Various studies in diverse crop plants under different abiotic stresses conditions and the consequent response shown by these plants under various phytohormone application.
\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Milestone",originalUrl:"/media/original/124"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6079",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Spermatozoa - Facts and Perspectives",title:"Spermatozoa",subtitle:"Facts and Perspectives",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Spermatozoa, the haploid male gametes, are highly specialized cells capable to fertilize eggs in order to produce diploid zygote. The biogenesis of spermatozoa requires finely modulated occurrence of mitotic, meiotic, and differentiation events. Hence, the production of high-quality spermatozoa impacts fertilization with outcomes on the health of the offspring. This book provides a comprehensive overview on the biogenesis, maturation, functions and activities of spermatozoa in both physiological conditions and infertility. Particular attention has been addressed to the impact of environment on sperm quality and to the appropriate selection of high-quality spermatozoa for in vitro fertilization. Taken together, this book targets a wide audience of basic and clinical scientists, teachers and students, and offers a better understanding of spermatozoa health and disease.",isbn:"978-1-78923-171-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-170-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-279-9",doi:"10.5772/68063",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"spermatozoa-facts-and-perspectives",numberOfPages:250,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2d4488814a6ea68efcd3544209c9e4d2",bookSignature:"Rosaria Meccariello and Rosanna Chianese",publishedDate:"June 13th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6079.jpg",numberOfDownloads:14564,numberOfWosCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:36,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:66,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 2nd 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 23rd 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 24th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 24th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 24th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"143980",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosaria",middleName:null,surname:"Meccariello",slug:"rosaria-meccariello",fullName:"Rosaria Meccariello",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. Rosaria Meccariello obtained a degree in Biological Sciences from the University of Naples Federico II, Italy, and a PhD in Comparative Endocrinology from\r\nthe University of Padova, Italy. Currently, she is Associate Professor of Biology at\r\nthe Department of Movement and Wellness Sciences at the University of Naples\r\n'Parthenope,” Italy. She has published more than 130 papers in peer-reviewed international journals, books, proceedings and abstract books. She has experience as\r\na reviewer for international journals and has served as an editor for scientific books,\r\nspecial issues and e-books. Dr. Meccariello is an expert in biology of reproduction,\r\nspermatogenesis, the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis, central and local activity\r\nof GnRH, endocannabinoid and kisspeptin systems, and epigenetics.",institutionString:"University of Naples Parthenope",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"244717",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosanna",middleName:null,surname:"Chianese",slug:"rosanna-chianese",fullName:"Rosanna Chianese",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. Rosanna Chianese received her degree in biology from the University of Naples Federico II, Italy, in 2004. In 2006, she carried out a training at the University of Washington, Seattle, USA, during her PhD studies in comparative endocrinology (University of Padova, Italy). For the biennium 2009/2011, she obtained a research fellowship for the project 'Mesothelioma and biomarkers” at the Second University of Naples (SUN), Italy. Currently, she is an assistant professor at the Department of Experimental Medicine, SUN. She has experience as reviewer for international journals and since 2005, she has published 25 articles in international journals, 1 book chapter for InTech and 22 abstracts for national and international conferences. Dr. Chianese also teaches face-to-face cellular biology course at SUN.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1161",title:"Andrology",slug:"andrology"}],chapters:[{id:"60076",title:"Introductory Chapter: Spermatozoa - Facts and Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75674",slug:"introductory-chapter-spermatozoa-facts-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1101,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Rosanna Chianese and Rosaria Meccariello",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60076",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60076",authors:[{id:"143980",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosaria",surname:"Meccariello",slug:"rosaria-meccariello",fullName:"Rosaria Meccariello"},{id:"244717",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosanna",surname:"Chianese",slug:"rosanna-chianese",fullName:"Rosanna Chianese"}],corrections:null},{id:"58017",title:"Sequence of Germ Cells Differentiation During Spermiogenesis of the Amphibian Urodele Ambystoma dumerilii",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71508",slug:"sequence-of-germ-cells-differentiation-during-spermiogenesis-of-the-amphibian-urodele-ambystoma-dume",totalDownloads:971,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The spermatogenesis, including the spermiogenesis, in Urodeles contains the meiotic process and the morphological differentiation of the spermatids developing the spermatozoa as in the rest of vertebrates. However, in Urodeles, there are essential differences in the structure of the testis, as a lobular structure; the distribution of the spermatogenic cells, in cephalocaudal progression in the testis; and the cystic condition of the developing spermatogenic cells in synchronous groups bounded by Sertoli cells. All the spermatogenic cells are situated in parallel position with the heads directed to the same side. The big size and elongated morphology of the spermatozoa also characterized this type of spermiogenesis. Spermiation occurs at the caudal portion of the testis to the efferent duct system, which includes the mesonephric nephrones.",signatures:"Mari Carmen Uribe and Sergio Gracia-Fernández",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58017",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58017",authors:[{id:"208123",title:"Dr.",name:"Mari-Carmen",surname:"Uribe",slug:"mari-carmen-uribe",fullName:"Mari-Carmen Uribe"},{id:"208125",title:"BSc.",name:"Sergio",surname:"Gracia-Fernández",slug:"sergio-gracia-fernandez",fullName:"Sergio Gracia-Fernández"}],corrections:null},{id:"59998",title:"In Vitro Spermatogenesis; Past, Present, and Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73505",slug:"in-vitro-spermatogenesis-past-present-and-future",totalDownloads:1419,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study of culturing spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) dates back to the 1950s. However, regeneration of complete spermatogenesis process in vitro is still a greater challenge. Studying spermatogenesis in vitro is significant in elucidating germ cell biology, and the knowledge may be useful for genetic manipulations of defective germ cells or producing transgenic animals, fertility preservation, and treatment of infertility. Fertility preservation would be more beneficial for adult and prepubescent patients who develop sterility due to gonadotoxins. Discovering of the stepwise stages in spermatogenesis and various forms of arrests at specific stages would help in the diagnosis of especially, idiopathic infertility and deciding treatment options. Different techniques have been tried to differentiate stem cells into germ cells over decades. A larger number of studies has used genetically manipulated stem cells to achieve differentiated germ cells. In contrast, differentiation of stem cells directly into SSCs bypassing the step into primordial germ cells (PGCs) to minimize time frame and employing techniques involved in least genetic manipulations are other important techniques to increase utilization within a clinical setting. As the use of transfected cell lines disqualifies the putative gametes obtained for clinical applications, trying to generate patient-specific germ cell with least genetic manipulations will be more effective in future applications, especially for patients with pre-pubertal cancer and azoospermic men who desire to become biological fathers.",signatures:"DMAB Dissanayake",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59998",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59998",authors:[{id:"220140",title:"Dr.",name:"Anura",surname:"Dissanayake",slug:"anura-dissanayake",fullName:"Anura Dissanayake"}],corrections:null},{id:"57404",title:"Assessment of Human Sperm Cells Morphological Parameters",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71413",slug:"assessment-of-human-sperm-cells-morphological-parameters",totalDownloads:1371,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The quality of spermatozoa has a direct influence on the fertilization and developmental competence of embryos. The aim of this work was to review the methods of spermatozoa morphology assessment, features of the normal spermatozoa and the reasons of their several abnormalities. Three methods can be used for the evaluation of spermatozoa morphology in the in vitro fertilization (IVF) laboratory: (1) light microscopy of stained spermatozoa, (2) motile sperm organelle morphology examination (MSOME) and (3) polarized light microscopy. The analysis of spermatozoa morphology includes the assessment of head, neck, midpiece and tail. Morphologically abnormal spermatozoa are categorized