Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5701",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Superfood and Functional Food - The Development of Superfoods and Their Roles as Medicine",title:"Superfood and Functional Food",subtitle:"The Development of Superfoods and Their Roles as Medicine",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Superfoods and functional foods are receiving increasing attention because of their important roles in health. This book focuses on the production of superfoods and functional foods and their role as medicine. In the early chapters, prominent researchers introduce the roles and production of microalgae and functional fruits through metabolic engineering, the use of food waste, and effective cooking procedures. In the latter chapters, other prominent researchers introduce the medical effects of polyphenols, glutamine, and unsaturated fatty acids, which are contained in superfoods and functional foods. They suggest the importance of superfoods and functional foods in the treatment and prevention of many diseases. It is also recommended for readers to take a look at a related book, Superfood and Functional Food: An Overview of Their Processing and Utilization.",isbn:"978-953-51-2942-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2941-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5469-3",doi:"10.5772/65088",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"superfood-and-functional-food-the-development-of-superfoods-and-their-roles-as-medicine",numberOfPages:256,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0c3c4e9924a0f6c2fe2df43d5dfc50fb",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi and Viduranga Waisundara",publishedDate:"February 22nd 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5701.jpg",numberOfDownloads:27482,numberOfWosCitations:124,numberOfCrossrefCitations:39,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:105,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:268,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 2nd 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 23rd 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 27th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 17th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 16th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",middleName:null,surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/163777/images/system/163777.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Naofumi Shiomi studied recombinant yeast and its utilization as a researcher at the Laboratory of Production Technology of Kanena Corporation for 15 years until 1998 and earned his Ph.D. in Engineering from Kyoto University, Japan. He now works as a professor at the School of Human Sciences of Kobe College in Japan, where he teaches applied microbiology, biotechnology, and life science in his Applied Life Science laboratory. He has studied bioremediation for 24 years at Kobe College and has published more than 40 papers and several book chapters on recombinant microorganisms, bioremediation, and functional foods. His recent research has also focused on the prevention of obesity and aging.",institutionString:"Kobe College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"13",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"11",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"324",title:"Food Chemistry",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-bromatology-food-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"52913",title:"A Prominent Superfood: Spirulina platensis",doi:"10.5772/66118",slug:"a-prominent-superfood-spirulina-platensis",totalDownloads:5053,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:26,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Our planet’s resources have been declining, as you know. The life qualities of humans have also changed a little because of their economy, nutrition, sports, and family life. Therefore, more alternative resources are being sought after by humans. Also, in the food supply for animals, scientists have been researching different and alternative supplements for growth performance, immunity, reproduction, and metabolism. Spirulina platensis and its contents have been linked to a nutritional component in both human and animal health and welfare. Growth and immunomodulation properties of this supplement have been widely studied in animals and humans, recently. Nowadays, nutritional specifics of S. platensis are a main focus for researchers. S. platensis is a single-cell protein due to its rich components, such as protein, essential amino acids, fatty acids, antioxidant pigments, carotenoids, beta-carotene, and phycocyanin. Today, researchers study the nutritional quality and investigate the effects of S. platensis on growth, immunity, antioxidant, antitoxicologic, anticancerogenic, cholesterol and glucose metabolism, and fertility. For these reasons, S. platensis may be acceptable as an alternative and/or superfood for the next generation. So, we review this information regarding S. platensis using historical background, literature reviews, qualitative studies, and microscopic appearances in this chapter.",signatures:"Nilay Seyidoglu, Sevda Inan and Cenk Aydin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52913",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52913",authors:[{id:"191307",title:"Dr.",name:"Nilay",surname:"Seyidoglu",slug:"nilay-seyidoglu",fullName:"Nilay Seyidoglu"},{id:"192224",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sevda",surname:"Inan",slug:"sevda-inan",fullName:"Sevda Inan"},{id:"192225",title:"Prof.",name:"Cenk",surname:"Aydin",slug:"cenk-aydin",fullName:"Cenk Aydin"}],corrections:null},{id:"52507",title:"Quality Assessment of Microalgae Exposed to Trace Metals Using Flow Cytometry",doi:"10.5772/65516",slug:"quality-assessment-of-microalgae-exposed-to-trace-metals-using-flow-cytometry",totalDownloads:1448,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Seaweed has long been an important kitchen ingredient and a functional food material. Microalgae have attracted the same attention as seaweed from food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic companies because several algae contain unique functional materials. Industry application of algae requires the selection of useful algal species, evaluation of their features and monitoring of their quality in culture. Taking Chlorella for example, this chapter presents a method using flow cytometry (FCM) to assess not only the number of algae but also algal quality. First, Chlorella was cultured in media containing eluate from steel slag as an experimental factor and trace metals. After the treatment of algae with eluate, the number and physiological features of algae were evaluated, respectively, using hemocytometry and FCM. Results show that eluate from slag induced neither lethality nor growth inhibition. Coupled with hemocytometry, FCM was used to estimate vigorous and aberrant algal status. Consequently, the eluate did not give rise to algae stresses. Interestingly, the addition of slag eluate increased the amounts of the carbonate species. The increase in the carbonate species actually triggered the potential increase in aqueous CO2 for photosynthesis, eventually inducing algal proliferation. These analyses can support evaluation of algal features and maintenance of their quality for industry application.",signatures:"Toshiyuki Takahashi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52507",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52507",authors:[{id:"190663",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Toshiyuki",surname:"Takahashi",slug:"toshiyuki-takahashi",fullName:"Toshiyuki Takahashi"}],corrections:null},{id:"53944",title:"Functional Fruits Through Metabolic Engineering",doi:"10.5772/67219",slug:"functional-fruits-through-metabolic-engineering",totalDownloads:1900,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Metabolic engineering is a main focus of many plant biotechnology programs that look for the production of novel plant varieties with improved human health benefits. Among the most interesting goals are those that are focused in the production of functional fruits. A fruit can be considered as functional if it produces additional benefits to human health and well-being, beyond nutrition. Fruits that present higher levels of beneficial compounds such as essential vitamins, antioxidants, and phytochemicals can be considered as functional as those compounds have long-term benefits in reducing the occurrence of certain diseases. Through the expression, silencing, or mutagenesis strategies, many functional fruit crops have been produced during the last 40 years. Novel plants produce higher amount of carotenoids, antocyanins, and folic acid in their fruits, as well as higher color, sweetness, flavor, and aroma. The improvement of postharvest and resistance to biotic and abiotic stress in commercial plants has been also enhanced as it can led to a better fruit production. Taken together, this chapter will present a revision of the main fruits that have been improved by means of metabolic engineering within the framework of functional foods and super foods.",signatures:"Luis Quiroz-Iturra, Carolina Rosas-Saavedra and Claudia Stange\nKlein",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53944",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53944",authors:[{id:"76724",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Stange",slug:"claudia-stange",fullName:"Claudia Stange"},{id:"191087",title:"Mr.",name:"Luis Felipe",surname:"Quiroz",slug:"luis-felipe-quiroz",fullName:"Luis Felipe Quiroz"},{id:"191090",title:"MSc.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Rosas",slug:"carolina-rosas",fullName:"Carolina Rosas"}],corrections:null},{id:"52859",title:"Food Wastes as Valuable Sources of Bioactive Molecules",doi:"10.5772/66115",slug:"food-wastes-as-valuable-sources-of-bioactive-molecules",totalDownloads:2676,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:23,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Food industry produces worldwide millions of tons of plant‐derived wastes which can be exploited as sources of high‐value components: proteins, fibres, polysaccharides, flavour compounds or different phytochemicals. These bioactive compounds can be valorised as functional ingredients in food, pharmaceutical, health care, cosmetic and other products. Using the recovered bioactive molecules as functional ingredients represents a sustainable alternative of food wastes exploitation as inexpensive source of valuable compounds, while developing innovative food and non‐food products with health‐promoting benefits and at the same time contributing to an efficient waste reduction management. This chapter gives an overview of the main classes of bioactive compounds recovered from food wastes and their potential applications as functional chemicals, without being exhaustive.",signatures:"Sonia A. Socaci, Anca C. Fărcaş, Dan C. Vodnar and Maria Tofană",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52859",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52859",authors:[{id:"191241",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sonia A.",surname:"Socaci",slug:"sonia-a.-socaci",fullName:"Sonia A. Socaci"},{id:"191607",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Anca C.",surname:"Fărcaş",slug:"anca-c.