Types of ash forests according to moisture, slope and accompanying species.
\r\n\tThe aim of this book will be to describe the most common forms of dermatitis putting emphasis on the pathophysiology, clinical appearance and diagnostic of each disease. We also will aim to describe the therapeutic management and new therapeutic approaches of each condition that are currently being studied and are supposed to be used in the near future.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"278931ae110500350d8b64805c70f193",bookSignature:"Dr. Eleni Papakonstantinou",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7934.jpg",keywords:"Atopic eczema, Interleukin, Topical corticosteroids, Hand eczema, Blisters, Pruritus, Irritant contact dermatitis, Allergic contact dermatitis, Discoid eczema, Sebaceous glands, Inflammatory dermatitis, Facial rash",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 5th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 19th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 18th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 6th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 5th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"203520",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleni",middleName:null,surname:"Papakonstantinou",slug:"eleni-papakonstantinou",fullName:"Eleni Papakonstantinou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203520/images/system/203520.jpg",biography:"Dr. med. Eleni Papakonstantinou is a Doctor of Medicine graduate and board certified Dermatologist-Venereologist. She studied medicine at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, in Greece and she continued with her dermatology specialty in Germany (2012-2017) at the University of Magdeburg and Hannover Medical School, where she completed her dissertation in 2016 with research work on atopic dermatitis in children. During this time she gained wide experience in the whole dermatological field with special focus on the diagnosis and treatment of chronic inflammatory skin diseases and also the prevention and treatment of melanocytic and non-melanocytic skin tumors. Her research interests were beside atopic dermatitis and pruritus also the pathophysiology of blistering dermatoses. In addition to lectures at german and international congresses, she has published several articles in german and international journals and her work has been awarded with various prizes (poster prize of the German Dermatological Society for the project: 'Bullous pemphigoid and comorbidities' (DDG Leipzig 2016), 'Michael Hornstein Memorial Scholarship' (EADV Athens 2016), travel grant (EAACI Vienna 2016). Since 2017, she works as a specialist dermatologist in private practice in Dortmund, in Germany. Parallel she co-administrates an international dermatologic network, Wikiderm International and she writes a dermatology public guide for patients, as she is convinced that evidence-based knowledge has to be shared not only with colleagues but also with patients.",institutionString:"Private Practice, Dermatology and Venereology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270941",firstName:"Sandra",lastName:"Maljavac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270941/images/7824_n.jpg",email:"sandra.m@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"66865",title:"Pollard Forest of Fraxinus angustifolia in the Centre of Iberian Peninsula: Protection and Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86099",slug:"pollard-forest-of-em-fraxinus-angustifolia-em-in-the-centre-of-iberian-peninsula-protection-and-mana",body:'\nPruning and pollarding of tree species constitute an activity that has existed in European forests for centuries. Pruning and pollarding of tree species constitute an activity that has existed in European forests for centuries. Although pruning is still a frequent silvicultural practice, in some areas, some species are currently no longer pruned and there has been a decline in other uses that had been implemented in forests, which played a vital role in shaping their silvo-structures [1, 2, 3]. This pruning responded to different objectives, among these, production of wooden beams, charcoal, firewood, timber for ships, leaves for fodder, etc. All these activities were tightly controlled by traditional regulations [4]. These coppice forests present an “aerial” morphology [5]. In general terms, among the formations in which these practices were abandoned, we can highlight forests of oak (Quercus pyrenaica Wild., Quercus robur L.), birch (Betula ssp.), holly (Ilex aquifolium L.), and Holm oak (Quercus ilex L. subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.) [6]. Consequently, numerous tree species, generally deciduous ones, have been subjected to this traditional management regime.
\nIn order to accurately interpret the evolution of European forests, especially in the south, anthropogenic disturbances, as well as the development thereof over time, must be taken into account. This can involve erroneous interpretations of the patterns and processes observed in forest ecosystems [7, 8, 9]. Specifically, pollarding has constituted a fundamental part of rural economies in much of Western Europe, and it also shapes a landscape of great cultural, aesthetic, and identity-related value that has lasted up to the present time as a result of the persistence of these practices [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. Pollarding became widespread in many of Europe’s forests and agricultural and rural environments, from the British Isles to Romania and from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean basin, and evidence of pruning in the different agro-forest landscapes can still be observed [5, 15, 16, 17].