into subgroups according to the defects of the head, neck, midpiece and/or tail. Before IVF and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), the quality of spermatozoa must be estimated exactly, because this has the high influence on embryo development. Therefore the analysis of the morphological parameters of spermatozoa using the light microscopy, MSOME, in combination with precise head birefringence detection using the polarized microscopy, could give the best fertilization rate and embryo quality after IVF and ICSI.",signatures:"Kristina Lasiene",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57404",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57404",authors:[{id:"206099",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristina",surname:"Lasiene",slug:"kristina-lasiene",fullName:"Kristina Lasiene"}],corrections:null},{id:"57694",title:"Ultrastructure of Spermatozoa from Infertility Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71596",slug:"ultrastructure-of-spermatozoa-from-infertility-patients",totalDownloads:1476,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Standard examination of human semen currently remains a main test for examination of male fertility disorders. Although parameters of sperm quality in fertile men are generally higher than in sterile ones, there is a substantial overlap between the two populations, indicating that other important factors affect fertility, but are not assessed in conventional assay. Currently, tests determining the functional properties of sperm have been intensively developed. This review considers an electron microscopic examination of sperm, which assesses the structure and function of the sperm nuclear, penetration and motor apparatus. The detection of sperm chromatin structure can help to understand the causes of early embryonic malformation. Genetically caused and functional disorders of the structure and function of spermatozoa are discussed. Indications for electron microscopic examination of spermatozoa in fertility disorders are given.",signatures:"Elizaveta E. Bragina and Elena N. Bocharova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57694",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57694",authors:[{id:"207294",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizaveta",surname:"Bragina",slug:"elizaveta-bragina",fullName:"Elizaveta Bragina"}],corrections:null},{id:"60429",title:"Male Accessory Glands and Sperm Function",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74321",slug:"male-accessory-glands-and-sperm-function",totalDownloads:1659,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the advent of the techniques of reproduction, the functions of this fluid on the sperm function became a topic of lesser interest to the embryologist, urologist and andrologist. The interaction of spermatozoa with seminal plasma often goes unnoticed, but it is very likely that many substances produced by male accessory glands have impact on the sperm physiology. Seminal fluid contains several components besides spermatozoa; many of them are produced by a specific tissue and can be useful markers of secretion of the glands. The information in the 5th Manual of World Health Organization is very limited with respect to the interpretation in several characteristics abnormally high in semen. Male accessory glands secrete several factors such as alpha-glucosidase, fructose, prostaglandins, bicarbonate and citric acid among others, which are crucial for sperm physiology. This chapter deals with the interpretation of markers of accessory glands and their relation to some pathologies such as varicocele, infections, obstructions of the seminiferous pathways and some hormonal alterations.",signatures:"Lozano Hernández Jesús Ricardo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60429",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60429",authors:[{id:"219504",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Lozano",slug:"ricardo-lozano",fullName:"Ricardo Lozano"}],corrections:null},{id:"57417",title:"Physiological and Pathological Roles of Free Radicals in Male Reproduction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70793",slug:"physiological-and-pathological-roles-of-free-radicals-in-male-reproduction",totalDownloads:1425,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Oxidative stress (OS) is a condition caused by an imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) overgeneration and decreased antioxidant defense mechanisms in the cell. OS has become a prominent factor in male reproductive dysfunction as ROS cause damage to sperm DNA, lipids and proteins, alterations to critical sperm structures and signaling pathways, leading to a decreased sperm activity and fertilizing capacity. At the same time, small amounts of ROS play vital roles in events leading to sperm maturation and acquisition of functional activity, which is why a proper oxidative balance is of paramount importance for a proper male fertility. Understanding the physiological and pathological roles of ROS in male reproduction has become an essential pillar of modern andrology; however, numerous questions related to the controversial behavior of ROS in male reproductive cells and tissues still remain unanswered. This chapter aims to summarize current evidence available on the relationships between free radicals, antioxidants and male reproduction and to trigger more scientific interest, particularly with respect to the design of efficient strategies to diagnose or treat male sub- or infertility associated with OS.",signatures:"Eva Tvrdá, Peter Massanyi and Norbert Lukáč",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57417",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57417",authors:[{id:"204993",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",surname:"Tvrdá",slug:"eva-tvrda",fullName:"Eva Tvrdá"},{id:"206075",title:"Prof.",name:"Norbert",surname:"Lukáč",slug:"norbert-lukac",fullName:"Norbert Lukáč"},{id:"220755",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",surname:"Massanyi",slug:"peter-massanyi",fullName:"Peter Massanyi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57682",title:"Environmental Factors and Male Infertility",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71553",slug:"environmental-factors-and-male-infertility",totalDownloads:1517,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A significant decrease in human fertility has been observed in the last 50 years. Approximately 15% of couples of reproductive age have fertility problems and about half of these cases are because of male factors. A growing body of evidence suggests that environmental factors play an important role in the causes of male infertility. Our environment is contaminated by natural and synthetic chemicals, which could interact with the endocrine system, resulting in the reduction of human fertility. Studies carried out in recent years have proven that endocrine-disrupting chemicals may disturb fertility of men. Improper lifestyle factors such as smoking, alcohol consumption, high temperature, radiation also have negative impact on male fertility. This chapter is an overview of recent developments about the importance of endocrine-disrupting chemicals and lifestyle factors’ effects on sperm counts and male fertility in human.",signatures:"Qiuqin Tang, Wei Wu, Jing Zhang, Rong Fan and Mu Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57682",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57682",authors:[{id:"178661",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Wu",slug:"wei-wu",fullName:"Wei Wu"},{id:"184798",title:"Ms.",name:"Qiuqin",surname:"Tang",slug:"qiuqin-tang",fullName:"Qiuqin Tang"},{id:"207434",title:"Mr.",name:"Mu",surname:"Liu",slug:"mu-liu",fullName:"Mu Liu"},{id:"218026",title:"Mrs.",name:"Jing",surname:"Zhang",slug:"jing-zhang",fullName:"Jing Zhang"},{id:"218027",title:"Mrs.",name:"Rong",surname:"Fan",slug:"rong-fan",fullName:"Rong Fan"}],corrections:null},{id:"59074",title:"The Role of Human Semen as an Early and Reliable Tool of Environmental Impact Assessment on Human Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73231",slug:"the-role-of-human-semen-as-an-early-and-reliable-tool-of-environmental-impact-assessment-on-human-he",totalDownloads:1557,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Several studies have shown a dramatic reduction of semen quality in many industrialized countries and infertility is becoming a public health top priority, whose incidence is associated to late-onset adult diseases, especially cancer, shorter life expectancy and trans-generational effects. The male reproductive system is particularly sensitive to a broad variety of reproductive and developmental toxicants, including many environmental pollutants and recent studies suggest that human semen is an early and sensitive environmental and health marker. A set of semen biomarkers is described for reproductive health effects in relation to environmental exposure, where human semen seems to be an early and sensitive source of biomarkers than blood to monitor high environmental pressure on human health. Environmental health should consider reproductive health and development, from intrauterine life to childhood and puberty: these are both vulnerable targets and high-value protection goals, inasmuch as they represent the future of our societies. Hence, biomarkers of reproductive health should be exploited as early signals of environmental pressure and increased risk of adverse chronic health effects so that the use of “human seminal model” might be the main objective to be considered in the agenda of public prevention policies for early detection and innovative programs of health surveillance in environmental risk areas.",signatures:"Luigi Montano, Paolo Bergamo, Maria Grazia Andreassi and\nStefano Lorenzetti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59074",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59074",authors:[{id:"206180",title:"Dr.",name:"Luigi",surname:"Montano",slug:"luigi-montano",fullName:"Luigi Montano"},{id:"222782",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",surname:"Bergamo",slug:"paolo-bergamo",fullName:"Paolo