-farcas",fullName:"Anca C. Fărcaş"},{id:"192098",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Tofana",slug:"maria-tofana",fullName:"Maria Tofana"},{id:"192177",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan Cristian",surname:"Vodnar",slug:"dan-cristian-vodnar",fullName:"Dan Cristian Vodnar"}],corrections:null},{id:"54031",title:"Selected Superfoods and Their Derived Superdiets",doi:"10.5772/67239",slug:"selected-superfoods-and-their-derived-superdiets",totalDownloads:2128,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Despite the reported decline in undernourishment in developing regions from 23.3% to 12.9% within 25 years, sub-Saharan Africa is the most malnourished region in the world, and the situation could get even worse depending on how the continent’s love affairs with the few popular foods play out. The irony is that there are millions of nutrient-rich edible plants, insects and animals within tropical Africa, but due to modernization, only 3% of these foods are utilized within diets. Through a comprehensive literature review, this chapter will explore eight of the most feasible superfoods with an objective of using a systems approach to further look into their derived superdiets. Superfoods are naturally occurring plant or animal-based foods dense in nutrients, antioxidants and healthy fats, whilst superdiets are defined as feasible dishes prepared based on selected superfoods, incorporating other food ingredients and using appropriate processing and cooking techniques. The selected superfoods will include amaranth, teff, fonio, moringa leaves, baobab fruit, tamarind and hibiscus leaves. With the dense vitamins, minerals, healthy fats and antioxidants, these superfoods and more importantly their derived dishes have great potential in boosting the immune system, reducing risk of chronic diseases and promoting a healthy and productive population.",signatures:"Beatrice Nakhauka Ekesa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54031",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54031",authors:[{id:"191822",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",surname:"Ekesa",slug:"beatrice-ekesa",fullName:"Beatrice Ekesa"}],corrections:null},{id:"53902",title:"The Mediterranean Diet in the Prevention of Degenerative Chronic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/67119",slug:"the-mediterranean-diet-in-the-prevention-of-degenerative-chronic-diseases",totalDownloads:1741,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Degenerative chronic diseases are a problem related to the aging phenomenon of industrialized countries due to the increase of risk factors and related\ncomorbidity such as overweight, obesity, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, hypertension\nand hyperlipidemia with a consequent increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cancer. Moreover, the significant reduction of physical activity in daily life and the huge growth in food availability have considerably increased the risk of such\ndiseases. Particular attention should be paid to primary prevention by means of health strategies based on improvement in lifestyle intervention such as implementation of\nMediterranean diet and promotion of physical activity programs. In this chapter, the protective effect of Mediterranean diet and the role of certain foods and/or their constituents are analyzed; the possible mechanisms by which Mediterranean diet is effective in the\nprevention of cardiovascular and other chronic diseases are presented, in particular the effects exerted by antioxidants, polyphenols, fibers, unsaturated fatty acids, and alcohol.\nThe genetic revolution in the past decades has produced new fields of study where the interaction between foods, nutrients, and our genetic makeup is investigated. The relationship between nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics and the Mediterranean diet are the future area that research should discover.",signatures:"Elisabetta Della Valle, Francesco Cacciatore, Eduardo Farinaro,\nFrancesco Salvatore, Roberto Marcantonio, Saverio Stranges and\nMaurizio Trevisan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53902",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53902",authors:[{id:"192159",title:"Prof.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Farinaro",slug:"eduardo-farinaro",fullName:"Eduardo Farinaro"},{id:"192160",title:"Prof.",name:"Elisabetta",surname:"Della Valle",slug:"elisabetta-della-valle",fullName:"Elisabetta Della Valle"},{id:"192162",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Cacciatore",slug:"francesco-cacciatore",fullName:"Francesco Cacciatore"},{id:"192163",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Marcantonio",slug:"roberto-marcantonio",fullName:"Roberto Marcantonio"},{id:"192164",title:"Prof.",name:"Saverio",surname:"Stranges",slug:"saverio-stranges",fullName:"Saverio Stranges"},{id:"192165",title:"Prof.",name:"Maurizio",surname:"Trevisan",slug:"maurizio-trevisan",fullName:"Maurizio Trevisan"}],corrections:null},{id:"53352",title:"Isoflavones: Vegetable Sources, Biological Activity, and Analytical Methods for Their Assessment",doi:"10.5772/66531",slug:"isoflavones-vegetable-sources-biological-activity-and-analytical-methods-for-their-assessment",totalDownloads:2461,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Phytoestrogens are natural compounds found in various plant species and they have the ability to bind to the estrogenic receptors, exerting agonist and/or antagonist effects. The main classes of phytoestrogens are isoflavones, lignans, and coumestranes. Isoflavones are plant bioactive nonsteroidal polyphenolic metabolites with antioxidant properties. They have a very close structure with 17β-estradiol and possess estrogenic/antiestrogenic effects. The main dietary source of isoflavones is soy (Glycine max L.). Other legumes, such as red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), and Genista species, have important content in isoflavones, showing nutritional or phytotherapeutic interest. In plants, isoflavones can be found mainly as non-active glycosides which are converted after ingestion, in the corresponding aglycones (e.g., genistein, daidzein) that have pharmacological activity. Many studies have demonstrated the benefits of dietary isoflavones in menopause and multiple chronic pathologies, including cardiovascular diseases, osteoporosis, and hormonal cancers. Dietary intake of isoflavones is widespread, mainly due to the consumption of soybean products. Analytical methods applied for the quantification of isoflavones allow both assessment of dietary intake of isoflavones and highlighting natural sources with phytotherapeutic potential. Health benefits of isoflavones justify the interest for this class of functional food; therefore, further clinical and epidemiological studies are required.",signatures:"Daniela-Saveta Popa and Marius Emil Rusu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53352",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53352",authors:[{id:"191431",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela-Saveta",surname:"Popa",slug:"daniela-saveta-popa",fullName:"Daniela-Saveta Popa"},{id:"197096",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Marius Emil",surname:"Rusu",slug:"marius-emil-rusu",fullName:"Marius Emil Rusu"}],corrections:null},{id:"53823",title:"Anthocyanins in Berries and Their Potential Use in Human Health",doi:"10.5772/67104",slug:"anthocyanins-in-berries-and-their-potential-use-in-human-health",totalDownloads:2241,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Anthocyanin pigments are responsible for the red, purple, and blue colors of many fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, and flowers, increasing the interest due to their strong antioxidant capacity and their possible use to the benefit of human health. Abundant evidence is available about the preventive and therapeutic roles of anthocyanin in different kinds of chronic diseases. According to the structural differences and anthocyanin content of berries such as blackberry, blueberry, chokeberry, and others, there are different healthy properties in the treatments of circulatory disorders, cancer cell lines, and diabetes as well as antiviral and antimicrobial activities. On the other hand, molecular aspects play an important role in anthocyanin biosynthesis, making it possible to determine how biotic and abiotic factors impact its biosynthesis complex. Thus, the aim of this chapter was to describe the use of anthocyanins from berries for human health and their potential use as a pharmacological bioresource in the prevention of chronic diseases. In addition, an update of the molecular mechanisms involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis will be discussed.",signatures:"Daniela Peña-Sanhueza, Claudio Inostroza-Blancheteau, Alejandra\nRibera-Fonseca and Marjorie Reyes-Díaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53823",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53823",authors:[{id:"190745",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio",surname:"Inostroza-Blancheteau",slug:"claudio-inostroza-blancheteau",fullName:"Claudio Inostroza-Blancheteau"},{id:"191560",title:"Dr.",name:"Marjorie",surname:"Reyes",slug:"marjorie-reyes",fullName:"Marjorie Reyes"},{id:"192342",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Peña",slug:"daniela-pena",fullName:"Daniela Peña"},{id:"192344",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",surname:"Ribera-Fonseca",slug:"alejandra-ribera-fonseca",fullName:"Alejandra Ribera-Fonseca"}],corrections:null},{id:"52957",title:"Protective Effects of Curcumin on Gastric Inflammation and Liver Disease",doi:"10.5772/66119",slug:"protective-effects-of-curcumin-on-gastric-inflammation-and-liver-disease",totalDownloads:1997,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Curcumin (diferuloylmethane), an anti-inflammatory and antioxidant compound, is isolated from the rhizomes of the plant Curcuma longa Linn. Most of the anti-inflammatory effects can be explained by the efficient inhibition of nuclear factor-κB–mediated and activation of PPARγ expression. These studies have been investigating the effects of curcumin on the gastric microcirculation, cytokine production after Helicobacter pylori–induced gastric inflammation, gastric cancer, drug-induced liver injury, and alcoholic liver disease (ALD). The results show that curcumin prevents indomethacin-induced gastropathy via decreased leukocyte-endothelium interaction at postcapillary venule, decreased ICAM-1 and TNF-α level, and improved gastric microcirculation. Curcumin attenuated gastric inflammation and gastric cancer via reduced NF-κB p65 expression, decreased vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) level, and macromolecular leakage in the gastric mucosa. Curcumin prevented liver injury through decreased oxidative stress, reduced liver inflammation, and restored GSH. Moreover, curcumin could decrease hepatocyte apoptosis and improved PPARγ protein expression in alcohol-induced liver injury.",signatures:"Duangporn Werawatganon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52957",authors:[{id:"192378",title:"Dr.",name:"Duangporn",surname:"Werawatganon",slug:"duangporn-werawatganon",fullName:"Duangporn Werawatganon"}],corrections:null},{id:"53125",title:"Glutamine: A Conditionally Essential Amino Acid with Multiple Biological Functions",doi:"10.5772/66488",slug:"glutamine-a-conditionally-essential-amino-acid-with-multiple-biological-functions",totalDownloads:2131,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Glutamine (Gln) is the most abundant free amino acid (AA) in the body with concentrations fluctuating around 500–900 μmol/L. The biological functions of Gln have been widely studied, and they have opened new targets because Gln could modulate physiological functions such as immune enhancer, muscular maintainer, nitrogen transporter, neuronal mediator, pH homeostasis, gluconeogenesis, amino sugar synthesis, and insulin release modulation. In 1990, it was identified that Gln is a conditionally essential AA, meaning that in hypercatabolic or stress conditions, the body suffers depletion in its circulating levels. Moreover, this condition is an independent risk factor of mortality, has been correlated with increase in infection rates, and length of hospital stay in intensive care units (ICU) patients. This characteristic confers the option of Gln use, meaning that through its targets, it could improve the outcome of patients who are suffering a hypercatabolic or hypermetabolic condition.",signatures:"Alberto Leguina-Ruzzi and Marcial Cariqueo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53125",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53125",authors:[{id:"191154",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Leguina-Ruzzi",slug:"alberto-leguina-ruzzi",fullName:"Alberto Leguina-Ruzzi"},{id:"196475",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcial",surname:"Cariqueo",slug:"marcial-cariqueo",fullName:"Marcial Cariqueo"}],corrections:null},{id:"53687",title:"The Effect of Dietary Intake of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on Cardiovascular Health: Revealing Potentials of Functional Food",doi:"10.5772/67033",slug:"the-effect-of-dietary-intake-of-omega-3-polyunsaturated-fatty-acids-on-cardiovascular-health-reveali",totalDownloads:2027,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Functional food is a food containing components that show beneficial effects on one or