and re-use [10]. Countries like Australia, with almost eight million homes constructed from the 1950s onwards (like buildings elsewhere in the developed and the developing world), were built during a time with far less stringent regulations around energy and building standards, insulation, and material quality. This resulted in buildings either on the verge of collapse, being poorly designed, containing hazardous materials (such as asbestos), or consuming high amounts of energy to maintain comfort levels for their inhabitants. In the Australian context alone, buildings are associated with 18% GHG emissions and 20% final energy use (COAG Council report) [11]. According to an editorial published in The Guardian, the United Kingdom’s trend to demolish 50,000 buildings per year to construct new ones is responsible for two-thirds of the total waste production of the entire country. The construction of new buildings is additionally associated with 10% of the UK’s carbon emissions [12]. In the United States, almost seven million buildings are estimated to undertake remodeling and renovations in addition to commercial buildings undertaking capital improvements [13]. Such large-scale building alterations offer an excellent opportunity to include energy performance enhancements while conducting renovations one architectural element at a time (wall, roof, windows, floors, etc.)—Opportunistic Retrofitting. It is projected that three measures—re-siding, window replacement, and re-roofing, can cut result in 25% more energy savings alone. Bloomberg presents an easy to comprehend comparison for how much impact this 25% reduction will entail. Suppose this 25% energy saving potential is harnessed by even 1% of the US’s 83 million existing single-family homes. In that case, it will reduce carbon emissions by more than 1.6 million metric tons yearly, which is equivalent to removing 350,000 passenger cars from highways. Besides savings on energy bills worth $400 billion each year, this positive environmental impact provides compelling arguments to transition to a nearly zero carbon building practice.
Besides this, it is essential to note that refurbishing and restoring existing buildings result in saving the embodied carbon footprint of the material used while constructing these buildings. This saving results in negating costs for mining, manufacturing, shipping, etc., of new materials that would otherwise be used for new constructions. In the long run, retrofitting thus becomes cost-effective with respect to CO2 rather than building new. However, what is also vital to consider is the positioning of the building sector within the bigger landscape of energy and climate change debates. Retrofitting on its own, though beneficial, would benefit immensely if it harnesses an energy upgrade involving the following: Incorporating improvements in the energy efficiency of building operations; embracing a shift from fossil fuel to electric or district heating that is backed by carbon-free renewable energy generation practices; generation of carbon-free renewable energy on-site.
Within the current context of popular media exploding with discussions around climate emergencies and the need to reduce our carbon footprint and associated emissions, awareness about harnessing renewable energy has strengthened within the general population. However, what does it truly mean to become carbon neutral or, for that matter, what does a zero carbon badge imply for the building sector? The next section of this chapter engages in a short discussion around the concept of zero carbon to base tools and techniques that can be instrumental for reaching a zero carbon or a net zero retrofitting strategy.
The discussion thus far identifies why we need to reduce emissions and why we need to become highly energy efficient, especially when it comes to the building industry. The fundamental goal here is to neutralize resource consumption by reducing energy needs and harnessing renewable resources for energy production. This approach will produce buildings that offset the total amount of energy used by the building annually with the amount of renewable energy that can be captured on-site or via renewable energy providers [14]. The concept of net zero buildings (NZEB) was first discussed internationally in 2008 [15] and has been refined over time by the International Energy Agency (IEA) with almost 20 nations globally via the Task 40 initiative. The European Union was similarly discussing the definitions through its EPBD initiative that finally resulted in coining the term nearly zero energy buildings (nZEB) [16, 17, 18]. EPBD’s recast directive establishes that the nearly zero or significantly less amount of energy required during the operation of the building should be catered to via energy derived from renewable energy sources (on-site or generated nearby). In Europe, the application of the nZEB model has become a requirement since December 31, 2018, for all public buildings. This application has slowly percolated to all new buildings from 2020 onwards. The United States Department of Energy (DOE) further classified zero energy buildings based on their total life cycle energy. This definition included building energy (on-site building energy consumption—heating, cooling, ventilation, indoor and outdoor use, lights, plug loads, process energy, elevators, intra-building transportation, etc.), energy consumed in transportation of primary fuels, thermal and electric losses in generation plants, and loss of energy during transport of energy to the building site [19]. A holistic spin on energy balancing of the building is thus proposed. It is also important to note that as opposed to autonomous zero energy buildings that can generate and consume equal amounts of energy to sustain themselves, nZEBs can connect to the external electricity grid provided that the annual energy export is equal to the annual energy import.