\nMany studies on Fraxinus ssp. in Europe have been conducted in relation to the taxonomy and the ecological characteristics of Fraxinus excelsior L. [18, 19, 20, 21, 22] and to the role it plays in maintaining biodiversity [23, 24]. Nonetheless, few studies on Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl. have addressed the relevance of this species in the western Mediterranean’s agro-forest landscape. The centre of the Iberian Peninsula houses one of Europe’s densest formations of Fraxinus angustifolia [25]. These forests are currently conserved as dehesas, mainly presenting tree and herbaceous strata associated with secular livestock farming which to the present day still involves pollarding. It is precisely this dehesa landscape that characterises the formations of Fraxinus angustifolia in the Guadarrama mountains of Madrid. These dehesas formed mainly (sometimes exclusively by Fraxinus angustifolia) are really unique because of their main species and their territorial concentration and differ from the best-known dehesas of the South and West peninsular, usually populated by Quercus suber and Quercus ilex. Pollarding can be conducted twice during the year: in wintertime, less habitual and intended mainly for firewood production, and at the end of the hot season, when pastures are parched, in order to provide fresh fodder for the livestock immediately after pruning. This endows the tree with a unique appearance, with stems up to 2 m long which become wider at the top due to the scarring where they are cut. This pruning system gives rise to dehesas, dotted with old trees presenting a cabeza de gato (cat’s head) morphology. Notwithstanding, this structure is not homogeneous because these large stands alternate with young stands and flooded areas. This agricultural landscape also comprises pastures growing in the herbaceous stratum. These formations exhibit a certain degree of variety based on gradients of moisture, with xeric species (dense, high-cover pastures dominated by Poa bulbosa L.), on relatively moist (pastures of Agrostis castellana Boiss. and Reuter) or temporarily flooded (moorlands of Nardus stricta L.) terrain [26, 27]. This whole mosaic, dominated by pollarded trees, makes up an open dehesa forest formation. It presents a high biodiversity of energy-rich pastures on flat or slightly sloped terrain and in turn constitutes one of the most emblematic traditional landscapes on the southern slopes of the Guadarrama mountains.
\nInterestingly, Fraxinus angustifolia plays a significant role in the areas close to the villages, known as ruedos in the Mediterranean world. This space mainly involves smallholdings delimited by stone walls and hedges, which are subjected to intensive cultivation; they are habitually irrigated and therefore permanently moist practically throughout the year. In this environment, the most common tree species is the ash (Fraxinus angustifolia L.). This landscape comprises hedgerows in which the trees and the ash in particular play a relevant role, both within and around the perimeter. It is a fragile landscape, endangered by intense processes, mainly urbanisation and the abandonment of agriculture and livestock farming, factors which cause the loss of much of these lands [28].
\nFurthermore, in these forests, many associated values are recognised, not only in relation to the biodiversity and the ecological elements they contain but also to the culture and identity-related values and those referring to aesthetics, perception, productivity, and history. Civil society promotes numerous initiatives emphasising the heritage-related values of pollarded landscapes or of unique examples of pollarding: the Woodland trust (
The present research aims to provide more in-depth knowledge of dehesas of pollarded Fraxinus angustifolia in the centre of the Iberian Peninsula and to elucidate the origin and genesis of these formations on the southern slopes of the Guadarrama mountains; to demarcate and map the area they occupy; to characterise and to establish the typology of the masses delimited and lastly, to identify their main values and the threats they face.
\nThe study was developed in four methodological phases in order to establish the area covered by Fraxinus angustifolia, to analyse its state of conservation and forest structure, to determine the main variables influencing its distribution and lastly, to establish a typology.