more body functions and improve general condition and health or significantly affect lowering of disease risks. This chapter is aimed to examine the effect of dietary intake of omega‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n3‐PUFA) on cardiovascular health. This chapter presents current knowledge on functional poultry products and the reasons to consume them, omega‐3 enrichment of eggs and poultry meat, and the differences in profile of fatty acids in conventional and omega‐3–enriched eggs. The second part of the chapter focuses on the metabolism of fatty acids and effectiveness of n‐3 PUFA in the improvement of endothelial function, improvement of elasticity of the vascular wall and the anti‐inflammatory effects in patients with chronic diseases, such as metabolic syndrome, diabetes mellitus and hypercholesterolemia, and overall effect on cardiovascular health and protection. To achieve long‐term protective effects, the functional food should be consumed on daily basis. There are no specific constrains in taking functional food; even more, it can be recommended to athletes and cardiovascular patients. General population can also benefit from eating functional food enriched with n‐3 PUFA due to their anti‐inflammatory and vascular‐protective effects.",signatures:"Ines Drenjančević, Gordana Kralik, Zlata Kralik, Martina Mihalj, Ana\nStupin, Sanja Novak and Manuela Grčević",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53687",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53687",authors:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević"},{id:"207236",title:"Dr.",name:"Gordana",surname:"Kralik",slug:"gordana-kralik",fullName:"Gordana Kralik"}],corrections:null},{id:"53864",title:"Evolution and Therapy of Brain by Foods Containing Unsaturated Fatty Acids",doi:"10.5772/67321",slug:"evolution-and-therapy-of-brain-by-foods-containing-unsaturated-fatty-acids",totalDownloads:1684,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"About 6 million years ago, our ancestors had experienced a tremendous brain growth, widely viewed as a “major adaptive shift” in human evolution. Half of human brain composition is fat and 20% of its dry weight is long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA). Consequently, improvements in consumption of dietary fat were necessary condition for promoting encephalization. Dietary fat quantity and quality have been subjected to tremendous change over the past 10,000 years with the introduction of industrially produced trans fatty acids and reduced intakes of ω‐3 fatty acids. The absolute human brain size reached its peak of approximately 90,000 years ago and has decreased by 11% since 35,000 years ago, most of it (8%) coming in the last 10,000 years. The shortfall in consumption of animal foods since the late Paleolithic and mainly consequent shortfall in consumption of preformed LCPUFA would be the plausible hypothesis for the brain size decreasing. Genetically, we are still adapted to the East African ecosystem on which our genome evolved, with some adaptations since the Out‐of‐Africa Diaspora. Dietary fat quantity and quality change has caused a conflict with our slowly adapting genome and this mismatch is likely to be at the basis of “typically Western” diseases. Many recommendations for the intakes of EPA + DHA have been issued, notably for prevention. 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1. Introduction
1.1. Review of previous experience and accomplishments
As previously published (1) the Avera Health system launched its telemedicine program by offering consultation by video connectivity from the main tertiary hospital in the largest city of the multi-state North Central Region of the United States to some of its smallest partner clinics and hospitals. Between 1993 and 2004, medical providers and patients learned what it was like to practice medicine and receive care via a telemedicine connection. A major growth spurt in Avera’s rural telemedicine program came in 2004 after the initiation of a virtual ICU service staffed by intensivist physicians and critical care nurses; Avera eICU CARETM
Avera eICU CARE is a registered trademark of VISICU, Inc.
. Since 2004, Avera has initiated and rapidly expanded multiple other telemedicine programs to meet demand for additional services and coverage. These around-the-clock, always available services are unique as stand-alone programs, but combined provide one of the most robust telemedicine platforms on the planet.
In the previous report, the goals, expectations and consequences of the Avera eICU CARE program were described. Avera eICU CARE initially started with the system’s tertiary hospital, Avera McKennan Hospital & University Health Center, serving as the hub location for the provision of twenty-four hour per day remote patient care and monitoring of seriously ill patients in three medium-sized rural hospitals. Over time it evolved to include several more hospitals of that size called “Rural Regional Hospitals.” Additionally, remote Critical Access Hospitals (CAHs) began to request eICU coverage. Intensivist-led medical supervision and monitoring further expanded to hospitals outside of the Avera Health system, including those with different medical record or electronic record platforms. Finally, Avera eICU services expanded into multiple states.
Avera eCARETM has several years of experience in providing a broad expanse of telemedicine services. Each service has enjoyed similar growth and success. Avera’s programs have also experienced similar and unique challenges in implementation, growth, and cultural adaptation. The expansion of Avera’s telemedicine program was born in the success of Avera eICU CARE, and lead to the development and expansion of programs such as eEmergency and ePharmacy. Like the Avera eICU CARETM program, these services provide rural facilities access to additional health care services and providers. eEmergency and ePharmacy have expanded faster and are more widely distributed than Avera eICU CARETM. This could be the result of several factors, but one could postulate that perhaps these services have been more useful to rural sites of care. Today, a variety of services are being researched, designed and piloted to provide care to an amazing assortment of patients, medical providers, clinics, hospitals, and other health care facilities to be described later. Many of these pilots have been launched and have been well received. The goal of this chapter is to describe the status of the comprehensive Avera eCARETM system and to hypothesize the future of this very successful paradigm of care.
As time progresses and needs arise, unique applications of telemedicine supervision are developed. Many of these applications are in the pilot stages of development as part of Avera’s comprehensive program. Avera’s suite of telemedicine services are now largely sustained without any outside financial support. Avera’s telemedicine start-up costs have been off-set, in part, by grants and other funding opportunities. Avera’s growing breadth and scope of telemedicine service offerings lead to a decision to bring eCARE together as a “Virtual Hospital”. With this goal in mind, and generous financial support, Avera has developed a co-located telemedicine center that brings together all of Avera’s telemedicine services under one roof, offsite from any traditional hospital or clinic location. Side-by-side, the medical providers, nurses and support staff work toward multidisciplinary success in each patient encounter. This telemedicine center is unique in the practice of telemedicine and is called the Avera eHelmTM.
2. Current programs and their results
Figure 1 displays the geographic breadth of the Avera eCARETM program which is of one of the most comprehensive rural telemedicine programs in the world by geographic breadth, number of sites served, and number of unique telemedicine services operating from one location. It can be noted from the figure that the greatest concentration of activity is along the borders of five states of the North Central region of the United States: South Dakota, North Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, and Nebraska. However, the greatest recent growth is westward including expansion into the states of Wyoming and Montana.
Figure 1.
shows the seven states of the North Central United States which receive Avera eCARETM services: Wyoming (WY), North Dakota (ND), South Dakota (SD), Nebraska (NE), Minnesota (MN), Montana (MT) and Iowa (IA).
Avera’s telemedicine experience initially shows the seven states of the North Central United States which receive Avera eCARETM services: Wyoming (WY), North Dakota (ND), South Dakota (SD), Nebraska (NE), Minnesota (MN), Montana (MT) and Iowa (IA).started by using video-conferencing equipment to facilitate medical consultations between primary care providers and patients in rural locations in South Dakota to specialists in a tertiary setting. It now is an active and robust program spanning seven states of the North Central region of the United States. Expansion of the type of programs and number of sites served has pushed Avera’s total service area to include more than one hundred sixty-five hospitals and clinics within and outside of the Avera Health system.
The six primary eCARE services are shown in Figure 2: eConsult, ePharmacy, eEmergency, eLong Term Care, and eUrgent Care in Correctional Facilities.
These telemedicine programs are shows the six telemedicine services offered by Avera eCARETM to date.designed to benefit rural patients and medical providers by improving the speed of care delivery and helping ensure the highest quality of care is provided locally where the patient resides. For the remote medical provider, Avera eCARE services offset a lack of specialists in rural areas affected by fewer resources and limited medical professional assistance and consultation. In addition, the facilities served may lack access to educational and career growth opportunities. These medical providers often have large patient loads and are required to be available to provide patient care many hours per week
Ormond, B., Wallin, S., Goldenson, S. (2000). Supporting the rural health care safety net. The Urban Institute, Occasional Paper 36.
,
2009. Rural practice, keeping physicians in. AAFP Position Paper. http://www.aafp.org/online.en/home/policy/policies/r/ruralpracticekeep.html
. Patients in remote, rural locations are often more elderly and are more likely to suffer from chronic disease than their urban counterparts
Joynt, K., Orav, J., and Jha (2013). Mortality rates for medicare beneficiaries admitted to critical access and non-critical access hospitals, 2002-2010.
. The cause of this startling statistic may be multifactorial but may include reasons such as greater distances to travel for specialty consultation, delays in seeking care due to higher rates of lacking primary health insurance or being underinsured, and in some cases inclement weather delaying access to care.
Figure 2.
shows the six telemedicine services offered by Avera eCARETM to date.
2.1. The Avera eCARETM programs
eConsult allows patients to access scheduled specialty consults at their local facility through two-way video technology. These consults are supported by special telephonic stethoscopes, otoscopes, and examination cameras. Avera first began providing virtual visits in 1993. eConsult benefits patients by saving time away from school or work and by saving the expenses of roundtrip travel. Figure 3 illustrates the utilization of this service by specialty over the past twelve months. As can be seen, primary specialties such as pediatrics or mental health are regularly requested. Many rare subspecialties are also utilized monthly. Infectious disease expertise is the single most frequently scheduled telemedicine consult provided to rural medical providers and their patients.
The status of this program is summarized as of May 30, 2013. eConsult is live in 109 sites; 76 patient sites and 33 specialty sites. Over a twelve month period, 5,900 eConsults were conducted by 88 unique specialist providers. eConsult services have saved an estimated 28,500 patient travel hours and more than 1.8 million patient travel miles. Additionally, access to specialist care via eConsult has resulted in a cost savings of more than $425,970 for rural patients
eConsult Database (2013). Avera eCARE Services.
.
Figure 3.
illustrates the utilization of telemedicine consultations by specialty over the past twelve months.