Accordingly, this chapter focuses on the added value of an nZEB by retrofitting the existing stock of buildings by reducing their energy needs and employing appropriate physical improvements to enhance its efficiency standards. In retrofitting existing buildings, three fundamental principles need to be adhered to—reuse, reduce, and sequester. Re-use in this context implies the use of recycled materials, paying specific attention to the end-of-life re-use properties of the materials used during retrofitting, and the idea of designing with an aim for deconstructing. Reducing implies carefully optimizing materials used during the renovation to selectively opt for low carbon materials [20]. Sequestering in the case of retrofitting involves the provision of carbon sequestering locations coupled with materials that can sequester carbon, such as bioplastics, the use of mycelium insulation, recycled plastic, and biomaterials-based carpeting, and 3D printed wood made from sawdust, to name a few. Ideally, retrofitting to reach a nearly zero energy building status can be clubbed into two design strategies—passive and active [19]. Passive strategies incorporate material properties, urban positioning/orientation, envelope design, and shading, to name a few. On the other hand, active strategies deal with improvements within HVAC systems, energy-efficient lighting, etc.
On the material front, though, one needs to comprehend the notion of “Embodied Energy.” Embodied energy is typically associated with the total impact of material greenhouse gas emissions during its entire life cycle. Lifecycle covers the dimensions of a material’s extraction, manufacturing, transportation, construction, maintenance, and disposal. If we take the new construction route, it is estimated that embodied carbon alone will be responsible for 72% of the carbon emissions between now and 2030 [21]. Embodied carbon cannot be rectified because it is embedded within the building once it has been erected. It is thus crucial to address the embodied carbon issue during the design or before the retrofitting stage is actualized on any building site (Figure 1).
CO2 emissions of new build and refurbishment (image source: AECOM, 2021 [
Besides this, the basic building materials which are prevalently used in the construction sector—concrete, steel, and aluminum, are together responsible for 23% of total building emissions in themselves. Portland cement, the primary ingredient for making concrete, is responsible for releasing 40% CO2 during the burning of fossil fuels for its manufacturing and emits 60% CO2 during its processing phase. Similarly, the production of steel is a significant determinant of how much CO2 it generates. Typically, basic oxygen furnaces responsible for producing steel rely on burning fossil fuels—coal or natural gas to melt iron ore, thus contributing to CO2 emissions at a large scale. Better material alternatives or the alteration of production technologies of such fundamental materials used in the building industry are thus crucial. Embodied energy becomes specifically vital if seen from the context of developing nations, witnessing a boom in the building construction sector at an exponential rate.
Having gained some perspective on the concept of nearly zero energy buildings, the big question then is how do we translate this theoretical thinking into reality via retrofitting existing buildings? The following section provides some perspective on the same.
In retrofitting a building, one of the critical aspects to consider is the material properties of the existing building and the carbon content typically residing therein. The London Energy Transformation Initiative (LETI) proposed an embodied carbon budget of 600kgCO2e/m2 for us to attain our carbon reduction goals [22]. To understand the feasibility of achieving this low figure, one must comprehend the total embodied energy typically present in an old building. Aecom, in a web article titled “The carbon and business case for choosing refurbishment over new build,” breaks down the embodied carbon within various components of typical residential buildings: Frame 24%; substructure 19.6%; upper floors (14.9%); building services (13.4%); internal finishes (12.4%); external walls; windows and doors (8.8%); roof (5%); fitting and furnishings (1.2%); internal walls and doors (0.6%). The elements typically associated with the highest embodied carbon (substructure, frame, upper floor, and roof) are candidates that qualify for retrofitting to save on emissions produced during the breaking down of an old building and re-constructing these buildings elements while building anew.
To holistically retrofit existing buildings for enabling the transition toward a nearly zero energy building, three main scopes encompassing passive and active strategies should thus be considered:
Visual comfort (daylight-based zoning, shadings)
Thermal comfort and ventilation (solar radiation-based zoning, openings, insulation, and window replacement)
Energy consumption (efficient lighting system and controllers, building material and HVAC system optimization, PV panels as the renewable energy sources)
To explain these three strategies, the chapter, apart from providing theoretical advice, also elaborates upon the results of a simulated case study—an educational building in Iran. An initial comfort analysis in terms of visual and thermal condition and energy use of this existing building provides insights on the required improvements and thus informs retrofitting strategies. The elaborated project deploys the three-stage retrofit process on an educational building in Tehran (35.6892° N, 51.3890° E), Iran, in a cold semiarid climatic condition (Köppen climate classification: BSk). The process adopted by the authors incorporated radiance and energy plus simulation engines. According to the weather data for a typical year in this area, January is the coldest month, and August represents the hottest time of the year, each with an average monthly temperature of 3.89°C and 30.07°C. The site also enjoys a high level of solar exposure and experiences cloudy sky conditions only 15% of the time.