\nIn the first phase, we conducted a search for bibliographic and digital information at different scales, and we analysed documentation in digital historical archives (Archivo PARES:
In the second phase, we established the criteria for identification, correction, and incorporation of enclosures containing ash trees. This enabled us to identify the ash forests that were not defined in the cartography to maintain the pre-existing ones and to eliminate those that could no longer be considered as such. We bore in mind:
All the areas included in the Iberian Mediterranean Ash Forests of Fraxinus angustifolia and Fraxinus ornus 91B0 (Directive 92/43/CEE), eliminating riparian forests with excessively regular widths. In these areas, we verified in the field the absence of ash trees and excluded the areas dominated by riparian vegetation.
The polygons classified as ash forests, ash tree dehesas, and a mixture of ash trees with deciduous species from the cartography of the Mapa de Terreno Forestal de la Comunidad de Madrid—Madrid Regional Govt. Map of Forestland. We also included polygons in which Fraxinus presented values of 30% or others coinciding with hedgerows and wood pastures.
Riparian ash forests that presented continuity with larger masses or hedgerows with presence of ash trees.
We did not take into account the riparian ash forests; however, we did establish criteria for differentiating them. For this reason, we employed the basic hydrographic network from the MDT 100 × 100 to define a 100 m buffer zone (Public Water System); we conducted an individualised review of the areas that remained within the buffer zone or those that were situated very close to it. This enabled us to include those that presented continuity with other polygons of ash forest or those that, although they formed part of the riparian vegetation, encroached uphill or had become meadows or plots of dehesa land.
The third phase consisted of designing different itineraries combining the orthography at a scale of 1:5000 and employing the LIDAR Digital Elevation Model (0.5 m) and the available forest cartography. We selected the tracks considering geographic area: Northeast, Centre and Southwest, and abiotic (physiography and lithology) and forest (type of forest structure) conditioning factors. These transects enabled us to rectify and incorporate new data into the cartographic information sources of reference.
\nIn the final phase, we estimated the different variables intervening in the localisation of the ash forests, reducing these to three: slope, morphology of the terrain, and surface soil moisture. We obtained the slope directly from the LIDAR model, simplifying it in order to operate it in three categories (low: <5%; moderate: 5-10% and medium>10%). Curvature, derived from the MDE LIDAR, was classified into two categories: 1 (concave lands) and 2 (convex lands). Finally, for moisture, we differentiated three typologies: moist, semi-moist, and dry. In the latter case, we applied particular methodological criteria. We first analysed the images from Sentinel-2 in the months of May, June, and July (clear contrasts between moist and dry areas), choosing as the optimum image the one from July 3, 2015. We extracted data on surface soil moisture using the band combination that was proposed by EOS DATA ANALYTICS (2017) and reclassified into four intervals for subsequent vectorisation.
\nWith the aim of establishing a valid typification, we analysed the three variables obtained and conducted a grouping process using the software ArcGIS 10.3 (ESRI) Grouping Analysis tool. We verified the reliability of the results by means of a stepwise or relational analysis with the exploratory regression algorithm of the same software. We calculated the results following the euclidean distance method, avoiding sub-algorithms, which provide excessive weight to geographic proximity. The information was simplified until four types were established. To this, we added the cohort of species accompanying each type (based upon the Madrid Regional Govt. Map of Forestland), differentiating: monospecific ash forests, with Quercus pyrenaica or Quercus ilex subsp. ballota, with different types of scrublands or mixed with different deciduous species. Finally, in order to provide an understanding of the distribution of Fraxinus angustifolia in the area, we intersected the types with the morphostructural units identified. In this case, as a reference we employed data from [29, 30] differentiating three groups: horst, tectonic basins and depressions and piedmont1.