Avera eICU CareTM (eICU) began in 2004 and had accounted for the largest quantum of growth in the history of Avera’s telemedicine services until just recently. As stated earlier, Avera eICU CARE provides around-the-clock remote intensive care monitoring of seriously and critically ill patients in the thirty-three hospitals served. With the inception of this program, Avera was able to electronically quantitate the severity of illness for such patients by using an internationally known and validated severity adjustment methodology called the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) scoring system. Patient data is automatically calculated from the data entered into the electronic medical record to generate APACHE predictions. The system also analyzes quality measures such as the frequency of ordering “best practice” national guidelines. Avera tracks outcomes such as severity-adjusted intensive care unit (ICU) length of stay, severity-adjusted ICU mortality, severity-adjusted hospital mortality, and severity adjusted hospital length of stay. Avera uses these analyses to design strategies to improve the care delivered to seriously and critically ill patients in the eICU CARE system. Avera eICU CARE has also provided education to medical providers across the region concerning this new high quality service by publishing results in the South Dakota Journal of Medicine (2).
From the initial forty beds, Avera eICU CARE has expanded to include smaller hospitals within the Avera system, hospitals out of the Avera system, and even hospitals out of the state. Avera was one of the first in the nation to offer the eICU service to patients in CAHs. Avera studied whether the Avera eICU program had an impact on patient outcomes. Data revealed that after the program was implemented there was reduction in severity-adjusted ICU mortality, reduction in severity-adjusted ICU length of stay, reduction of severity adjusted hospital mortality, and reduction of severity-adjusted hospital length of stay (3). In addition, Avera eICU CARE has improved compliance with best practice guidelines, and has achieved one hundred percent compliance with stress ulcer prophylaxis and DVT prophylaxis in eICU-monitored patients. APACHE data has shown that ICU mortality among eICU patients is an average of thirty to fifty percent below predicted in comparison to the APACHE database. Avera has also reduced ICU length of stay by an average of twenty-five percent. Using APACHE predictions, Avera has calculated the number of lives saved from the difference between observed to predicted mortality. Figure 4 shows those results from initial analysis to the current year.
Figure 4.
illustrates the number of lives saved quarterly from 2005 to the present.
The around-the illustrates the number of lives saved quarterly from 2005 to the present -clock, direct monitoring of critically ill and seriously ill patients by the intensivist-led team, supported by sophisticated technology that recognizes and alerts for negative trends in vital signs and abnormalities in laboratory tests is one of the primary reasons for such significant improvement in patient outcomes. The eICU team of intensivists and critical care nurses is alerted to negative trends in patient status and can immediately be present in a patient’s room by a two-way interactive televideo system to respond to emergencies. Additionally, Avera eICU CARE supports consistent application of evidenced-based medicine through active rounding on patients, with a focus on ensuring such evidence-based measures are implemented and documented in the medical record.
Avera eICU CARE currently provides coverage for one hundred thirty-two beds in thirty-three facilities across six states, spanning a geography from Wyoming to mid-Iowa and from North Dakota to Nebraska. The Avera eICU CARE team monitors an average of sixty to sixty-five patients at any time, and averages twenty-two admissions per a twenty-four hour period. eICU intensivist physicians write an average of 1,400 orders per month. This greatly exceeds the average number of interventions for other tele-intensivist programs (4), which attests to the welcome invitation by rural sites for continous coverage when primary providers cannot be available. There are no charges to patients for this service.
Although the number of ICU telemedicine programs in the United States has continued to grow rapidly, our program has been recognized for its coverage to the least densely populated geographic rural region (5) and to the largest number of critical access hospitals (those receiving federal pass-through payments for services but limited to 20 beds or less).
ePharmacy was developed shortly after the quantum expansion of the Avera eICU CARETM service. Many rural sites experienced long periods of time when a local pharmacist was not available, highlighting a need for this service. Avera’s virtual pharmacy service provides remote medication order review and approval before a first dose of medication is administered. ePharmacy uses automated dispensing equipment and remote provider order entry which has led to a reduction in serious safety events related to duplication of medication therapies, allergies, and drug-to-drug interactions. Currently ePharmacy service is provided to forty-six sites. Since its inception in 2009, more than 83,300 patients have been served by ePharmacy. To date more than 1,054,000 orders have been reviewed, and more than 14,200 serious safety events avoided. Each month, the ePharmacy team of pharmacists reviews more than 44,000 orders and documents 800 interventions to promote medication safety and efficacy.
Figure 5 illustrates the breakdown of adverse events noted in a single month.
Figure 5.
illustrates the types of errors which have been detected by the ePharmacy service line in a single month.
eEmergency (eED) illustrates the types of errors which have been detected by the ePharmacy service line in a single month.has had the greatest success with expansion and requests for service. As of June 1, 2013, seventy-six sites utilize eEmergency services. Figure 6 illustrates the pace of growth of this highly requested program to the rural communities of the North Central region of the United States. The eED provides immediate, two-way video access to a board-certified emergency physician and a core of experienced emergency nurses. They assist in the management of a multitude of medical emergencies such as trauma, acute myocardial infarction and stroke, to name a few.
Figure 6.
demonstrates the pace of growth of eEmergency services aided by the Helmsley grant to be described below.
eEmergency allows for the demonstrates the pace of growth of eEmergency services aided by the Helmsley grant to be described below.initiation of accurate diagnostic testing before local provider arrival, streamlines emergency transfer arrangements, and eliminates unnecessary transfers. Since inception in 2009 through May 30, 2013, more than 5,900 patients have been treated, over 10,800 transfers have been arranged, and over 980 transfers have been avoided, resulting in a savings of $7.85 million. Figure 7 breaks down the types of complaints routinely handled by the eED.
Figure 7.
illustrates the frequency of problems handled by the eEmergency program
The eEmergency program has illustrates the frequency of problems handled by the eEmergency program expanded to include the initiation of several quality improvement programs with major clinical effect on the region. One example includes what is called the “Chest Pain Initiative.” Because the eED is often involved in cases before the local provider has arrived, important diagnostic tests and critical therapies can be initiated that in the past may have been delayed. As an example the program has documented improvement in “door to ECG” times. After implementation of eED project, the median time to ECG has improved and now exceeds the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) standard of ten minutes as shown in Figure 8.
Another component of the illustrates the improvement in median time to ECG for patients with chest pain presenting to emergency departments in the region due to assistance from eEmergency services.Chest Pain Initiative was improvement in aspirin administration. After the eED project was implemented, participating sites were noted to have 100 percent compliance with established guidelines for aspirin administration. Historically, these hospitals reported compliance as low as 67 percent
Avera Health Quality Department Data (2011).
. Other important outcomes impacted included significant decrease in the time to transfer and the increase in use of thrombolytics for care in the appropriately screened and eligible candidates. This number is at 100 percent.
Figure 8.
illustrates the improvement in median time to ECG for patients with chest pain presenting to emergency departments in the region due to assistance from eEmergency services.
eLong Term Care (eLTC) has developed as an outgrowth of eED, and uses telemedicine technologies to improve long term care staff and residents’ access to providers and specialty services in a manner that is high quality, convenient, and low cost. The goal of the program is to provide urgent care services to residents of long term care facilities in an effort to prevent emergency department visits and hospital admissions. This program was launched as a pilot project in January 2012 at four sites, and is currently available in six sites. In the first year of pilot, 120 residents were seen by the eLTC provider. Of these, 30 percent (36 encounters) resulted in an avoided a transfer to the emergency department or clinic. As an additional component of the service, specialist care via eConsult is available to residents in participating facilities. Grant support to be described below has assisted in innovating in this branch of telemedicine.
eAccess in Correctional Facilities has also developed as an outgrowth of eED. In this program, telemedicine technology is used to provide physician-directed urgent care services to inmates, resulting in a reduction of unnecessary and costly transfers. This pilot was launched in May 2012 at four sites. In the first twelve months of service, 372 patients have been served, with thirty-two percent of those encounters resulting in an avoided transfer. The distribution of complaints handled by the virtual physicians was similar to one shown above for the eEmergency program as a whole.
2.2. Major lessons learned and challenges
Credentialing and licensure for all these telemedicine services requires considerable amount of time and perseverance. Avera eCARETM medical providers are licensed in every state where eCARE services are provided. In addition, medical providers must apply for, and be granted, medical privileges in each hospital in which services are provided. Nursing licensure is no less challenging. Several states in which eCARE services are provided participate in the Nurse Licensure Compact. In these states, licensure in one participating state covers the nurse when he or she is working in other participating states. South Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska, and North Dakota are all compact members. Separate full, unrestricted nursing licenses are needed in Minnesota, Montana, and Wyoming. Nursing staff is not required to apply for any privileges in any of the hospitals currently served.
Two different processes are used for credentialing and privileging, the traditional process that has been in place for many years, and a newer telemedicine application process. Approximately fifty percent of hospitals receiving eCARE services have adopted the telemedicine credentialing/privileging process. The other fifty percent have chosen to continue with the traditional route for a variety of reasons including preference for the existing method and the unsure nature of state and federal survey teams’ reception of this new process.
The ePharmacy staff of hospital-trained pharmacists are licensed in each state where ePharmacy services are provided. Licensure is highly regulated by each state’s Board of Pharmacy. Most of these states require a separate written exam before granting a license. Credentialing and privileging is not required for pharmacists.
2.3. Funding Sources
Avera Health member hospitals and clinics have long been financially supportive of the telemedicine mission. Through the innovative thinking of Avera leaders, telemedicine has been considered a strategic part of Avera’s future and has been budgeted for accordingly. In addition to internal financial support, various granting agencies have provided funding for the implementation and growth of many eCARE programs. These agencies have ranged from the local, state and federal government, foundations of publicly traded companies, as well as private local and national foundations. Without this generous support, telemedicine expansion on such a broad scale would have been difficult, if not impossible. We will summarize some of eCARE’s past grant awards and funding opportunities below.