Bergamo"},{id:"222783",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Grazia",surname:"Andreassi",slug:"maria-grazia-andreassi",fullName:"Maria Grazia Andreassi"},{id:"222784",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefano",surname:"Lorenzetti",slug:"stefano-lorenzetti",fullName:"Stefano Lorenzetti"}],corrections:null},{id:"59268",title:"Interacytoplasmic Morphologically Selected Sperm Injection: A Tool for Selecting the Best Sperm in Real Time",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73388",slug:"interacytoplasmic-morphologically-selected-sperm-injection-a-tool-for-selecting-the-best-sperm-in-re",totalDownloads:1070,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Routine sperm parameters are used to evaluate fertility potential of the male partner. Since the introduction of intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), it seems that the importance of routine parameters of sperm morphology has decreased in the field of assisted reproduction. ICSI has facilitated to achieve fertilization, embryo development, and pregnancies, from the treatment of males with poor-quality spermatozoa. Morphology is the only criteria for sperm aspiration during ICSI. Routine criteria are based on the raw ejaculate-stained sperm cells. Thus, it is important to score and aspirate a good-quality motile spermatozoon, which will contribute to the quality of the developing embryo after ICSI, in real time of the procedure. In ICSI, assessment of sperm morphology is limited due to the low magnification (200 × 400×) and concomitant low resolution. By using intracytoplasmic morphologically selected sperm injection (IMSI), it was demonstrated that a spermatozoon with normal morphology, and more precisely normal nucleus, might affect the incidence of pregnancy. Although the usage of IMSI is currently wider, it is necessary to standardize which sperm to aspirate, due to criteria based on accumulating data. Correlation to DNA integrity, embryo development in vitro, female age, male age, or the routine use of IMSI for all cases are raised in order to maximize the efficiency of IMSI technology.",signatures:"Yona Barak and Adrian Ellenbogen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59268",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59268",authors:[{id:"209136",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yona",surname:"Barak",slug:"yona-barak",fullName:"Yona Barak"},{id:"209147",title:"Prof.",name:"Adrian",surname:"Ellenbogen",slug:"adrian-ellenbogen",fullName:"Adrian Ellenbogen"}],corrections:null},{id:"57212",title:"Advanced Label-Free Optical Methods for Spermatozoa Quality Assessment and Selection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71028",slug:"advanced-label-free-optical-methods-for-spermatozoa-quality-assessment-and-selection",totalDownloads:1001,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Current in vitro fertilization (IVF) techniques require a severe selection of sperm, generally based on concentration, morphology, motility, and DNA integrity. Since routinely separation methods may damage the viability of the sperm cell, there is a growing interest in providing a method for noninvasively analyzing spermatozoa taking into account all those parameters. This chapter first reviews the state-of-the-art of label-free sperm cell imaging for IVF, highlighting the limitations of the used techniques. Then, our innovative approach combining Raman spectroscopy and digital holography will be described and its advantages detailed. These include the ability to perform a simultaneous and correlative morphological and biochemical analysis of sperm cells, without labeling, in a fast and reliable way. Finally, the difficulty in reaching clinical use will be discussed, as well as the possible solutions offered by new technological improvements.",signatures:"Annalisa De Angelis, Maria Antonietta Ferrara, Giuseppe Coppola\nand Anna Chiara De Luca",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57212",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57212",authors:[{id:"104314",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Antonietta",surname:"Ferrara",slug:"maria-antonietta-ferrara",fullName:"Maria Antonietta Ferrara"},{id:"106792",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Coppola",slug:"giuseppe-coppola",fullName:"Giuseppe Coppola"},{id:"206226",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Annalisa",surname:"De Angelis",slug:"annalisa-de-angelis",fullName:"Annalisa De Angelis"},{id:"207532",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Chiara",surname:"De Luca",slug:"anna-chiara-de-luca",fullName:"Anna Chiara De Luca"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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Due to overexploitation of natural resources for catering to basic human needs coupled with hunger, the aim of Food and Agricultural Organization’s [1] of making world agriculture for enhancing 70% food production by 2050 for 2.3 billion newborn individual is facing a lot of challenges. As a result of changing climate and global warming, these threats are now called as “global warning” due to their effects on plant productivity [2]. According to a report published by IPCC [3], global climate change will increase the mean temperature of the Earth by 2–4°C. Due to increased anthropogenic activities, the change in climate will further increase and will definitely affect the agriculture sector as this is being more prone to climate changes [4]. A change in climate scenarios is the main reason of biotic and abiotic pressures of a particular region. Various abiotic stresses all over the world have now been adjudged as the most potential threat for sustainable agricultural productivity [5, 6]. Myriads of anthropogenic emissions in the developmental era have further intensified the abiotic stress-induced negative impacts on agricultural productivity. The major abiotic stresses such as metals/metalloids (hereafter termed as “metal/s”), salt, ozone, UV-B radiation, temperature extremes, nutrient (deficiency and excess), flooding, and water deficit are jeopardizing the agriculture system worldwide [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. These abiotic stresses can modulate almost all plant physiological, biochemical, and molecular processes starting from the seedling to maturity stage and can ultimately cause severe negative impacts on economic yield of various crop plants. Nevertheless, abiotic stresses have been reported to adversely affect 70% yield of crops [20]. The stress of metal/s is known to affect the photosynthetic process to a great extent [19, 21]. According to an estimate of U.S. Environmental Action Group, various metals pose negative effects on health in more than 10 million of human population in eight countries (such as China, India, Russia, Dominican Republic, Kyrgyzstan, Peru, Ukraine, and Zambia) and the effect imposed by them is regarded as one of the major threats to the agriculture [22]. Wang et al. [23] have reports to show that the salinization of arable land could accelerate to a land loss of 30% by the year end of 2028 and up to 50% by 2050.In current times, an increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration has been reported to reach by 407.4 ppm, and its levels today are more than at any point recorded for at least the past 800,000 years [24]. In addition, the data accessed on NOAA website [25] show that the average global temperature in June 2020 was found to be 1.66 °F (0.92 of a °C) above the twentieth century’s average of 59.9 °F (15.5 °C) and the average temperature of June across the U.S. was found to be 70.3 °F (which is 1.8° above average), which ranks it the warmest third month in the history of the 126-year record. Hence, all these abiotic stress factors under the effect of climate change could be expected to significantly pose a potential threat to agriculture [11, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. Therefore, the knowledge of crop productivity improvement techniques under various abiotic stresses is one of the biggest challenges encountered by the scientific community across the world. Despite much and extensive efforts being utilized in the current field, the underlying quest for obtaining abiotic stress-resistant crops is very low and receives little attention. Various efforts are being utilized to decipher the potential mechanisms behind plant responses to abiotic stress conditions. Plants are sessile and are exposed to various environmental regimes and have to tolerate these abiotic stress-induced adverse impacts for performing their growth and development in an optimal manner. As a result of an exponential increase in the global human population, the demand for enhanced food is also accelerating and in order to meet these challenges under a challenging environment, it has become necessary to increase crop productivity. Nevertheless, the exogenous use of phytohormones in these adaptive mechanisms for engineering abiotic stress tolerance in diverse crop plants can yield better results.
Phytohormones are small chemicals messengers that play important roles in regulating the promotion of growth, development, and metabolism of the plants in a wide range of biotic and abiotic stresses. These are biodegradable and highly promote the growth and crop yield under optimal as well as stressed conditions. The knowledge of engineering in plants could be exploited to impart tolerance against a wide range of abiotic stresses. Thus, the present chapter focuses on the potent role of various phytohormones in enhancing the morphological and physiological properties of crop plants and also sheds light on the alleviative role in providing plant tolerance to various environmental stresses.
In the following sections, we will be discussing the potential role of different phytohormones like SA-, BRs-, ET- and MJ-mediated mechanisms in countering diverse abiotic pressures like salinity, drought, heat, and metal/s stress in diverse crop species. The role of these phytohormones in eliciting various responses in different crop plants has also been represented in Table 1.