\nThe area chosen is located on the southern slopes of the Guadarrama mountains, where Fraxinus exhibits one of its finest and southernmost representations in Europe and in the Iberian Peninsula (Figure 1). Specifically, we studied 49 municipalities presenting a total area of 198,300 ha. In this sector, the morpho-structural guidelines condition the layout of the relief, which is based on a tectonic system running in the northwest-southeast direction [29, 30, 31]. The physiography is characterised by horst (at approx. 2000 m) and graben (from 900 to 1000 m). Lying within the latter, both on the periphery and between summits are tectonic basins and depressions. The dominant materials comprise granitoids and metamorphic rock fields occasionally interrupted by calcareous-marly outcrops. The climate is continental Mediterranean, characterised by hot and dry summers, an average precipitation slightly higher than 650 mm annually, concentrated in autumn and winter, and average temperatures ranging from 12 to 14°C. In this sector, Fraxinus angustifolia L. occupies 20,591 ha of the more accessible zones containing tectonic basins, depressions and gentle slopes, on soils with little or no surface hydric deficit. These morpho-hydrological conditions give rise to the aforementioned rich pollarded livestock-farming silvosystems that are highly appreciated for their productivity.
\na) Fraxinus angustifolia density in Europe according to [25]. b) Localisation of the study area on the Iberian Peninsula. c) Distribution of the Fraxinus angustifolia forests in the study area. Own design.
The gradual sedentarisation and growth of settlements during the reconquest against Islam (mid-twenty-first century) gave rise to the first production-oriented forest management based on pruning. Specifically, the location of settlements in valley bottoms occupied by ash forests facilitated the exploitation thereof, with the appearance of the first pollards. At that time, there was generally abundant regulation of uses in the shape of Royal Decrees, Regional Codes, and Byelaws. This regulatory framework enforced within a series of incipient territorial identities (the Real de Manzanares, the Sexmo de Casarrubios, and the Comunidades de Villa y Tierra of Buitrago and of Segovia) lasted almost five centuries [4, 6, 7, 8, 28, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37].
\nThe population increase in the mountain areas and the progressive appearance of new settlements caused a growing need for pastures, charcoal, firewood, and timber. This entailed obvious risks and consequences: transformation of the ash forests into coppices and their delimitation as municipally property. In the High Middle Ages, a period of regulation was initiated [32], in which these delimitations were decisive: las fresnedas son acotadas y defesadas restringiendo sus mejores vuelos y herbajes para el engorde de bueyes de labranza (the ash forests are delimited and “defesadas” (protected), restricting their best crowns and pastures in order to fatten beasts of burden). It was precisely this need that caused the continual modification of byelaws governing forestry uses [33, 34, 35, 36, 37]. Numerous examples exist of different municipal byelaws, highlighting the importance of protecting these forests from the depletive uses that were becoming generalised outside these estates. For instance, in the case of El Escorial, the Royal Decree dated September 3rd, 1565, prohibits introducing “…ningún género de ganado mayor ni menor, ni de noche ni de día…” (any class of large or small livestock, whether by night or by day), and forbids “… sacar ni cortar ninguna leña verde ni seca del heredamiento de la fresneda…” (extracting or cutting any green or dry wood from ash forests). These circumstances generally applied, with few exceptions, to the whole piedmont of the Guadarrama mountains. At this time, there were two models of exploitation of the ash forests. On one hand, the dehesas boyales (common-use pastures), subjected to a higher degree of regulation and protection, used for livestock farming, in which one could find examples of pollarding. On the other, there were the common and private ash forests, the exploitation of which involved coppice forests exploited for charcoal and firewood.
\nOnce the Court of Madrid has become consolidated, the increased demand for charcoal and timber determined the management model of the ash forests (eighteenth century). As from this time, the population growth gave rise to an exponential increase in the need for fuel (firewood and charcoal) and meat [38]. This demand for fossil fuels is the commonplace in the rest of Europe and has serious consequences for the forest formations [39, 40]. For example, [41] state that in Europe, wood was habitually extracted from coppice forests to make charcoal and they consider that at least 15% of this came from wood pastures. This rise in consumption of forest resources called for State intervention by means of the 1748 Royal Byelaws, which were intended to protect and increase the area of forests and plantations. During the eighteenth and ninteenth centuries and within this reference framework, the State attempted to tax these resources, conducting as many as three inventories, see [42, 43, 44]. Analysis thereof enables us to determine the presence of three different typologies associated with forestry uses in general and of ash forests in particular: coppice forests used for production of charcoal and firewood and seedling forest used for production of timber for construction and pollards in enclosed pastures intended to provide grazing for beasts of burden.