Situating a to-be retrofitted building within its environmental context is an ideal strategy for understanding the reasons behind its current energy performance. To strive toward an energy-efficient status for an existing building, both interior and exterior aspects are equally crucial to be considered. Visual and thermal comfort components can be primarily linked with the urban positioning of the building itself and imply conducting on-site solar radiation analysis for extracting the degree of solar exposure received by the building’s external facades. In addition to this, mapping the demand for lighting and thermal energy of the interior programs of the building is vital. This step aids in making informed decisions to re-position or augment a building’s program to take the best advantage of the building’s solar exposure while naturally reducing the amount of energy required to heat or cool the building’s interiors.
For instance, in our educational Building case study, solar radiation analysis (Figure 2) revealed that the Southern zones witnessing the highest solar radiation constituted of primary programs and were induced to a high level of daylight and solar heat gain. On the contrary, northern zones were the coldest spaces with a pleasant daylight quality without experiencing visual discomfort caused by glare. The Eastern and Western zones were typically dedicated to circulation and service areas. Daylighting and thermal requirement-based zoning and categorization of the building’s program are also conducted to determine the ideal spatial distribution of the program within the building (Figure 3).
Solar radiation analysis on building envelope.
Spatial zoning based on the solar geometry.
The other important aspect of understanding visual comfort is calculating daylight quality to evaluate illuminance levels and glare probability and subsequently calculate thermal conditions to evaluate the total amount of discomfort hours within the primary programs of a building. It is vital to educate and to understand the importance of using the sun for solar tempering. Working with rather than against natural solar movement and exposure also aids in achieving energy savings otherwise required for heating purposes, and appropriately shading also aids in reducing cooling requirements. A strategic manner of avoiding added costs and energy expenditure for added thermal mass required for maximizing passive solar heating can thus be achieved. Such concerns are primarily best addressed during the design phase of the proposed retrofit.
In the case of the studied institution building, the south-facing spaces tend to receive excessive sunlight and suffer excessive visual discomfort (ASE > 10%, LEED 0 point). Therefore, the use of optimum shadings is suggested in the retrofit process. Despite this, the northern zone achieves all 3 points of the LEED rating system, which indicates that both sufficient daylight level (sDA > 75%) and visual comfort (ASE < 10%) is achieved in these zones. Therefore, it is highly suggested to consider solar geometry in the renovation process to establish the feasibility of removing or adding the interior partitions. An overall analysis of daylight distribution on each floor (Figure 4) can elaborate on the optimal positioning of the interior program of a building in relation to solar radiation. Such strategic thinking and informed decision-making pertaining to program positioning before beginning the retrofitting process can thus ensure reducing the total energy consumption of a building considerably.
Visual comfort (daylight distribution and glare) assessment.
Thermal comfort analysis by assessing the average monthly temperature within an existing building’s interior spaces can further help designers to understand overcooling or overheating scenarios throughout the year. Similarly, an annual analysis of discomfort hours also provides information on thermal conditions on a dynamic scale and can show critical thermal condition levels of interior space. Thermal imaging using an infrared camera can also be deployed for measuring on-site thermal conditions in individual rooms. Typically, such analysis can also be categorized under an energy audit of an existing building. For the case of the educational building understudy, the annual discomfort hours were calculated as 988.73 hours (Figure 5) and were associated with the average monthly temperature and the percentage of occupancy time that the hours corresponded with. The design phase of the retrofit being a calculated experimental phase also renders itself for making design decisions pertaining to elements such as atriums, window opening sizes, etc., while keeping in mind the window to wall ratio. Such additions, typically aimed at improving natural ventilation, can dramatically improve inside temperature conditions, thus impacting the total energy required for heating, cooling, and artificial ventilation. In the case of the educational building, the insertion of a central atrium combined with interior windows with a window to wall ratio of 20% was experimented with as a designed addition. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation analysis on a typical spring day (without an HVAC system operational) was able to provide a good overview of well-ventilated zones vs. zones which needed further improvement strategies such as supply vents etc., (Figure 6). Such initial analyses of the indoor environmental condition thus offer a basis for taking calculated decisions of the required retrofit strategies on a case-by-case basis.