Name of plant | Abiotic stress, type, and doses | Phytohormone doses | Consequent response | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Metal stress Cd (150 mg/Kg) | Methyl jasmonate 1 μM | A significant decrease in length of root and shoot, fresh and dry masses of shoot and leaf area; decreased chlorophyll and leaf gas exchange traits, and leaf N, P, and K content; increase in the activities of APX, GR, SOD, CAT, ROS production, osmolytes; and closure in stomatal movement under Cd. Improvement in these traits and alleviation of stress by MJ application | Zaid and Mohammad [31] | |
Cd 30, 60, and 120 mg/kg | Salicylic acid 10−4 M | Decreased growth and photosynthetic traits and enzymes like NR and CA activities; increased phenolics, activities of SOD, POX, and proline content under Cd. SA improved photosynthesis; activity of RuBisCo, CA, and GSH pool, EO content; and yield of peppermint plants | Ahmad et al. [32] | |
Salt 100 mM | 24-epibrassinolide 10−7 M | EBL application decreased Na+ accumulation and promoted the uptake of the mineral nutrients, modulated osmolytes, activities of key antioxidant enzymes, and the levels of nonenzymatic antioxidants thus improves growth and photosynthesis | Alam et al. [33]. | |
Salt 150 mM | 24-epibrassinolide 10−8 M | NaCl decreased methylation of CCGG sequences. EBL application induced the total methylation under salinity stress conditions | Amraee et al. [34]. | |
Cr 1.2 mM | 200 μL/L ethephon application | ET was found to be involved in reversal of Cr-inhibited growth and photosynthesis by increasing PSII efficiency and enhanced N and S assimilation | Asgher et al. [35] | |
As 50 and 200 μM | Methyl jasmonate 0.1 and 1.00 μM | MJ application effectively mitigated the adverse effects of As stress by increasing the biomass, chlorophyll fluorescence, and the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, reducing the oxidative stress biomarkers and maintaining antioxidant system | Farooq et al. [36] | |
Metal stress Cu (50 μM) | Methyl jasmonate 10 μM | The enzymatic activities SOD, CAT, APX, POX, as well as MDA, GSH, and proline increased under Cu stress. MJ also elevated the activities CAT, APX, and POX activities in the roots. Final results showed that MJ was partially effective in modulating the anti-oxidative enzymes’ activities and accumulation of metabolites, in both normal and Cu-stressed plants | Hanaka et al. [37] | |
Salt (0, 50, 100, or 150 mM NaCl) | Salicylic acid, gibberellic acid, and triacontanol, each with 10−6 M | The salinity stress decreased growth, photosynthesis, activity of CA, contents of N, P, K, peltate glandular trichome density, EO and menthol content, and herbage yield but increased CAT, POX, and SOD activities and proline. The foliar spray of SA surpassed the other two phytohormones and maximally improved all parameters under both salt stress and salt free conditions | Khanam and Mohammad [38] | |
Ni 200 mg/kg | Ethylene 200 μL/L | The results showed that Ni decreased growth and photosynthesis but increased oxidative stress. Supply of ET ameliorated the stress by increasing the proline synthesis, antioxidant defense, and glyoxalase systems to promote the photosynthetic effectiveness under Ni stress | Khan et al. [39] | |
Metalloid stress (Boron) 1.00 and 2.00 mM | Methyl jasmonate 300 μM | B decreased the stem height, fresh and dry masses of the plant, the net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, internal CO2 concentration, and total chlorophyll content. MJ supply alleviates changes in growth and photosynthetic efficiency by increasing the activities of antioxidant enzymes and yield of secondary metabolites | Aftab et al. [40] |
Various studies in diverse crop plants under different abiotic stresses conditions and the consequent response shown by these plants under various phytohormone application.
The name of “salicylic acid SA” is known to be derived from the Latin word
Brassinosteroids (BRs) are an important class of plant steroid-based phytohormone that plays multiple roles in regulating plant growth, development, and responses to environmental stresses [7, 8, 50, 51, 61, 62, 63, 64]. 28-homobrassinolide (HBL) and 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) are the two isomers of BRs which regulate an array of plant physiological processes [65, 66]. BRs have structural resemblance with androgens, estrogens, corticoids, and ecdysteroids. The discovery of brassinolide (BL) dates back to 1979, and now about 70 compounds which are naturally occurring have been reported as free molecules or form conjugates with glucose and FA [67]. The isomers of BRs play a significant role in imparting abiotic stress tolerance in crop plants. In potato plants, Kolomeichuk et al. [68] studied the EBL-mediated (10−10 M) alleviation of NaCl toxicity (root application 100 mM) on photosynthetic processes. Salinity inhibited the contents of photosynthetic pigments, photosynthetic electron transport and photosystem II (PSII) maximal and effective quantum yields, oxidation of the plastoquinone (PQ). The treatment with 24-EBL under salinity stress maintained the efficiency of PSII photochemistry, PQ pool oxidation, and decrease in leaf osmotic potential. Amraee et al. [34] reported the 24-EBL-mediated (10−8 M) alteration on the extent and pattern of DNA cytosine methylation in Linum usitatissimum L. plants under salinity stress (150 mM) by using methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphisms (MSAP) technique. In conclusion, they found that the seed priming with 24-EBL play an important regulatory role via the epigenetic modification and induction of methylation in response to salinity toxicity. 24-EBL (10−8 mM) also confers tolerance against NaCl (100 mM) stress in soybean plants [33]. Exposure of soybean plants to 100 mM salt stress decreased growth, biomass yield, gas exchange traits, photosynthetic pigment contents, and chlorophyll fluorescence but increased H2O2, MDA, EL, and the antioxidant activities like SOD, CAT, accumulation of proline, and glycinebetaine (GB), total phenols, and total flavonoids. Application of 24-EBL (10−8 mM) to salt-stressed plants’ upregulated the growth, biomass, yield, gas exchange and photosynthetic pigment contents, and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters but concomitantly reduced the accumulation of oxidative stress biomarkers. In a factorial experiment, Kaya et al. [69] studied the effect of 24-EBL (1.5 and 2.0 μM) application in regulating key physio-biochemical traits and oxidative defense system in two cultivars of maize, namely, PR32T83 and PR34N24 under two salinity levels (1.1 and 8.0 dS/m). Salinity levels decreased the fresh and dry weights of plant, yield of PS-II, chlorophyll contents, leaf water potential, and leaf K and Ca levels, but triggered an increase in membrane permeability, lipid peroxidation, H2O2, SOD, POD, CAT enzymes’ activities, leaf Na and Cl, proline and GB, and leaf sap osmotic pressure. However, 24-EBL supply via both seed treatment and foliar application to the maize cultivars alleviated the detrimental effects of salt stress. In Cucumis sativus L. cv. Jinyan No. 4, plants grown under vermiculite and in hydroponic culture, Ahammed et al. [70] tested the efficacy of 24-EBL in alleviating organic pollutants (OPs), namely, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, chlorpyrifos and oxytetracycline-retarded root elongation by unraveling the redox homeostasis and secondary metabolism-mediated underlying mechanisms. The results revealed that all the three tested OPs retarded elongation of roots, increased MDA, H2O2 and NO, while exogenous 24-EBL markedly decreased the accumulations of H2O2, NO and MDA