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has funded seven grants exceeding $2.7 million to expand various Avera eCARETM programs. In addition, private foundations focused on rural healthcare have provided financial resources to operationalize some a variety of eCARE programs. One particular grant from a private foundation has allowed for greater collaboration between individual Avera eCARETM services. eCARE services that were once scattered across a large medical campus are now able to function as a fully integrated virtual hospital, housed in a state-of-the-art building miles from any traditional hospital walls. This new location allows Avera to provide telemedicine based care in a much more cohesive and supportive manner. This new super-hub is called the Avera eHelmTM. The eHelm serves as an incubator for new and innovative telemedicine programs and services by allowing and facilitating dialog and cross-fertilization of existing telemedicine experts.
In 2012, an Avera community hospital was awarded a grant from the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) Office of Rural Health Policy to expand the eLong Term Care program to an additional sixteen centers.
2.4. Awards
Avera’s telemedicine efforts have been recognized by several national health organizations looking to reform and improve health care. In 2009, Avera was awarded the American Telemedicine Association’s President’s Institutional Award for leadership in telemedicine. Avera has received thirteen “HealthCare’s Most Wired” awards from a consortium that includes McKesson, AT&T, and Care Tech Solutions, in cooperation with the College of Healthcare Information Management Executives, the American Hospital Association, and Health and Health Network (H&HN) magazine. Avera also won one of three 2011 & 2012 “Most-Wired Innovator” awards and was recognized for this accomplishment at the 2011 and 2012 American Hospital Leadership Summits. Avera eCARE was recognized as a finalist for the Monroe E. Trout Premier Cares award in January, 2012, and was nominated for a Catholic Health Association of the United States award in 2013. eCARE has also been recognized internally for its impact on quality of care, and has received three Avera Quality Congress awards; one for ePharmacy, one for eEmergency and another for the eEmergency Chest Pain Initiative.
3. The future –A paradigm shift
The proliferation of different virtual health services in Avera’s comprehensive telemedicine program is illustrated in Figure 9. Telemedicine can be used to supplement each phase of the health care continuum. Telemedicine has evolved in the North Central Plains region as a program that supports the entire continuum from primary care, emergency care, critical care, multiple pharmaceutical interventions, and a nascent follow-up program in long term care facilities.
Figure 9.
illustrates the complete continuum of telemedicine services which now exist and are co-located in a single hub such as the Avera eHelm which coordinates and enhances patient care.
Figure 10 illustrates the illustrates the complete continuum of telemedicine services which now exist and are co-located in a single hub such as the Avera eHelm which coordinates and enhances patient care “air traffic control” model of telemedicine utilization, where telemedicine providers serve as back up for the other components of the continuum. While this may be the case in some urban settings, rural areas might utilize telemedicine in a formal role in direct patient care, leading a local medical team from a remote location. Remote telemedicine care may actually provide total first line diagnosis and therapies in the near future.
Figure 10.
illustrates the important “air traffic control” or back up capability of telemedicine for each phase in the health care continuum..
To this end, illustrates the important “air traffic control” or back up capability of telemedicine for each phase in the health care continuum.Avera eCARETM is planning for a major shift in healthcare delivery in the future.
A paradigm shift in health care delivery is being driven by the expansion of telemedicine services. The progression of innovation in telemedicine, especially in remote areas (rural parts of the United States, Third World Countries, Emerging Nations), which cannot develop a full medical infrastructure on their own, will turn to “The Virtual Hospital, The New Doctor’s Office, and the New Continuity Service”, all expansions of mature telemedicine centers.
Instead of increased numbers of brick and mortar tertiary centers to which patients travel, now there is the possibility of a virtual electronic hub to provide tertiary hospital services to remote sites as they currently exist. In effect, telemedicine brings the tertiary care hospital to the patient. Reduced costs of transfer of patients, improved patient and family satisfaction, increased access to specialists and especially rare sub-specialist consultation are all the byproducts of a robust and integrated telemedicine program. Implementation of improved wireless (cellular) technology to allow remotely controlled medical machines such as mechanical ventilators, dialysis equipment, and robotic care is likely imminent as an augmentation of such a tertiary care eHospital. In addition, the challenges of local staffing, supply, and power all need to be addressed as unique challenges.
Another trademark of a highly integrated telemedicine program lies in the doctor’s office. In a specialist’s office there would be a synthesis of activity which allows more active inclusion of telemedicine into practice. A patient might be seen physically in an exam room next to a telemedicine patient in the next exam room. This seamless integration of telemedicine work stations into the flow of patient care would allow the doctor to see any patients regardless of their location. Physician time could be, and in some cases is, divided equally and seamlessly between time spent with physically present patients and virtual patients. In the future, the physician may also be located remotely seeing patients at all locations via telemedicine.
Electronic continuity services could include nontraditional settings such as long term care facilities, correctional facilities, and expanded telemedicine home-based services. In these new and dynamic locations the goal of telemedicine is to continue to monitor compliance with discharge instructions, meticulously supervise proper medication intake at home or in the facility in which the patient resides, and to ensure timely follow up with the primary medical provider and any needed specialists. This system would be designed to prevent errors, relapses, or delays in follow up which might lead to unnecessary emergency visits, hospitalizations, and premature relapses in medical problems.
Finally,\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 11 illustrates how such complete telemedicine services may expand beyond health systems and rural neighbors. It could even result in global extension of successful telemedicine systems of medical care. A telemedicine program with multiple services could be located together in a core such as the Avera eHelmTM. These hubs could just as easily and efficiently provide telemedicine care to the ends of the earth and beyond as they could in the same city or building. Home care, concierge care, doctor’s office care, medical home care, urgent care, emergency department care, behavioral health care, general hospital care, specialty hospital care (behavioral health, cardiac, orthopedic), intensive care, long term hospital care (LTHC), and others could be connected to a core like the Avera eHelmTM providing telemedicine care and coordination with its multiple primary care and specialty allied health members, nurses, and physicians.
Figure 11.
illustrates a model of global care coordinated by multiple electronic telemedicine programs coordinated by a core of expert telemedicine caregivers located in a core such as the Avera eHelmTM.
In summary, to illustrates a model of global care coordinated by multiple electronic telemedicine programs coordinated by a core of expert telemedicine caregivers located in a core such as the Avera eHelmTM.date more than 153,000 patients have been touched by at least one Avera eCARETM service. More than 165 hospitals and clinics across a 495,000 square mile service use at least one Avera eCARETM service. At the present 650 providers are served by Avera eCARETM. The total financial impact has been greater than 55 million dollars.
The future goals of Avera eCARETM includes a plan to create virtual support for hospitals, clinics, long term care facilities and other nontraditional care locations to provide access to care at the same level of quality available in urban settings. In addition, Avera is exploring a robust home monitoring and coaching system of care that enables providers to interact with chronically ill patients in their home environments. These steps will create a virtual support for patient centered medical homes.
In conclusion, the success of these multiple diverse telemedicine programs in the rural region of the North Central United States has been a result of trying to meet the needs for health care in this area. Telemedicine has been well received due to many factors, including the remoteness of many communities, the frequently inclement weather which impairs urgent face-to-face health care, the lack of health care resources in the agricultural economy, and the extremely low number of specialty and subspecialty providers located these states. The success of Avera eCARE has not gone unnoticed. Many have asked to learn how to duplicate some or all of Avera models of comprehensive telemedicine.
Today and in the future, Avera will continue to leverage technology to connect with our North Central USA population, to engage the people of this rural region in prevention and in provision of care and services on the go and where they live. Finally, Avera will partner with stakeholders who will join in the advancement of innovation, research and policy for telemedicine practice and reimbursement.
The Avera eCareTM Research Group also includes: Jay Weems, Srivedi Gangineni MD, Scott Deppe MD, David Kovaleski, MD, Sarah Kappel CCRN, Tami Schnetter CCRN, Andrea Darr Pharm.D., Deanna Larson RN, David Erickson MD.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the Avera eCareTM Research Group which also includes: Jay Weems, Srivedi Gangineni, Scott Deppe, David Kovaleski, Sara Kappel, Tami Schnetter, Andrea Darr, Deanna Larson, David Erickson
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Avera Health Intensivists/eICU, USA
Department of Internal Medicine, University of South Dakota Sanford School of Medicine, South Dakota, USA
Department of Internal Medicine, University of South Dakota Sanford School of Medicine, South Dakota, USA
Avera eICU, South Dakota, USA
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1. Introduction
1.1 History of photodynamic therapy
The therapeutic properties of light were observed already in ancient Greece, Egypt, and India. However, they were not widely used for many centuries [1]. The history of modern photodynamic therapy (PDT) dates back to 1900, when Oscar Raab discovered the toxic properties of the dye acridine red on Paramecium spp. [2]. He and his supervisor, Hermann von Tappeiner, noticed a positive effect of illumination on the toxic activity of this dye. In his later work, von Tappeiner and his colleagues applied this approach to inactivation of bacteria [3] and to treatment of skin cancer [4]. In 1909, von Tappeiner introduced the term “Photodynamic Action” and showed that oxygen is essential for this procedure [5]. PDT has been studied and developed as an anticancer therapy for a long time and was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in the 1990s for various applications in this area of medicine [6, 7, 8]. The antimicrobial properties of this approach were unfairly forgotten for several decades. However, interest in antibacterial PDT has been rekindled and is continuously increasing because multidrug resistance of pathogenic microorganisms has become a serious threat to public health. Photodynamic antibacterial chemotherapy (PACT) has become a promising approach for combating bacterial infections, which are resistant to modern antibiotics.
1.2 Photosensitizers and their mechanism of action
PACT is based on the exposure of bacteria to photosensitive compounds—photosensitizers (PSs). When a PS located in the bacteria or on the bacterial surface is exposed to light (usually visible), it transfers from its low-energy ground state to an excited singlet state. Return of the PS to its ground state is accompanied by either emission of fluorescence or transition of the PS to a longer-living, higher-energy triplet state (PS*) via intersystem crossing. The PS* in turn reacts with surrounding molecules to form free radicals and hydrogen peroxide (Type I reaction) or transfers its energy to molecular oxygen to produce singlet oxygen and other highly reactive oxygen species (ROS; Type II reaction) [9, 10]. Type I and Type II reactions occur simultaneously, and the ratio at which they occur depends on both the PS type and the surrounding conditions. A detailed description of the photosensitization process can be found in the recent reviews of Castano et al. [11] and Cieplik [10]. ROSs formed in this process oxidize biomolecules, damage the cell membrane, and ultimately lead to cell death [12]. PACT usually proceeds predominantly through Type II processes. However, since Gram-negative bacteria are more susceptible to OH. radicals than to singlet oxygen, the Type I reaction may be more efficient against such microorganisms [13, 14].