Thermal comfort assessment.
Ventilation (velocity and temperature) assessment in the central atrium.
Tangible aspects connected with thermal comfort can be further categorized into lighting, sealing, insulation, and window replacement components. Lighting inside a building is equally crucial. Older buildings typically make use of fluorescent lighting and light bulbs. These tend to consume much more energy than contemporary energy-efficient CFL or LED light bulbs that last longer and are mercury-free. Retrofitting should thus ideally involve replacing existing fluorescent lighting systems with LEDs equipped with linear controllers. This simple change can almost halve the energy used for lighting purposes. Using motion sensors in areas where lights are left on often also allows energy to be saved. For the case of the educational building, this small change in lighting coupled with a daylight sensor for controlling the intensity of lighting in real time can halve the total energy consumed (Figure 7).
The energy use of reference (fluorescent) VS. optimized lighting system (LED with linear control).
Sealing the building envelope is another step that is a highly efficient and cost-effective measure that can be deployed during the retrofitting phase for any building. Saving valuable energy required for heating and cooling and improving comfort, reducing noise, and improving air quality are all direct impacts of sealing the building envelope, resulting in nearly zero energy targets. Often a blower door test can be conducted to evaluate the air leakage during air change per hour. Air change here implies the volume of air that equals the house volume exchanged with the outside air [23]. A blower door can establish a negative 50-pascal house pressure. Existing homes in need of retrofitting can often leak air at the rate of 15 air changes per hour (15 ACH50). Sealing the external and internal surfaces of a building can aid in bringing this level of leakage down between a range of 2ACH50 (airtightness standard for a cost-effective zero energy home)—0.7 ACH50 (airtightness standard for a passive house). Setting an airtightness goal for retrofitting projects can thus prove to be a wise decision for cutting down on energy consumption by optimizing the building envelope.
Building insulation should be considered as a fundamental component of any retrofit project. Different surfaces, such as walls, floors, and ceilings, require different types and thicknesses of insulating materials that are contextually derived based on climatic conditions and solar exposure. The R-value, or in other words, the ability of a material to resist the flow of heat, is important while choosing adequate insulation and is highly dependent on the kind of material used for insulation rather than the thickness of the material used. The climatic context of the region within which the retrofitting needs to be undertaken thus plays a significant role in determining the requisite R-value of the chosen insulation type and thickness. The Zero Energy Project report [24] outlines practical ways in which high-performance walls (exterior rigid insulation; single plate, double stud walls; double plate walls), high-insulated ceilings (blow insulation onto flat ceilings; insulating cathedral ceilings; exterior rigid insulation), and high insulated-floors (insulated slabs; insulated basements; crawl space), can aid in reducing energy loads by means of the application of appropriate insulation.
Similarly, window replacement and door replacements can play an essential role in transitioning to a nearly zero energy building. Organizations such as the National Fenestration Rating Council have contributed heavily toward establishing rating systems of window and door performance measurements in the form of labels affixed to off-the-shelf window and door units [25]. This process aids in the simplification of retrofitting wherein the everyday citizen can make informed decisions pertaining to the efficiency of these quintessential components of a building. Like the R-value of insulation, a U factor is of prime importance as it indicates the efficiency of a window as regards heat escaping from the interior of a building. For visual comfort purposes, the visible transmittance value is also associated with window ratings. It is responsible for measuring the effectiveness of a window to light the interiors of space with daylight. For doors, the solar heat gain coefficient value that demarcates the door’s resistance toward unwanted heat gain and the air leakage value that indicates the entry of external air through the door are vital measures specified by such councils.
For the case of the studied educational building, to establish a lower heat transfer threshold, the application of interior insulation (0.10 m air gap +0.15 m wood wool), replacement of windows with highly sealed windows with a low U value and coated with efficiency-enhancing coatings (Dbl LOE Elec Abs Bleached 6 mm/13 mm Arg), provision of interior window shading (shade roll-medium opaque) and exterior—localized shading elements (2 meters overhang), were explicitly deployed for enhancing the efficiency of south facing spaces (Figure 8).
Construction material optimization.