Phytohormone “ethylene” (ET) is a small gaseous plant growth regulator which is responsible for ripening of fruits and is known for inducing triple response in plants [77]. The growth-regulating effects of ET were first observed by a Russian physiologist Dimitry K. Neljubov in 1901, however almost 60 years later in 1965 ET was established as a plant hormone [78]. Plant growth and senescence are chiefly regulated by the signaling mechanisms of ET [79, 80, 81]. However, it exerts its multifunctional role as one of the diversified signaling molecules to confer acclimatization to crop plants under various abiotic stresses. The signal perception of ET takes place at the membrane of endoplasmic reticulum and is bacterial two-component type which initiates a cascade signaling events through transcriptional regulation in the nucleus, thus eventually controlling a myriad of plant developmental events. Meanwhile, the interplay of ET with other signaling molecules provides adaptation to plants under various abiotic pressures [7, 8, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88]. Now, we will focus our attention on various reports on the functions of ET on tolerance toward major abiotic stresses in crop plants. Indian mustard plants were grown under 200 mg Zn/kg soil and the effects of 200 μL/L spray of ethephon at 20 days after sowing (DAS) was tested to alleviate the Zn toxicity. The results after 30 DAS revealed that exposure to Zn stress causes toxicity by inhibiting photosynthesis and growth, while increasing the oxidative stress biomarkers. ET application (as ethephon) to Zn-stressed plants restored photosynthesis and growth of mustard plants by decreasing oxidative stress via augmenting antioxidant activity, the metabolism of proline, glyoxalase system, and optimum nutrient homoeostasis [89]. In tomato plants, Alves et al. [90] provided new insights into the interactive role of ET on selenium-mediated antioxidant enzymes under Cd stress. Overall, the results suggested that cross talk of ET with Se manipulated the ET regulated expression of genes to induce Cd tolerance. The effect of Cr toxicity at 1.2 mM concentration given as K2Cr2O7 after 10 DAS through nutrient solution on four cultivars of Brassica juncea, namely, Varuna, Pusa Bold, Rohini and SS2 were studied under ET supplementation [35]. Plants grown under Cr stress showed an enhanced accumulation of H2O2, MDA content, and superoxide production and a marked reduction in photosynthesis and growth traits. Ethylene (2-chloroethyl phosphonic acid, 200 μL/L) boosted the activities of enzymes associated with S assimilation, proline accumulation, anti-oxidant defense system, ATP-sulfurylase and serine acetyl transferase, and GSH level and resulted in inhibition of stress ET levels to the optimal range under Cr stress, thus increasing the photosynthesis and growth. The key role of ET was further substantiated by using ET action inhibitor, silver nitrate (AgNO3) in the reversal of Cr-induced changes. In Brassica juncea plants, alleviatory role of ET (200 μL/L as ethephon) in the presence of 200 mg/kg soil each of Ni and Zn stress was investigated [91]. Application of ET reverses photosynthetic inhibition and promotes growth by inducing changes in PS II photochemistry, photosynthetic NUE, and modulation of antioxidant enzymes. The study got further confirmation by using ET action inhibitor-norbornadiene which reversed ET-induced changes. In Arabidopsis thaliana, Hartman et al. [92] studied the changes in NO and oxygen in controlling the stability of TFs in regulating of N-degron pathway and adaptation to flooding-induced hypoxia. They concluded that ET-mediated decrease in NO conferred tolerance to plants against hypoxia stress. The pretreatment of rice plants with the ET precursor under submergence stress plays a key role in the survival of rice plants [93]. ET signaling helped in the survival of rice seedlings under submergence stress by affecting intracellular redox homeostasis and antioxidant systems. Jegadeesan et al. [94] unraveled the proteomics involved in pollen of Solanum lycopersicum thermotolerance mechanisms mediated by ET. The quantitative analysis showed that heat stress-affected protein homeostasis and metabolism of carbohydrate and energy. ET (ethephon) increased pollen quality prior to heat stress exposure. According to gel LC-MS fractionation a total of 1355 proteins were identified. ET application shifted pollen proteome exposed to the heat stress closer to the proteome under non-stressful conditions and caused an upregulation into the protective mechanisms against the heat-induced oxidative stress by causing a significant higher abundance of glutathione-disulfide reductase, glutaredoxin, and protein disulfide isomerase. Iqbal et al. [95] studied the potential of exogenously sourced ET (200 μL/L) under nutrient deficiency (40 mg N/kg soil) at 40 DAS. ET supply increased the stomatal conductance, photosynthesis, and promotes growth under low nutrient availability in mustard plants. Application ET also alleviated salt stress response in various crop plants. In fact, the alteration of ET signaling mechanism significantly affects the response of plants to salt stress [96]. Freitas et al. [97] worked out the capacity of ET in triggering salinity stress tolerance in maize plants. During NaCl exposure, a biphasic ET production (at 5.5 and 12.5 h) and decrease in total polyamine content was noticed in salt-sensitive plants. In the salt-tolerant genotype, there was lack of stress ET biosynthesis and this was attributed to the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid oxidase (ACO) and
Methyl jasmonate (MJ) is one of the conjugates of jasmonic acids (JAs) and are important as well as ubiquitous phytohormone distributed in plants [102]. MJ is implicated in plant responses to salt, drought, metal/s, and heat stresses. MJ exert its alleviatory role under abiotic stresses by modulating plant morphology and physiology to a great extent. Taheri et al. [103] studied the effects of exogenous MJ-mediated (0, 60, and 120 mM) improvements in physiological and biochemical traits of
Crop plants are exposed to myriads of abiotic stress conditions and undergo a significant retardation in growth and development, thus reducing crop productivity. Stresses are perceived, and modulation in the expression of genes encoding diverse proteins are induced in the signal transduction pathways in plants. Application of discussed phytohormones in the present chapter showed that the cross talk of phytohormones with various signaling agents under different stress conditions in diverse crop plants impart stress tolerance under stress pressures. A schematic representation on phytohormones-mediated abiotic stress tolerance in given in Figure 1.
Abiotic stress and phytohormones’ signal transduction pathway in plants.
Antiparasitic chemotherapeutics can be categorized as anthelmintics, ectoparasiticides (insecticides and acaricides), and antiprotozoals. Anthelmintics are those agents used to destroy worms and are used as anticestodal, antinematodal, and antinematodal agents [1].
The use of chemical agents against nematodes traced back to the 1990s and those agents were having less effectiveness. Chemicals used for nematode destruction were arsenic compounds, cupric sulfate, nicotine, Chenopodium oil like alkaloids. These chemical compounds were found less effective and more toxic for livestock. Synthetic drug phenothiazine antinematodal characteristics were first reported in the United States and were used as broad-spectrum medicine for nematode treatment in horses, ruminants, and chickens. Phenothiazine is removed from the therapeutic inventory in many countries [1].
From that time scientists were trying to produce an ideal anthelmintic drug that could be used as broad-spectrum dewormers and result in the use of organophosphorus compounds, imidazoles, and tetrahydro pyrimidines. Thiabendazole (TBZ) was developed in 1961 after two decades, and this drug is having high efficiency and safety and broad-spectrum. It was the first-generation benzimidazole group and used against a wide range of hosts, i.e., goats, poultry, sheep, cattle, pigs, horses, and humans against gastrointestinal nematodes, and it shows ovicidal, larvicidal, and adulticidal activities. After TBZ’s success, it was planned to structurally modify it toward evolving drugs with excellent properties. Levamisole was discovered in 1966 and was marketed with the name of hydrochloride (HCL) salt having broad-spectrum antinematodal activities and immunomodulator effects [2].
Macrocyclic lactone derivatives including ivermectin (IVM) were discovered in 1981 broad-spectrum insecticidal activities. After this in 2009 after 28 years, monepantel was commercially released [3]. Broad-spectrum antinematodal synthetic compounds are divided into four major groups, i.e., macrocyclic lactone derivatives including milbemycins/ivermectin, benzimidazole/pro-benzimidazole group, tetrahydro pyrimidines group including morantel, pyrantel tartrate, and imidazothiazoles group including tetramisole and levamisole [1].
Commonly used chemotherapeutic groups are briefly reviewed in this review.