\nDespite the attempt of local councils to conserve forests and dehesas, in the nineteenth century, deforestation and overexploitation were noteworthy. This can be seen in [45]: “Se observa bastante monte de roble, quejido y fresno aún en los terrenos labrados, lo que hace suponer que en su antigüedad estuvo cubierto de uno muy espeso y que las necesidades de cultivo y la industria del carbón, juntamente con la presión de combustible para hacer fuego los habitantes del país, han dado lugar a que sólo exista dos terceras partes o la mitad propiamente de esta clase de terreno en los alrededores de la población…” (One can observe common oak, lusitanian oak and ash forest remaining on the cultivated land, which leads one to believe that in the old times it was covered with dense forest, and the need to cultivate, together with the charcoal industry and the inhabitants’ firewood requirements, has led to a situation in which only two thirds or one half remain of this kind of land in the surroundings of the village).
\nUnlike other European countries, such as the United Kingdom [3], where pollarding fell into decline as from the year 1900, in our study area, it became consolidated over time and is actively practiced at present.
\nAs from half-way through the nineteenth century, there occurred a gradual decrease in the multifunctionality of forests, with the consequent decline in their exploitation for charcoal and firewood. This change in the model was confirmed in the twentieth century, and a new production system became consolidated and has come to dominate in the pollarded ash forests: extensive livestock farming [46]. In this context, many farmers began to breed fighting bulls and from the start of the nineteenth century supplied animals for Madrid’s bullfighting festivities [4]. Additionally, in view of the low profitability of bull breeding, many owners began to produce quality meat by means of imported breeds (Limousin and Charolais), autochthonous ones (Negra Serrana), or a mixture of both.
\nThere is currently clear evidence of ash forests mainly associated with livestock farming, which presents a high degree of silvo-structural diversity. Nonetheless, the best ash forests are maintained as functional pollarded open woodland, and the marginal lands are progressively becoming pluri-specific forestland with thickets.
\nFraxinus angustifolia occupies 20,590.80 hectares, representing 10.4% of the study area and approximately 3% of the Madrid Regional Autonomy. These formations run parallel to the predominant reliefs in this sector of the Guadarrama mountains (Figure 1). Their highest degree of concentration and continuity is seen in areas presenting very specific geographic and environmental features: high moisture levels, gentle slopes and altitudes ranging from 800 to 1350 metres on granitic and metamorphic lithologies. These silvo-structures present an appearance of open woodland with pollarded trees, and they represent one of the most characteristic landscapes on the low slopes and in the valley bottoms.
\nAlmost 80% of the ash forests mapped present a fraction of canopy cover of between 10 and 70%. Furthermore, very few are included in very dense forest formations (2.34%). The remaining 20% are integrated within meadows or pastures with dispersed trees, showing no continuity.
\nAs for ownership (Figure 2)2, there is a clear relationship between the ash forests and private property, as over 85% (18,346.85 ha) are privately owned. In particular, there is a predominance of private estates (86.70% and 18,141.21 ha), and in this category, the representativeness of neighbourhood associations falls to 0.98% (205.64 ha). Among publicly owned lands, we can highlight town councils (8.47%; 1771.80 ha), compared with 3.86% belonging to the Madrid Regional Govt., the State, and the Confederaciones Hidrográficas (Water Boards). Lastly, with regard to the type of property, there is a predominance of medium- and small-sized private estates (71.6%, 14,986.34).
\nOwnership of the ash forests. Own design based on the Madrid Regional Govt. Map of Forestland (2009).