1.3 Photosensitizers for PACT
Hundreds of compounds are currently available for mediating PDT in various areas of medicine, where some have been shown to be suitable for antimicrobial applications. PSs employed for medical uses should be a single pure compound, stable at room temperature and inexpensive. The PS must have a strong absorption peak in the visible spectrum between 600 and 900 nm and should possess a high-triplet quantum yield that will provide high production of ROS upon illumination. It should not be toxic in the dark (especially to mammalian cells), mutagenic or carcinogenic [15, 16, 17, 18]. In addition, when talking about PACT, it is very important that the PS will display preferential association with bacteria, accumulate within the cells, or bind to the bacterial cell envelope [14, 19].
PSs can generally be assigned to several chemical classes: tetrapyrroles (which include porphyrins, chlorins, bacteriochlorins, and phthalocyanines), synthetic dyes (phenothiazinium salts, Rose Bengal, squaraines, etc.), and naturally occurring compounds (such as riboflavin or curcumin). Cyclic tetrapyrroles present the most well-known class of clinically relevant PSs used mostly for anticancer applications [20]. This structure can be found naturally in such important biomolecules such as haem, chlorophyll, and bacteriochlorophyll. Unlike other types of PSs, most tetrapyrroles (except for bacteriochlorins) are more likely to react by a Type II reaction with the creation of singlet oxygen [16], whereas bacteriochlorins act via a Type I mechanism. Other well-known antimicrobial agents are phenothiazinium-based synthetic dyes, including methylene blue (MB) and toluidine blue O (TBO), which also act as anticancer agents in PDT. These structures can be synthesized more easily than tetrapyrroles but possess high-dark toxicity compared to other PSs [15, 21]. Another representative of synthetic dyes, Rose Bengal (RB), has already been used successfully in antimicrobial and anticancer applications for a long time [16]. Photodynamic active compounds isolated from plants arouse particular interest. These natural compounds include curcumin, extracted from the rhizomes of Curcuma longa, which was found effective in eradicating oral pathogens [22]. Another representative of this group is hypericin isolated from St. John’s wort, which exhibits photodynamic activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Detailed descriptions of all PS classes can be found in the reviews published by Hamblin and colleagues [15, 16].
2. Photosensitizer activation modes
2.1 Dark activity
The name photosensitizer implies the need for illumination in order to activate PS molecules and trigger their action. However, PSs possess some so-called “dark activity” even in the absence of illumination, leading to cell death in the dark [23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. This feature depends on the PS concentration and manifests itself in different ways for various PSs.
Shrestha demonstrated dark toxicity of RB against Gram-positive Enterococcus faecalis. Exposure of the cells to 10 μM RB in the absence of illumination for 15 min led to a 0.5 log10 reduction in cell concentration [26]. Furthermore, a marked dark toxicity of RB against clinical isolates of Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa was observed by Nakonieczna [27]. Brovko compared the activity of various PSs against several types of microorganisms and noted high dark toxicity of RB, as well as of phloxine B against Gram-positive Bacillus sp. and Listeria monocytogenes (more than 5 log10 reduction in the bacterial concentration after 30 min of treatment with the dye) [30]. The toxicity of malachite green in the dark against the same microorganisms was very low (<0.1 log10 reduction in concentration after 30 min of treatment with the dye). High concentrations (>500 μg/mL) of acriflavin neutral in the absence of light were significantly toxic to E. coli (more than 6 log10 reduction in concentration after 30 min of treatment with the dye, both under illumination and in the dark). However, illumination significantly enhanced its toxic effect against other tested microorganisms [30].
In our studies, we also noted the dark toxicity of various PSs against different types of bacteria (Figures 1,2, Table 1). Figure 1 shows the effect of various RB concentrations on S. aureus in the absence of light. The number of living cells decreases with increasing RB concentration in the dark. Table 1 shows a comparison between dark and light toxicity of three PSs—malachite green oxalate (MGO), RB, and safranin O. The effect of MGO in the dark was the strongest, and a 0.87 μM concentration of MGO was sufficient for inhibiting the growth of S. aureus. The dark activity of RB and safranin O is noticeably weaker, and the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) for these PSs against S. aureus are more than 100-fold higher. Figure 2 shows that S. aureus cells were completely destroyed by RB at a concentration of 5 μM and MB at 30 μM under illumination. These PSs also showed a cytotoxic effect when applied at the same concentrations in the dark, where MB reduced the bacterial concentration by one and RB by two orders of magnitude.
Figure 1.
Effect of RB concentration on its cytotoxic activity. S. aureus cells at the initial concentration of 104 CFU mL−1 were incubated for 3 min in dark conditions at various concentrations of RB. After the incubation, bacteria were tested by viable count. Error bars present standard deviations.
Figure 2.
SACT and PACT effect of MB on S. aureus. In SACT experiments, the cells at 108 CFU mL−1 concentration were incubated with (a) 5 μM RB or (b) 30 μM MB in the ultrasonic bath for 1 h in the dark. In PACT experiments, the cells were illuminated for 15 min by 1.6 mW cm−2 white light under the same conditions but without sonication. After the treatment, bacteria were tested by viable count. Error bars present standard deviations.
Photosensitizer
MIC, μM
Dark
Illumination
Malachite green oxalate
0.87
0.15
Rose Bengal
128
2
Safranin O
89
23
Table 1.
The MIC values of water-soluble PSs in the dark and under illumination. About 3 × 104 CFU mL−1 of S. aureus were treated by malachite green oxalate, Rose Bengal, and Safranin O at doubled dilutions, illuminated at room temperature by white light of 1.6 mW cm−2 intensity for 1 h, and incubated overnight in the dark by shaking at 37°C.
Figure 3.
Effect of RB at the 10 μM concentration under activation by radio waves at various frequency ranges on eradication of S. aureus at the initial cell concentration of 4.4 × 104 CFU mL−1 in the dark. Error bars present standard deviations.
2.2 Illumination
Although PSs are known to possess a certain dark activity, illumination noticeably increases their cytotoxic effect [6, 14]. An example of the difference in antibacterial activity of different PSs with and without illumination is shown in Table 1. In this experiment, the MIC of three PSs was determined for the bacterium S. aureus in the dark and after 1 h of illumination. As a result of illumination, the MIC of the examined PSs decreased approximately 6-fold for MGO, 64-fold for RB, and 4-fold for Safranin O.
The main light sources used today for activation of PSs are lasers, light-emitting diodes (LED), and gas discharge lamps (GDL) [10, 31, 32]. There is no absolute advantage of one of these light sources over the others. The choice of light source depends on the specific application. Laser is a high-intensity monochromatic source. It can be easily coupled to a single optical fiber and installed on different lighting devices. LED lamps are cheaper and provide a wide emission spectrum. GDLs are also cheaper than lasers—both in acquisition and in maintenance and have a wide emission spectrum. However, GDLs transmit more heat to the illuminated area than lasers and LEDs, which can lead to tissue damage. In general, the emission spectrum and light intensity are more important for the excitation of a specific PS than the particular light source type [10, 31, 32].
2.3 Sonodynamic excitation of photosensitizers
Illumination is undoubtedly the easiest and most effective way to activate PSs. However, its use is restricted, due to limited penetration of visible light into tissues. There is an ongoing search for alternative methods of PS excitation in the dark in order to overcome this problem. Ultrasonic activation seems to be attractive as an alternative to illumination. As with light activation, ultrasound can be selectively focused on a specific area, thus activating only PS molecules located in the affected area. Ultrasound can also easily penetrate into tissues, which opens prospects for its application in treatment of internal lesions and infections, without the need for invasive devices [33, 34]. Ultrasonic irradiation of PSs initiates the formation of highly active cytotoxic species—ROS and free radicals—which lead to the death of pathogenic cells. It was found that some well-known PSs also have sonosensitizing properties. Among them are porphyrins [35], RB [36, 37], chlorin e6 derivative, photodithazine [36], and curcumin [38]. Several studies found sonodynamic therapy (SDT) to be the promising treatment in various forms of cancerous tumors [39, 40, 41, 42, 43]. Sonodynamic therapy is also offered as treatment for atherosclerosis [44]. The applicability of sonodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (SACT) for the treatment of infectious diseases has been confirmed by various research groups [33, 34]. We have previously demonstrated the effectiveness of RB activated by ultrasonication for eradication of Gram-positive S. aureus and Gram-negative E. coli [29, 45, 46]. The effectiveness of SACT in inactivation of S. aureus by two other sensitizers—curcumin [38] and hematoporphyrin monomethyl ether [35]—was also reported. Alves et al. have recently reported on effective destruction of Candida albicans by photodithazine and RB in the dark under the ultrasonic excitation. A significant synergistic effect of the combination between PDT and SACT for combatting C. albicans biofilms was also found [36].
Figure 2 demonstrates the effect of ultrasonic activation that we showed on the antibacterial activity of two PSs—RB (Figure 2a) and MB (Figure 2b)—against S. aureus compared to photodynamic activation. Figure 2a shows that 15 min of sonication reduces the number of living cells by almost two orders of magnitude, from 2 × 108 to 4 × 106 CFU mL−1. RB alone applied in the dark causes a two orders of magnitude decrease in the cell concentration. However, sonication in the presence of 5 μM RB exerts a much stronger effect, reducing the cell concentration by 5 orders of magnitude. It should be noted that RB at the same concentration under illumination by visible light of 1.6 mW cm−2 fluence causes complete eradication of S. aureus cells, whereas light alone does not cause any significant harm to these cells. However, MB applied under sonication at the concentration causing complete destruction of S. aureus cells in the light did not eradicate microbial cells more than sonication alone (Figure 2).