Compounds of this group are metabolized in the body and activate BZ metabolites. Members of this group are oxfendazole, ricobendazole, albendazole, thiabendazole, mebendazole, triclabendazole, oxibendazole, cambendazole, and other chemicals belonging to pro-benzimidazole, i.e., thiophanate, febantel, and netobimin [1].
Benzimidazole is effective against adult nematodes in ruminants and also has ovicidal and larvicidal activities. Some benzimidazole also exhibits anti-trematode and anticestodal activities. They are used in various hosts such as bovine, canine, equine, ovine, feline, reptiles, caprine, birds, and human species. In the case of humans, thiabendazole, mebendazole, and albendazole are used. They are having low toxicity and in some cases can be drenched 10 times than the calculated standard dose rate [2, 4].
All members of this group are having the same mode of action and disturb the energy metabolism of parasitic nematodes through binding with tubulin protein (alpha and beta molecules). This protein is present in plasma and microtubules and forms heterodimers and constructs blocks in polymeric microtubules [1]. Microtubules formation is a dynamic process affected by tubulin ring polymerization and depolymerization. Microtubules play an important role in cell division, energy metabolism, shape, and transport of substrate and protein assemblage. Benzimidazole group members bundle with β-tubulin, and this complex integrates at the propagating ends of the microtubules and inhibits the assemblage of extra microtubules. This whole process is known as capping [5, 6, 7].
They cause parasite undernourishment (due to failure in glucose uptake, the proliferation of microtubules, and protein secretion), reduction in acetylcholinesterase enzyme secretion, reduction in carbohydrate catabolism through fumarate reductase enzyme. Histological investigation of benzimidazole pharmacodynamics also reports their role in disturbance of microtubule aggregation in nematodes at those concentrations that do not influence mammalian cells (Figure 1) [1, 6, 8].
Illustration of four different mechanisms of action by benzimidazoles against GI parasites.
Imidazothiazoles consist of two drugs, i.e., tetramisole and levamisole HCL (LEV). Levamisole is a Levo isomer and has true antinematodal activity while tetramisole is a mixture of Levo and destroys forms. That is why the calculated dose of levamisole is half that of tetramisole.
Levamisole is mostly used in goats, sheep, swine, and cattle while in the case of horses, it is contraindicated. This drug is having potency against both mature and immature stages. That’s why the calculated dosage of LEV is half that of tetramisole with a safety index of twice.
In sheep, goat, cattle, and swine, LEV is administrated, and in horses, mostly it is contraindicated. In several mature and immature stages of alimentary tract nematodes and lungworms, LEV has shown great potential. Whereas LEV is not anticestodal nor it is anti-trematode. LEV has not shown any ovicidal activity such as BZs. Whereas the remedial index of LEV is relatively lower than that of other antinematodal. LEV has also been found effective against hypobiotic larvae of the sheep parasitic nematode,
The working mode of action of levamisoles has depicted that it works as a cholinergic agonist; it acts as nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the surface of the nematode muscle cells along with neuromuscular junction. The antinematodal potential of LEV is mostly associated with its ganglion stimulant activity. It induces ganglion-like structure in somatic muscle cells of nematodes. The induction ultimately results in determining muscle contractions that are in line with the depolarizing barricades causing paralysis.
The pharmacodynamics of the compound plays an important role in the paralysis that leads to the elimination of helminths promptly through normal intestinal peristalsis (Figure 2) [1, 2].
Illustration of the mechanism of actions of levamisole and ivermectin against GI parasites.
Macrocyclic lactones have different commercialized products that show insecticidal activity against a broad range of parasitic nematodes and ectoparasites (ticks, mites, lice) that infest domestic animals [9, 10]. Avermectins that include doramectin, ivermectin, abamectin, and eprinomectin are the fermented products of actinomycete
The unequal larvicidal and adulticidal activity of IVM against Gastro-Intestinal Tract (GIT) roundworms and lungworms of ruminantia, porcine, and equine is its main factor of characterization [10, 11]. The control of microfilariae of canine heartworm
IVM along with other ML derivatives such as moxidectin is frequently used against haemonchosis in sheep due to its mode of action [1]. This increases their influence by binding to glutamate and GABA-gated chloride channel receptors in nematode and arthropod nerve cells. The whole process results in the opening of the channel and allows the entry of chloride ions (Cl−). This will lead to the paralysis of the body wall, pharyngeal muscles, and uterine muscles in nematodes [12]. It is stated that the sensitivity of dissimilar chloride channel subunits to MLs and expression location are variable characters, and it can be accounted for the paralytic effect of different concentrations of MLs on the neuromuscular systems. It is also stated that nematode paralysis and body wall muscle paralysis can be proved serious for prompt exclusion, also pharyngeal muscle paralysis is more sensitive [13]. It has also been revealed that MLs cause the flaccid paralysis of the pharynx of nematodes along with moxidectin and IVM as it is more sensitive than somatic musculature, which shows that the target is the nervous system of parasites. If the concentration of MLs drops, then the motility of the parasites can be recuperated. As compared with somatic muscles, the paralysis of the pharyngeal muscles, as well as consequential inhibition of nourishing, can be longer. The reason for the ineffectiveness of ML derivatives against trematode and cestode parasites is that these worms do not have receptors at their glutamate-gated chloride channel.
Resistance development against anthelmintics consists of a certain phase, i.e., during first phase, number of parasites developing resistance against specific anthelmintics is less; there is a gradual increase, and heterozygous parasites develop resistance and lead to the final phase where individuals become resistant against those anthelmintics, and the population becomes homozygous parasites population. It is also observed that parasite resistance against a specific anthelmintic also brings resistance against some other anthelmintics groups [14].
Resistance is a drug tolerance ability of a worm and survives in the recommended doses of anthelmintics that are normally an effective dose [15]. Parasitic resistance was first described in 1957, and firstly studied anthelmintic agents were organophosphates, phenothiazine, rafoxanide, thiabendazole, and macrocyclic lactones [16]. Recently different GIT parasites especially
Common | Very common | Less common |
Common | Common | Less common |
Initially, the development of resistance against nematicidal drugs was reported in the Southern hemisphere, and the most resistant was studied on
Country | Anthelmintic drugs | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|
Argentina | BZs, LEV, IVM | [24] |
Australia | Ops, BZs, LEV, TBZ, OXF, Closantel, Morantel | [19, 20] |
Belgium | BZs | [25] |
Brazil | BZs, LEV, IVM, Closantel | [24] |
France | BZs, LEV | [26] |
Germany | IVM,BZs, Pyrantel tarterate, FEN, Febantel, OXF, LEV, TBZ, ALB, MBZ | [27] |
India | BZs, IVM, FEN, Morantel, Closantel, LEV, Thiophanate, | [28] |
Kenya | BZs, LEV, RAF, FEN, IVM | [29] |
Malaysia | BMZ, LEVS, IVM, Moxidectin, Closantel | [25] |
Netherlands | OXFS, LEVS, BMZ, IVM | [30] |
New Zealand | BMZ, LEVS, IVM | [18, 31] |
Pakistan | OXFS, LEVS, ALB, IVM | [32, 33] |
Paraguay | BMZ, LEVS, IVM | [34] |
South Africa | BMZ, IVM, RAF, Closantel | [35] |
Uruguay | BMZ, LEVS, IVM | [36] |
United State of America | FEN, IVM, Pyrantel pamoate, LEVS, TBZ, | [37, 38] |
Zimbabwe | RAF, BMZ, LEVS, | [39] |
Geographical distribution of anthelmintic resistance developed by helminths in different parts of the world (selected references).
ALB = Albendazole, BMZ = Benzimidazoles, FEN=Fenbendazole, IVM = Ivermectin, LEVs = Levamisole, OXFS=Oxfendazoles, RAF = Rafoxanide, and TBZ = Thiabendazole.