We defined four typologies of ash forests in relation to moisture, slope, morphology of the terrain, and accompanying species (Figure 3, Table 1). As can be seen in Table 1, the variable moisture constitutes the most influential conditioning factor of these four types. The factors relating to slope and accompanying species are secondary and are represented in all the types and at all thresholds. In relation to the latter variable, the species and categories selected were monospecific ash forests; ash forests with Quercus pyrenaica; with Quercus ilex subsp. ballota; with different types of scrubland and with a mixture of different deciduous species. As can be observed in Table 1, the mixed formation of Fraxinus angustifolia and other deciduous species is almost insignificant in the four types obtained, ranging from 0.56 to 0.77% (155,59 ha). The facies of Fraxinus angustifolia with scrubland is an indicator of the possible process of abandonment of these formations in the study area. The most habitual species involves dense thorny thickets of blackberry (Rubus ulmifolius), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), and wild rose (Rosa ssp.). The percentages are very similar in the four types obtained, ranging from 9.48 to 10.67% (a total of almost 2000 ha). Therefore, the most characteristic accompanying species involves Quercus ilex subsp. ballota and Quercus pyrenaica, which would appear to indicate transitions toward different bioclimatic belts. The presence of Quercus ilex subsp. ballota accompanying Fraxinus angustifolia is associated with the upper horizons of the Mesomediterranean and the lower horizons of the Supramediterranean, with more xeric edaphic conditions. Specifically, this formation appears in over 3195 ha and has its maximum representation in type 2 (20.03%). The main plurispecific formation therefore involves Fraxinus angustifolia accompanied by Quercus pyrenaica. In this case, it is associated with the Supramediterranean belt, with soils exhibiting a higher level of surface moisture. This formation occupies over 6400 ha, and type one concentrates over half, representing 32.48% of the area. Fraxinus angustifolia disappears when conditions relating to stoniness, xericity, and thermicity become more favourable to Quercus pyrenaica with increased altitude.
\nTypes of Fraxinus angustifolia forests.
Types of ash forests according to moisture, slope and accompanying species.
The various different types of Fraxinus angustifolia forests are described below. The extension and main characteristics are mentioned for each typology.
Type 1. These are mainly monospecific formations occasionally sharing the forest cover with Quercus pyrenaica. They are located on flat topographies, gentle and very gentle slopes (<50), fundamentally in depressed areas. A total of 49.22% falls within this group (10135.39 ha).
Type 2. This type comprises formations always presenting low or medium moisture levels, with no moist ash forests. The principal accompanying species are Quercus pyrenaica and, to a lesser degree when the surface is very dry, Quercus ilex subsp. ballota. They are located on medium and gentle slopes (<5–100) and on depressed terrain. They occupy 30.79% (6340.89 ha).
Type 3. Comprises the semi-moist formations and, to a lesser extent, the moist ones. There are no ash forests with low surface moisture. Almost 50% are monospecific and are situated on medium and gentle slopes. A total of 13.58% of the ash forests fall within this type (2795.96 ha).
Type 4. Comprises the dry monospecific ash forests on dry flat and sloping topographies. Only 6.4% falls within this category (1318.55 ha).
The definition of the typologies reveals the localised nature of the ash forests. As shown by Figure 3, the distribution of the different types in the territory studied does not clearly respond to patterns of geographic distribution because the variables influencing their localisation are present in most of the study area. For this reason, they intersected with the large morphostructural groups of the Guadarrama range. Results show that 61.09% (12,579.72 ha) of the ash forests lie on piedmont, 31.72% (6531.88 ha) on tectonic basins and depressions, and 7.18% (1479.20 ha) upon horst and its gentle slopes. We now indicate the main features of the morphostructures and the percentage distribution in hectares of each typology of ash forest in relation to the total area occupied by ash forests.
\nIn these spaces, the predominant landscape exhibits a gentle slope, with visual basins opening up toward the Tagus or Torrelaguna river basins, with the Guadarrama mountains forming a backdrop.
\nAt the foot of Guadarrama’s main reliefs lies large areas gently sloping towards the Tagus River Basin or smaller areas sloping towards interior basins such as that of Buitrago (Figures 4 and 5). Their morphology generally presents broad ramps that gradually disappear, sinking below marls and gypsum formations. The readjustment tectonics have determined the current configuration and layout, favouring the entrenchment of the rivers and their entombment in the more fractured areas.