2.4 Activation of photosensitizers by radio waves
Another possible way for activating PSs in the dark is by using nonionizing radiofrequency electromagnetic waves. The ability of radiofrequency waves to heat human tissue has been known for a long time and has already been applied for local destruction of cancerous tumors [47, 48]. The effectiveness of this method can be significantly improved by using suitable sensitizers, which can be targeted to the affected area and activated by means of radiofrequency radiation for selective destruction of cells. Tamarov et al. proposed the use of crystalline silicon-based nanoparticles as sensitizers induced by 27 MHz radiofrequency waves for effective treatment of Lewis lung carcinoma in vivo [48]. Another approach involved using gold nanoparticles, which were heated by an electric field using 13.56 MHz radiofrequency, and effectively destroyed human pancreatic cancer cells in vitro [49]. The same frequency was used in other studies to activate fullerene [50] and transferrin [51] and to eradicate cancer tumors in vitro and in vivo. A possible mechanism of radiosensitization, according to Tamarov et al. [48] and Chung et al. [51], may be thermal activation of sensitizers by hyperthermia, caused by dissipation of electromagnetic energy, which leads to thermal damage of cancer cells.
In our studies, we tested the possibility of using radiofrequency radiation to sensitize PSs in order to destroy microorganisms [29]. For this purpose, we irradiated S. aureus cells in physiological saline alone and in the presence of RB with radio waves at different frequencies—from 1 to 20 GHz. S. aureus cells in physiological saline in the dark (without RB and without radiation), S. aureus cells treated with radio waves (in the absence of RB), and S. aureus cells in the presence of RB, but not exposed to radio waves, were used as controls. Radiofrequency radiation alone did not significantly affect the survival of S. aureus. RB in the dark applied at the same concentration did not lead to any decrease in the bacterial concentration. However, exposure of S. aureus cells to radio waves in the presence of RB markedly reduced the number of live microorganisms. The rate of cell damage depended on the radio wave frequency. The most significant effect was observed in the frequency range of 9–12 GHz, where in the presence of RB, only 4.5% of the cells survived (Figure 3). For comparison, irradiation of cells treated by RB with radio waves in the frequency range of 1–3 GHz caused only a 40% reduction in the number of live cells.
To the best of our knowledge, our work was the first attempt to sensitize a PS by radio waves for destruction of bacteria. This topic naturally necessitates a broader and deeper study to understand the mechanisms of excitation and the possibilities of applying this method. The most likely mechanism of RB excitation by radio waves is conversion of electromagnetic energy into heat, which causes activation of RB, followed by energy transfer to dissolved oxygen and the formation of ROS, affecting the cells. We assume that when PSs are exposed to radiofrequency radiation, they actually behave like thermosensitizers excited by heat instead of light [29].
2.5 Chemiluminescent and bioluminescent excitation of photosensitizers
Another approach to overcoming the limitations of PACT in the treatment of deep infections is to replace the external light source by chemo- or bioluminescent light. Bioluminescence is a well-known phenomenon occurring in biological systems as a result of oxidation reactions of luciferins catalyzed by luciferases. This property is inherent in various microorganisms, worms, and insects, and the luciferins and luciferases of different organisms can be completely different. Bioluminescence is considered as a type of chemiluminescence, i.e., luminescence originating in the course of a chemical reaction. Bio- and chemiluminescence systems are used in various fields of medicine, pharmaceuticals, and bioanalytics [52, 53].
One of the well-studied and most effective chemical reactions involving light emission is oxidation of luminol [52, 54, 55]. Most applications of this reaction are associated with treatment of cancers [55, 56, 57]. Use of chemiluminescence as a light source for PACT has not been studied as extensively. Ferraz and colleagues evaluated the potential of chemiluminescent-excited photogem in killing S. aureus cells [58]. Our group demonstrated the effectiveness of chemiluminescent photodynamic antimicrobial therapy (CPAT) for destruction of S. aureus and E. coli by exposing these bacteria to the photosensitizer MB in the presence of luminol [46, 59, 60]. The results presented in Figure 4 show that the rate of growth inhibition by MB increased in the presence of luminol compared to untreated cells or to cells exposed in the dark to MB only.
Figure 4.
Effect of chemiluminescent photodynamic antimicrobial treatment (CPAT) on the viability of S. aureus and E. coli. Cells were incubated with MB at 25 μM concentration in the presence of 0.7 mM luminol. After the treatment, bacteria were tested by viable count. Error bars present standard deviations.
The dark effect of MB discussed in the above “Dark Activity” section can be seen in Figure 4, where the exposure of S. aureus and E. coli to 25 μM MB in the dark reduced the number of live cells by about 10-fold. Luminol alone had no toxic effect on the tested microorganisms. However, when combined with MB, it reduced the number of surviving bacteria by two additional orders of magnitude for S. aureus and 1.5 orders of magnitude in the case of E. coli. Thus, the use of chemiluminescence may expand the capabilities of PDT, allowing the use of PSs for the treatment of internal organs.
3. Encapsulation of photosensitizers in liposomes
Since PSs are usually inactive in the absence of excitation, focusing the beam of light, ultrasound or radio wave radiation on the affected area is the easiest way to achieve selective action of a PS. However, surrounding healthy tissues may also be affected by the PS, even under such focused processing. It is therefore very important to target the treatment directly to the infected site. Highly biocompatible and low immunogenic liposomes can serve as carriers for targeted delivery of PSs encapsulated into liposomes to the infected site [61, 62, 63].
Liposomes are spherical multi- or unilamellar vesicles consisting of phospholipids (e.g., phosphatidylcholines) with an internal hydrophilic cavity. They vary in composition, size, charge, and number of layers and can encapsulate and deliver both hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds, which can be retained in the water core of liposomes or be encapsulated in the phospholipid bilayer, respectively. A variety of methods have been developed for the production of liposomes with a controlled size and special properties. The most widely used method for producing liposomes is hydration of thin lipid films. In this case, lipids with or without active substances are dissolved in an organic solvent, which is evaporated on a rotary evaporator, producing a thin film on a flask wall. The lipid film is then rehydrated by an aqueous phase. Membrane extrusion and sonication methods are most commonly used for control of liposome size [64]. Advanced strategies for liposome preparation include charging the liposomes, attaching the ligands such as antibodies or lectins to their surface, or altering the physiological conditions such as increasing the temperature or changing the pH in the target tissues to produce heat-sensitive or pH-sensitive liposomes [65]. The works of Ghosh, Li, Bulbake, Abu Lila, and Alavi summarize the latest developments in the field of liposome design and optimization, including passive and active targeting, extended circulation, building multifunctional liposomes, and so on [62, 63, 64, 65, 66].
There exist several methods for PS encapsulation into liposomes (Figure 5). Hydrophilic PSs (e.g., MB, RB, or photofrin) are dissolved in aqueous buffer and are included into the internal cavity of liposomes. Hydrophobic compounds (such as temoporfin and bacteriochlorin a) are integrated in the phospholipid bilayer [62, 67]. Several groups have shown that encapsulation of PSs in liposomes improves their effectiveness against cancer in vivo. Back in 1983, Jori and colleagues reported that hematoporphyrin and its derivatives incorporated into liposomes on the basis of dipalmitoyl-phosphatidyl-choline are effective for systemic delivery of PSs to tumors in rats [68]. Enhancement of the photodynamic effects of photofrin encapsulated in a liposome carrier was later demonstrated on a human glioma implanted in rat brain [69]. A variety of PSs (temoporfin, zinc phthalocyanine, benzoporphyrin derivative monoacid, etc.) in various liposomal formulations, such as dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol, dioleoylphosphatidylcholine, and others, were found to be effective on HT29 and Meth A tumor models in vivo [62]. However, the only clinically approved liposomal PS drug to date is Visudyne, developed by QLT in Vancouver, and produced by Novartis AG, Switzerland. This formulation is produced from a derivative of benzoporphyrin monoacid encapsulated in unilamellar dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine/egg phosphatidylglycerol liposomes. The liposomes in this drug not only dissolve the lipophilic PS for intravenous administration but also contribute to its enhanced absorption in tumor tissues [62, 64].
Figure 5.
Schematic representation of a liposome with PS entrapped in the internal aqueous phase and within the external phospholipid bilayer.
Liposomal PS preparations are suitable for antibacterial applications. This approach ensures the delivery of the compound at a higher concentration, thus increasing the cytotoxicity of the drug. In addition, the local use of liposomal preparations provides a slow release of active components, which helps prolong their effect in infected tissues. In Gram-negative bacteria, fusion between liposomes and the outer cell membranes leads to the delivery of concentrated liposome contents directly into the cytoplasm [70, 71, 72]. In Gram-positive bacteria, the PS is probably released when liposomes interact with the external peptidoglycan and diffuse through the cell wall [72, 73, 74]. Various researchers have demonstrated the effectiveness of liposomal formulations of various PSs against Gram-positive and Gram-negative microorganisms and also against fungal infections in vitro and in vivo. Ferro et al. showed high efficacy of porphyrin incorporated into cationic liposomes against S. aureus, compared to the free drug [75, 76]. Tsai also showed an increase in the bactericidal efficacy of hematoporphyrin against a number of Gram-positive bacteria, including S. aureus, as a result of its incorporation into liposomes [77]. Yang proved the efficacy of chlorine e6 encapsulated in cationic liposomes against susceptible and drug-resistant clinical isolates of C. albicans both in vitro and for infected burn wounds in vivo [78].
In our studies, we tested the effect of different PSs in different liposome formulations on Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Figure 6 presents a comparison between the MICs of free and dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine and dimyristoyl phosphatidylglycerol liposome-encapsulated MB and NR against S. aureus (Figure 6a) and E. coli (Figure 6b).
Figure 6.