Hence, the growing anthelmintic resistance is threatening livestock production, increasing the toxic level in the environment, and ultimately reducing the food availability for human beings [23, 40]. Therefore, the scientists and parasitologists are performing the duty to raise one’s hope by launching alternatives to overcome the developing resistance such as biological control (phytotherapy) [33].
Control of gastrointestinal nematode parasite (GINP).
Numerous techniques and plans have been utilized to lower the gastrointestinal (GI) nematode parasites of small ruminants across the world. Some of the techniques and methods are appropriate, and a few of them have limitations. Moreover, new methods and new approaches are being evaluated and established. The prime methodologies that have been used routinely to reduce the burden of GI nematodes are reviewed here.
Anthelmintics are those drugs that kill the helminths and are playing a toxic role to the worms and can be achieved by exposing the nematodes to a higher concentration of anthelmintics. This higher concentration is for worms not for the host body cells. This higher concentration inhibits the vital metabolic processes of the worms and kills the worm either by starving it or paralyzing it [23]. Resistance is a reduction in the efficacy of certain anthelmintics against parasites that are susceptible to anthelmintics in normal conditions [41]. Chemotherapeutic application is a very common and primitive method (conventional) to control the GINP around the globe. The agents have been used for both therapy and prophylaxis. Benzimidazole, Ivermectin, and Imidathiazole are three major chemical groups that have been used frequently for decades.
Several reports are published that demonstrate the resistance generation of GI nematodes to these chemicals worldwide [23]. Few studies reported the higher level of resistance produced against the broad-spectrum anthelmintics and also reported the side effects at higher dose levels [41]. A higher level of resistance in
Resistance is a global issue, and some regions are more exposed to it as compared with others, e.g., tropical and subtropical regions are more affected by the resistance of GI nematodes [33]. Soli
Regions where haemonchosis is endemic and anthelmintic treatment is frequently used at the farm level are exhibiting more resistance in
In grazing ruminants, copper is administered along with diet as a feed additive to overcome the deficiency symptoms. The use of copper started in the 1900s, in various forms to minimize the worm load (SCSRPC). The use of copper oxide wire particles (COWPs) was found more successful in reducing nematodes, more precisely
For administration in cattle, COWP boluses (Copasure©) of 12.5 and 25 g are available and for small ruminants, smaller dosages of 0.5–2 g are used [40, 43]. The recommended COWP dosage for cattle of weight above 227 kilograms was 12.5 g [45]. The sensitivity of sheep is higher against copper, and a little higher dosage may lead to toxicity although COWP is released slowly. Risk factors of copper toxicity that should be considered during administration are animal breed, age, health status, and other minerals deficiency such as molybdenum, poultry litter exposure [46]. Investigation on the use of COWP among exotic artiodactyls has been performed at Disney’s Animal Kingdom® Lodge. During the trials, four artiodactyl species included roan antelope, blesbuck, scimitar-horned oryx, and blackbuck. The corollary of their study indicated a marked reduction in EFC (above 90%) on day 7 post-COWP therapy. The animal species variations, liver health status, copper level, interaction level with other minerals, and history of copper supplementation should be considered before the implementation of the COWP GIN control program in exotic animals. Before the use of COWP in an integrated pest management program, the impact of COWP on reproduction, accumulation level, and sensitivity level among species should be investigated [45].
In this perspective, the naturally found pest antagonist organisms are used to control the pest population. Grønvold
The biological control strategies were proposed to reduce the parasite population below the economic threshold and clinical level above that considerable production losses are there. High efficacy of
Sheep feeding supplemented with
Strategies for worm load investigation: FEC, larval developmental assays (LDA), FEC reduction test, and fecal larval culture (FLC) have proved valuable linkage with monitoring and control of worm infection. Mainly FEC is used for monitoring and management of GIN parasites. LDA is used for nematode species identification and to explore the resistance level [57]. FLC helps in identifying worm species, seasonal variation, and enclosure of GIN population. FECRT is the most authentic approach to determine anthelmintic resistance, but it is expensive and labor-intensive [57]. The demands for the exploration of alternative strategies toward helminth control have been augmented due to the lack of new anthelmintics. The applications of plants having condensed tannins, COWP, nematophagous fungi, and other biological approaches in combination with anthelmintics, animal management, control of ecological factors, and GIN level monitoring strategies could be effective to overcome GIN resistance in small ruminants.
Among TST methods FAMACHA chart and McMaster are mainly used way to identify the worm-infected animals and require treatment. The former method is used to diagnose anemic animals by comparing their eye (conjunctiva) color with the chart. The latter method provides a real-time picture of parasite burden via egg counting in fecal material. In the McMaster method, fecal material is suspended in floatation solution and supernatants are taken on a specific glass slide (Mc Master chamber) and observed under a microscope for egg counting. For reducing anthelmintic resistance among GI parasites, selective therapy is highly effective. By using the aforementioned methods, medicinal cost of animals declines because they selectively purchase few anthelmintics and animals are responsive against these drugs. On the other hand, selective therapy is laborious and time-taking, farmers have to perform the FAMACHA check once a month. Routine-wise performance of McMaster is mandatory because sometimes with FAMACHA check animals found healthy while through McMaster they were found with high worm burden, and such animals should be treated because these animals may act as a source for others. The FAMACHA score system is found to be highly effective in the selection of worm-resilient animal breeds [58].
For the control of GI nematodes infections, two most commonly used methods include the use of anthelmintics and pasture management; they are associated with reduction of production losses because of nematodes infections. Two ways of producing safe pastures and reducing the infectivity of pasture include rotational grazing and pasture spelling, this strategy is very [59]. In rotational grazing, it is assumed that significant larval mortality occurs because of break-in grazing. But, unfortunately, the period in between animal rotations makes the best use of available and nutritious forage coincides with the period during that high concentration of L3 becoming available for reinfection. In the United States, a study was conducted at a farm and reported that lambs raised under a rotational grazing system were highly infested with helminths in comparison with others. Most of them were infected with nematodes,
With the provision of a good and high level of nutrition, the productivity of animals can be improved with an increase in the immune response against parasites. With an increase in the level of proteins in the diet, an increase in the resistance and resilience of lamb against
In ethnoveterinary medicine, medicinal plants are used for the prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal parasitism. There is a wide range of medicinal plants or plant extracts that are used to treat almost every kind of livestock disease related to parasites. There are so many studies and available literature on the anthelmintic properties of plants and their extracts, which confirms the antinematodal effects of these plants [33, 42, 64, 65, 66, 67]. In comparison to synthetic drugs the herbal preparations are way cheaper and easily available and thus have been used for a long time in the therapy of livestock diseases of helminth parasites [68].
Many plants and herbs are used as control agents for human and veterinary endoparasites, and the efficacy of each plant depends upon the chemical composition and secondary metabolites composition. The composition of a plant is a variable character depending upon soil properties, climatic conditions, geographical variability, and environmental conditions. Anthelmintic activity of a plant is variable in different areas of the world and depends upon the harvest of the plant, plant parts, which are used as anthelmintics, storage of the plant, and combination of different plant extracts [68]. Choice of extraction solvent is also an important factor that affects the solubility of secondary metabolites of the target plants usually water and methanol are used as extraction solvents. Ethanolic extracts are considered a better choice as they can easily enter the body of the parasite through absorption [69].
To determine the plant properties, two different study types are used. i.e., in vitro and in vivo, and each study type has some merits and demerits. In vitro studies are cost-effective and can study a variety of plants at the same time, allowing the study of specific parasites and their lifecycle stages [70]. While in vivo studies are lengthy processes and can study a single plant at a time. Sometimes the result of the in vivo and in vitro can be different as the outcome of the study depends on the internal factor of the host and plant species, e.g., the digestive system of the host [71].