The energy consumption component for a building retrofit process involves active strategies. HVAC systems are omnipresent in the majority of homes globally and how to reduce the energy required for heating or cooling purposes is of particular importance here. The strategies—visual and thermal comfort enhancements, already contribute to reducing conventional HVAC systems’ load. However, apart from these passive measures, selecting appropriate HVAC systems conducive to the climatic context and the proportion of spaces to be conditioned are essential criteria to consider. For instance, for residential properties, air-source heat pumps are highly efficient and can take up the form of mini-split heat pumps for individual rooms or multi-zone installations. Variable speed operation by means of sensing temperature conditions inside a building and accordingly increasing or decreasing heating or cooling speeds results in air-source heat pumps in achieving energy savings.
Other strategies such as working with combinations of different heating and cooling systems per the degree of solar exposure and desired comfort levels could also be experimented with. For the case of the educational building, four different systems of radiator + evaporative cooling (the most common system used in the location), VAV, fan coil, and heat pump were simulated and optimized to establish the most efficient option. Accordingly, the optimum system of unitary heat pump can reduce heating, cooling, and the total energy use intensity (EUI) by 69.03%, 38.21%, and 28.81%, respectively. The final results indicated that the proposed method could reduce the annual energy consumption (EUI) by almost half while doubling the comfortable hours indoors. Figure 9 represents the energy consumed by different energy-consuming components of the retrofitted case study and the suggested replacement of physical features of the building. Such informed and analytically validated suggestions can inform property owners and make them aware of the retrofitting process’s impact in transitioning to a nearly zero energy future.
Energy use and physical features (construction material, HVAC, and lighting systems) of the retrofitted case study.
Another active mode of energy generation is the renewable energy sector. Harnessing the sun’s power by means of solar photovoltaic (PV) panels is one of the most cost-effective modes of harvesting renewable energy. The efficiency of solar panels is typically dependent on the amount of unobstructed solar radiation captured by the panels over a period throughout the day. After calculating the amount of energy conserved by applying the aforementioned passive and active strategies, a well-thought-out plan for solar energy capture must be developed. This is also due to the limitations of existing homes regarding the amount of open and exposed roof surface square meters available for the installation of PVs. A well-developed plan can aid in calculating the exact number of panels needed to manage and balance out the amount of energy required to reach a near-zero energy target. The inclusion of microinverters rather than centralized inverters should become the norm to encourage capturing optimal performance per panel while future-proofing the ability to add more panels in the future. Governments globally are now encouraging the installation of panels by providing subsidies and encouraging schemes that make solar leasing affordable and easily accessible.
For instance, in the case of the educational building understudy, PVs were suggested to make the most from renewable energy sources, such as solar radiation, to transfuse an annual amount of 10.7 mWh of electricity to the grid supply a part of the projects’ total energy consumption. Hence, 24 panels are suggested to be placed on the roof to bring it closer to an nZEB design. Accordingly, the final design incurs less than 55 kWh/m2 energy consumption, from which 9.32% is supplied by harvesting solar energy. The associated carbon emission (operational) was also reduced by 17.96% (Figure 10).
Energy savings and CO2 emissions reduction by PV installation.
As a proof of concept for the propositions made in this chapter, jointly—both passive and active strategies proposed for the retrofitting of the educational building exhibited the potential to reduce the energy consumed for heating, cooling, and lighting purposes up to 85.19%, 58.57%, and 23.68%, respectively, compared to the base case (Figure 11).
The impact of the proposed retrofit strategies on the annual discomfort hours and CO2 emissions.
Furthermore, the annual EUI could effectively be reduced by 52.98%, while the associated carbon emissions (t CO2) and annual comfort hours also exhibit improvement by 46.48% and 49.28%. Replacing existing windows with highly efficient windows proved to have the highest impact (22.58%) on the comfort experienced indoors, followed by using an optimum HVAC system and applying interior insulations, each with an effective percentage of 21.90% and 19.18%. The inclusion of an efficient HVAC system also aided in reducing operational carbon emission to a great extent (24.05%). Installing PV panels also exhibited a substantial reduction in carbon emissions (19.18%) (Figure 12).
The impact of retrofit strategies on annual energy use.
The chapter attempts to rationalize and strategize the retrofitting of existing buildings as a valuable means for transitioning toward a nearly zero energy future. The perspective presented in this chapter revolves around three fundamental components:
Visual comfort (daylight-based zoning, shadings)
Thermal comfort and ventilation (solar radiation-based zoning, openings, insulation, and window replacement)
Energy consumption (efficient lighting system and controllers, building material and HVAC system optimization, PV panels as the renewable energy sources)
An actual case study of an existing educational building has been conducted to present the tangible benefits of applying passive and active measures within these three components to reduce energy usage and carbon emissions. The results of this study have been presented in parallel to the theoretical discourse on methods to achieve a nearly zero energy building goal as a proof of concept for the advocated practices. Besides the case study conducted by the authors to reassure the readers about the benefits of retrofitting, Harvey (2013) further outlines various building typologies that have achieved energy reductions by adopting retrofitting practices—detached and single-family homes (50–75%); apartments (80–90% reduction in heating); building envelope retrofitting (1/2 to 1/3rd reduction in cooling, and 2/3rd reduction in cooling); HVAC optimization-based energy saving in commercial buildings (25–50%); lightning-based retrofitting in commercial buildings (30–60%) [9].