MIC values of free and liposome encapsulated MB and NR determined against (a) S. aureus and (b) E. coli. Liposomes were prepared from dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine and dimyristoyl phosphatidylglycerol at 15 mg/mL total lipid concentration by sonication for 10 sec. Bacteria at 3 × 104 CFU mL−1 concentration were treated by MB and NR at doubled dilutions, illuminated at room temperature by white light of 1.6 mW cm−2 intensity for 1 h, and incubated overnight in the dark by shaking at 37°C. Error bars present standard deviations.
As can be seen from the results, incorporation into liposomes significantly increased the antibacterial activity of MB and NR. Following encapsulation, the MIC of MB decreased by approximately 2-fold and that of NR by about 1.4-fold for both tested microorganisms (Figure 6). We tested the effect of liposome composition on the delivery of these PSs to cells and determined the conditions for efficient use of encapsulated PSs [74].
In addition, we tried to apply liposomal forms of PSs to CPAT by encapsulating not only PSs in liposomes but also luminol and introduced to activate PSs in sites inaccessible to external lighting [59]. We monitored the survival of the cells following their exposure to either liposomal MB or luminol, as well as to liposomes containing both compounds together (Figure 7) when the experiments were carried out in the dark.
Figure 7.
Chemiluminescent photodynamic antimicrobial treatment effect on the viability of S. aureus and E. coli. Cells were incubated with 25 μM MB liposome (lip) encapsulated together with 0.7 mM luminol (LM). After the treatment, the bacteria were tested by viable count. Error bars present standard deviations.
It can be seen (Figure 7) that luminol itself did not lead to cell damage. MB in the liposomal form exhibited certain dark activity, similar to that in a free form discussed in the “Dark Activity” section. The addition of luminol to MB liposomes markedly increased its antibacterial activity toward S. aureus and E. coli. Liposomes were not targeted in this study. Targeting of liposomes can lead to an additional increase in the efficiency and specificity of this technique.
4. Immobilization
New prospects of using PSs are opened by the immobilization of PSs onto a solid phase. This approach may allow repeated or continuous use of PSs. PSs can be immobilized by adsorption and covalent bonding onto solid supports and by ionic bonding to ion-exchange resins or incorporation into polymer films. The photodynamic properties of immobilized PSs are reported to be retained for a long time [79, 80, 81, 82, 83]. PSs studied in the immobilized form include RB, MB, and TBO; the porphyrin derivatives 5,10,15,20-tetrakis (p-hydroxy phenyl) porphyrin, 5,10,15,20-tetrakis (p-aminophenyl) porphyrin, and zinc (II) phthalocyanine tetrasulfonic acid; and the ruthenium salts tris (4,4′-diphenyl-2,2′-bipyridine) ruthenium (II), tris (4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline) ruthenium (II), tris (1,10-phenanthrolinyl-4,7-bis (benzenesulfonate) ruthenate (II), and tris (4,40-dinonyl-1,10-phenan throline) ruthenium (II). Solid supports applied for immobilization of PSs include polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polycarbonate, polymethyl methacrylate, polyester isophthalic resin, silicone, cationic nylon, porous silicones, poly (vinylidene difluoride), cellulose membranes, and chitosan [82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88]. Immobilized PSs demonstrated antibacterial properties against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria in batch and continuous regimes and under reuse. Immobilized PSs were found more stable and resistant to photobleaching than in a free form [82, 86, 88].
Our group immobilized PSs in polymers using several techniques. The first method included mixing solutions of PSs in chloroform with solutions of polymers in the same solvent, followed by evaporation of the solvent, which yielded thin polymeric films with homogeneously incorporated PSs. This technique was applied to RB and MB immobilized onto polystyrene, polycarbonate, and polymethyl methacrylate [88, 89, 90]. In all cases, the obtained polymer films showed high antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria when exposed to an external source of white light. However, since this method involves using an organic solvent, it cannot be considered environmentally friendly. The second method is based on dissolution of PSs in a melted polymer under extrusion and does not require any additional chemical reagents [91]. The photosensitizers RB, Rose Bengal lactone, MB, and hematoporphyrin were immobilized in polyethylene and polypropylene using this method. The antibacterial efficiency of immobilized PSs obtained as polymeric strips and beads was tested against S. aureus and E. coli in batch and continuous regimes under white fluorescent light. All immobilized PSs significantly reduced the concentration of the tested microorganisms, up to their complete eradication [91].
Another immobilization technique was based on polymerization of silicon in the presence of RB as the photosensitizer. Silicon tablets produced by this method contained evenly distributed RB that was not bound to the support by covalent bonds [29]. The antibacterial activity of the immobilized RB was tested under illumination and using ultrasonic activation in the dark (Figure 8). Figure 8 demonstrates the effect of immobilized RB on S. aureus cells when subjected to ultrasound in the dark. Silicone alone did not affect the microorganisms with and without sonication. However, the number of alive cells in samples subjected to immobilized RB under sonication decreased with sonication time and decreased by more than three orders of magnitude after 10 min of treatment.
Figure 8.
Antibacterial activity of silicon-immobilized RB (5% w/w) under ultrasonic treatment in the dark. Control—S. aureus cells treated by ultrasound only. After the treatment, bacteria were tested by viable count. Error bars present standard deviations.
Further development of immobilization methods and different PSs and polymers may expand the possibilities of this approach and yield the applications in various fields, such as the production of antibacterial surfaces and water disinfection.
5. Conclusions
Numerous studies show that photodynamic antibacterial chemotherapy is a powerful tool for killing microorganisms. Since this method requires external illumination, it can be successfully applied only to the treatment of local superficial skin and oral cavity infections. Development of new modes of PS excitation by ultrasound, radio waves, chemiluminescent, and bioluminescent light opens new prospects for their use in treating internal infections. Encapsulation of PSs in liposomes may solve the problem of using hydrophobic PSs with poor solubility in the aqueous phase. It can also provide delivery of a concentrated PS directly to the target site, thus increasing efficiency and reducing side effects of the treatment. Immobilization of PSs in a solid phase enables using them repeatedly or in a continuous mode. It can be assumed that PSs have a good potential for various clinical and nonclinical applications.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Research Authority of the Ariel University, Ariel, Israel.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"photodynamic therapy (PDT), photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (PACT), photosensitizer (PS), chemiluminescent antimicrobial chemotherapy (CPAT), sonodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (SACT), targeted drug delivery, liposomes, immobilization",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69306.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69306.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69306",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69306",totalDownloads:877,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:3,dateSubmitted:"June 10th 2019",dateReviewed:"September 4th 2019",datePrePublished:"September 30th 2019",datePublished:"July 1st 2020",dateFinished:"September 28th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Increasing resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a serious worldwide problem, and to combat resistant bacteria, new antibacterial approaches are to be developed. One alternative to traditional antibiotic therapy is photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (PACT). PACT is based on excitation of photosensitizers (PS) capable of transferring the absorbed light energy to dissolved molecular oxygen causing generation of reactive oxygen species, which irreversibly damage bacterial cell components. The overall efficiency of PACT has been proven for Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The effectiveness of PACT can be increased by encapsulation of PS in liposomes providing more concentrated delivery of PS, enhanced cytotoxicity, improved pharmacokinetic properties, sustained release, and prolonged action of the PS. For continuous and reusable application, PS can be immobilized in polymers. Chemiluminescence, sonodynamic treatment, and radiofrequency irradiation allow to perform excitation of PS in the dark without external illumination, opening prospects for combating internal infections. Combination of PS with antibiotics can gain a synergistic effect, allowing in some cases to overcome the resistance of bacteria to antibiotics.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69306",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69306",signatures:"Faina Nakonechny and Marina Nisnevitch",book:{id:"8997",type:"book",title:"Microorganisms",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Microorganisms",slug:"microorganisms",publishedDate:"July 1st 2020",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Mona Shaaban, Abdelaziz Elgaml",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8997.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-188-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-187-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-363-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"23436",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Nisnevitch",fullName:"Marina Nisnevitch",slug:"marina-nisnevitch",email:"marinan@ariel.ac.il",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Ariel University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}},{id:"307858",title:"Dr.",name:"Faina",middleName:null,surname:"Nakonechny",fullName:"Faina Nakonechny",slug:"faina-nakonechny",email:"fainan@ariel.ac.il",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Ariel University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 History of photodynamic therapy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Photosensitizers and their mechanism of action",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 Photosensitizers for PACT",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"2. Photosensitizer activation modes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.1 Dark activity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2 Illumination",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.3 Sonodynamic excitation of photosensitizers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.4 Activation of photosensitizers by radio waves",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.5 Chemiluminescent and bioluminescent excitation of photosensitizers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"3. Encapsulation of photosensitizers in liposomes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Immobilization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. 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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,700 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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This chapter provides a review of biochar production technologies, biochar’s catalyst development, and its application in various catalytic processes as well as descriptions of the benefits and drawbacks of the various applications currently available. 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In this study, the comparative analysis of the variation of the precipitation in relation to the availability of water in the Yautepec and Cuautla rivers in Morelos, Mexico, for the previous period and subsequent period is carried out, to determine the change in the availability of water in the ecosystem. In winter (February), an increase in rainfall on the Yautepec and Cuautla River was observed, where annual seasonal agriculture and Pine and Oyamel forest are the characteristic vegetation. In autumn (October), a decrease in precipitation takes place. The flows in some regions do not coincide with the increase in the percentage of precipitation (Oaxtepec and Las Estacas Stations) and point out the synergistic effect of the human use of the water resource and the effects of climate change. On Ticumán Station, the depletion of the flow only can be associated with the use of the resource by human influence. The modifications caused by alteration of a river’s flow regime and climatic change must be studied through comparative multidisciplinary studies that give to decision-makers the design of environmental flows.",book:{id:"11532",title:"River Basin Management - Under a Changing Climate",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11532.jpg"},signatures:"Rebeca González-Villela, Alfonso Banderas Tarabay and Marco Mijangos Carro"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:803},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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