Till today 25% of modern pharmacopeia use plant-derived drugs and some semisynthetic using plant as prototype compound [72]. Anthelmintic efficacy of plants is derived from different parts, e.g., saponins (can cause teguments degradation and vacuolization), tannins, and polyphenols can form a protein complex in the rumen and increase the protein supply, interfere with energy generation, reduction in gastrointestinal metabolism, and ultimately death of the helminth and alkaloids (effect the transport of sucrose transfer from the stomach to the intestine and helminth glucose support is disturbed causing paralysis) [73].
Tannins are compounds that attach with proteins and other molecules and are used as a biological alternative against chemical anthelmintic; many plants naturally contain condensed tannins. There are two main groups in which tannins are divided: one is hydrolyzable tannins (HTs) and the other one is condensed tannins (CTs). Among the two of these groups, condensed tannins are more abundant and are naturally present in browse, legumes, plants, and forage. The concentration of CT, type of animal consuming CT, the plant itself, and the concentration of CT in the plant are the factors that stimulate the effects of CTs. The high concentration of CT can have negative effects, and the noticeable negative effect is reduced palatability that ultimately causes a reduction in intake and digestion, which exerts a negative impact on productivity [46]. There are several benefits of CT intake that include increased wool growth and growth rate, increased amount of bypass protein, reduced bloating, high milk production, as well as a high rate of ovulation.
The prominent and most important benefit of CTs is their positive impact on the GIN infection. It has been observed that CTs specifically
The nutritional combination of animal feed affects the biodiversity of GIT fauna, which may affect the parasite fitness by altering the intestinal environment in which the parasites propagate [63]. Tannins, flavonol glycosides, sesquiterpene, and secondary metabolites are potential candidates for integrated nematode control at the farms level [63, 74, 75]. The plants having these properties are known as nutraceuticals, which are considered for both the nutritional value and as an anthelmintic. It has been reported that supplementation of bioactive plants to goats played role in the regulation of bionomics of resistant parasitic populations along with enhancing the ability of the goat to withstand negative effects of the pathophysiology of parasitic infections [63]. An increase in post-ruminal protein availability playing role in reducing the parasitic infections in large ruminants has also been reported, which may be attributed to the availability of condensed tannins (CTs) or proanthocyanidins and polymers of flavonoid units [48].
The most effective way of controlling infection is vaccination; therefore, demand for vaccine development against GI parasites rises. In disparity with vaccines of viral and bacterial pathogens, vaccine development against parasites did not gain similar success although parasitologists are working in this regard for the last 30 years. The vaccine has been developed against tapeworm and lungworm sheep and cattle respectively. Studies have been conducted in the identification of various antigens of nematodes as vaccine agents [76]. Gut-associated antigens have been reported as vaccine candidates, namely H-gal-GP and H11 of
Traditional use of chemotherapeutic agents against infection of ectoparasites as well as endoparasites leads to the development of resistance against these therapeutic agents. It converges the scientists for exploring the nontraditional ways of controlling GI parasites; development of a resistant breed of the host through selective breeding, vaccine development, implementation of other control measures (alternate pasture grazing and rotational grazing), and synergistic use of anthelmintics [80].
In vaccines, acquired immunity plays a pivotal role in the protection of the host against pathogens, and it needs to be explored for the development of a vaccine. In the case of parasites, the role of acquired immune response is not fully explored. Therefore, vaccine development against GI parasites for protection remains ineffective [81].
Some fungi of
Gastrointestinal nematode resistance to anthelmintics has been growing day by day, gaining currency to consider it for adopting control measures shortly of the domestic livestock industry. The use of chemical anthelmintics in combination with bioactive plants as nutraceuticals seems to be a potential strategy for parasitic control. Alternate strategies, i.e., use of plants containing condensed tannins, plant-based vaccines, COWP, and biological control through nematode-trapping fungi along with husbandry management may prove helpful in minimizing the mortality and morbidity of parasitic diseases in small ruminants. However, animal breeds selected based on their response to nematodes present in the gastrointestinal tract are an alternate control strategy toward minimizing gastrointestinal problems in goats [43].
Identification of resistant individuals is necessary for the production of parasitic-resistant breeds. Two parameters are mostly reported for the selection of resistant breeds, i.e., FEC, which is an indirect parameter for measurement of the relative level of infection [82]. Hematocrit and PCV are being used for the identification of worm burden, especially in the case of
The researchers cannot divide the magnitude of resistance into discrete genetic units; therefore, the resistance is described in the form of heritability estimates [84]. The phenotype of quantitative traits is regulated by the additive effect of specialized genes [85], which are yet to be identified. The resulting resistance may be attributed to the effect of a combination of many small genes or a group of major genes that are being regulated not only by additive effects but also by the environmental effects [84].
Packed cell volume and fecal egg count are the most useful markers/parameters to estimate the response of host challenge and natural infection with nematodes present in GI in general and specifically
Estimations of phenotypic and genetic correlation explained the amount to which genes affect two different traits and the phenotypic correlation guides the number of relations between two traits. Correlation evaluations are important in the measurement of the appropriateness of indicator traits as indirect criteria in programs related to breeding. Mandonnet
Host live weight is a production trait that has been considered as an important parameter while assessing the genetic resistances of the host toward GI nematode parasites. The heritability estimates of live weight (LWT) varied widely ranging from 0.13 in Australian Angora goats to 0.50 in Texan Angora goats [91]. Likewise, heritability estimates have been reported in South Africa goats breed as 0.29 and 0.35 [92]. It has been shown that resistance to infection by nematode parasites may not necessarily equate to resistance to the effects of the parasite challenge in grazing animals [86]. The association between FEC and productivity varies in magnitude and direction depending on the breed and the environment in which the evaluation was done. The genetic correlations between packed cell volume (PCV) and packed cell volume decline (PCVD) and production (live weight and wool growth) are either negligible or favorable [93].
Several studies around the globe have been conducted to assess the genetic potential of sheep and goats breeds that are resistant to gastrointestinal nematodes in the last three to four decades [82, 83, 87, 93]. The selection of breeds that are resistant to gastrointestinal nematode parasites is assuming the most promising alternate control method of gastrointestinal nematodes. Improved resistance toward nematodes control leads to reduced cost of anthelmintic treatment and diminished production losses associated with worm burden. Australia and New Zealand initiate programs on breeding for resistance and adopt them successfully by utilizing phenotypic markers [94]. Approximately 96% of the world’s goat population is kept by smallholders in developing countries, and genetic improvement programs are rare [95].
Host selection for resistance has based mostly on quantitative measurement of phenotypic traits. These traits have been measured to check the response of the host being evaluated for resistance, which are biochemical, immunological, parasitological, and pathological features [84]. For the development of high-resistant breeds, it is necessary to identify the high-resistant individuals. Criteria for the selection of parasitic resistance are commonly based on two traits, i.e., packed cell volume, which indicates anemia, and fecal egg count, which measures the amount of infection. There is variation in the development of resistance between the animals of different breeds and within the same breeds, which is because of their genetic makeup. The scientists are working to investigate the cause of the development of resistance, and up to some extent they succeeded in finding some reasons while the others are under investigation [84].
According to the best of our knowledge about different factors that are responsible for GI parasitism, it is hard to develop control measures. So, the epidemiology of each parasitic disease is needed to be studied at the regional level to recommend an effective strategy for the control of parasitic diseases, which is not completely dependent on anthelmintic therapy [11]. Keeping in mind the subtropical and tropical areas in which dry seasons are more might be grazing management, rational use of anthelmintics, and use of resistant breeds.
The author wishes to thank all other coauthors for providing guidance and support.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular Economy, Contingency Planning and Response to Disasters, Ecosystem Services, Integrated Urban Water Management, Nature-based Solutions, Sustainable Urban Development, Urban Green Spaces",scope:"