Retrofitting is a viable option to consider despite high upfront costs since the annual cost savings on the energy present an economically attractive scenario. However, critical mediation stages during the lifespan of a building must be identified since these can serve as potential stages to upgrade energy provisions. Such stage-wise upgradation can be streamlined to minimize disruptions to owners and organizations while keeping abreast of the latest technologies and techniques for energy conservation. Policy interventions that are participatory development-driven—between government, local councils, and owners/organizations, can further aid in contextually sensitive retrofitting processes. Bottom-up policy initiatives that subsidize and acknowledge geo-location, climatic and socioeconomic conditions, major renovation cycles, capital improvement cycles, and resiliency upgrades should undoubtedly become the norm in the near future. The strategies suggested in this chapter can further aid in systematically fusing passive and active approaches toward nearly zero energy buildings. Such strategies will also benefit substantially by interfacing them with qualitative research conducted on-ground that predominantly deals with the assessment of human behavior and the drive to adopt retrofitting strategies. Community concerns, economic limitations, fear of disruption of everyday life, etc., could become critical insights from such qualitative explorations. These can further aid in tailoring policies while being sensitive toward the concerns of the everyday citizen. Retrofitting processes can benefit building typologies, such as aging building stock (houses and apartments alike), large-scale institutional buildings, offices with older energy-intensive energy systems, and heritage buildings. Additionally, buildings located in zones that face severe weather conditions (extreme heat or cold) or are undergoing post-disaster reconstruction can also benefit through undertaking the nearly zero energy transition.
The need to address climate change to shape a sustainable present and a thriving future is of utmost importance now more than ever. Retrofitting existing building stock in conjunction with sensitizing citizens and corporations alike and the participatory development of building policies and programs could undoubtedly hold the key to reducing emissions. Let us never forget that we have only one Earth, and it is our collective responsibility to protect this beautiful planet and our future, which are intrinsically linked.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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VSMCs are mostly of mesodermal origin, although some are of neuroectodermal origin, for example, VSMCs present in the aorta and in blood vessels arising from the aortic arch. VSMCs of neuroectodermal origin are implicated in defects of cardiovascular morphogenesis, such as bicuspid aortic valve, coarctation of the aorta, patent ductus arteriosus and tetralogy of Fallot. The origin, location in the vascular tree, gender, species, strain and age influence the phenotype of VSMCs and their propensity to migration and growth. In a healthy adult organism, VSMCs have a quiescent and differentiated contractile phenotype characterized by early markers (e.g., SM α-actin, SM22-α), intermediate markers (h-caldesmon, calponin) and late markers (SM myosins, smoothelin) of VSMC differentiation. 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He is currently a consultant at Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC, Anthem, AZ, USA.",institutionString:"Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC",institution:null},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. in Chemistry in July 2000, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. In 2009 he joined the Dr. Ron Clarke research group at the School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the Interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+, K+-ATPase, and Dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+, K+-ATPase by ATP. He then worked as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum, and in 2014 was promoted to Associate Professor ranking. In 2011 he joined the staff of the Chemistry Department at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently active as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include:\r\n(1) P-type ATPase Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms; (2) Kinetics and Mechanism of Redox Reactions; (3) Autocatalytic reactions; (4) Computational enzyme kinetics; (5) Allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP; (6) Exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in the cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, México. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 270 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 4 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"428313",title:"Dr.",name:"Sambangi",middleName:null,surname:"Pratyusha",slug:"sambangi-pratyusha",fullName:"Sambangi Pratyusha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"CGIAR",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"13",type:"subseries",title:"Plant Physiology",keywords:"Plant Nutrition, Plant Hormone, Photosynthesis, Respiration, Plant Stress, Multi-omics, High-throughput Technology, Genome Editing",scope:"Plant Physiology explores fundamental processes in plants, and it includes subtopics such as plant nutrition, plant hormone, photosynthesis, respiration, and plant stress. 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Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. 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