\nPanoramic view of the El Escorial piedmont.
Pollarded specimen in the El Escorial piedmont.
Type 1 is most relevant in the piedmont: 28.87% (5943.64 ha). Its most representative elements are located in the granitic piedmont of El Escorial-Alpedrete-Guadarrama (south-western sector). In these areas, fracturing has favoured the presence of depressed sectors of different sizes where accumulation of surface and hypogeous water is relatively common. The micro-topographical conditions, particularly on the rockier piedmont, give rise to different transition facies in which the remaining minority types are included. Type 2 (20.17%, 4153.71 ha) is associated with granite rocks or more continuous outcrops. In certain discharge sectors, type 3 (7.97%, 1641.23 ha) is associated with local fractures or surface runoffs and type 4 (4.09%, 841.14 ha) colonises marginal sectors on gentle slopes or structural thresholds.
\nAs for ownership, in this context, the large estates (generally rare), together with the small- and medium-sized ones, play a vital role.
\nThis landscape presents a combination of large tectonic basins between mountains, such as the Lozoya Valley, together with small depressions, presenting rounder forms and alveolar weathering basins. In both cases, the landscapes are closed, exhibiting compartmentalised configurations, as well as a strong identity.
\nTectonics plays a fundamental role in this unit (Figures 6 and 7). The graben is characterised by constituting large sectors with irregular morphology, delimited by a well-defined tectonic scheme along all its margins. They are mostly situated at the foot of large horst. In the case of the depressions, the configuration adheres to fractures, presenting a certain degree of linearity and river valleys well-defined at one end (i.e., Robledo de Chavela, Manzanares el Real). It is often difficult to differentiate between types, as they can display mixed morphostructures.
\nAn example of depression (arroyo del Valle, Bustarviejo).
Group of pollarded trees (Valle del Lozoya).
Within this morphostructural unit, type 1 constitutes the most dominant one in the flatter sectors (17.52%, 3606.58 ha). Characteristic examples are the central sector of the Lozoya Valley or the depressions in the form of large alveolar weathering basins, like the arroyo of the Bustarviejo Valley. Type 2 is localised in the marginal areas in the rock fields in interior of the unit (7.97%, 1641.35 ha). Lastly, types 3 and 4 are hardly represented herein (4.46%, 918, ha and 1.78%, 365.95 ha, respectively) and are situated in marginal sectors coming into contact with the gently sloping horst.
\nThey constitute the nucleus of Guadarrama’s summits and slopes (Figures 8 and 9). Their current morphology derives from the effects of the postalpine tectonic readjustment that gave rise to a succession of horst at different levels. This unit extends from the summit erosion surfaces to where they come into contact with tectonic basins and depressions. Continuity is maintained along the axis Siete Picos-Carpetanos-Cuerda Larga, and marginal sectors are maintained in La Cabrera and in the displaced horst of Cerro de San Pedro.
\nAbandonment of hedgerows and dead ash tree (Canencia).
Hedgerow and grazing pastures with Gladiolus communis (Lozoyuela).
Within this morphostructure, the ash forests are not very representative, appearing in the lower slope areas. Types 1 and 2 are the ones that occupy the largest area (2.84%, 585.18 ha and 2.65%, 545.82 ha, respectively). They are represented by formaciones finícolas (peripheral formations, that is, ones living at the edge of their range) that become installed in the flat areas occurring on steep slopes (i.e., Canencia) or in arroyos with stepped slopes (i.e., La Acebeda, Miraflores, Navacerrada). The presence of types 3 and 4 is not significant, as they barely reach 1.69% of the total (348 ha).
\nApart from characterising these ash forests, we also describe in depth the multiple values they present (Table 2). Among the most notable of these, habitually indicated, are the ecological and biological values, with emphasis upon the entomological biodiversity; the productive ones because, as a result of the secular livestock farming activity, the pasture formations present a high value. Moreover, cultural and identity-related values, referring to pruning practices that present a high ethnographic value, establish a close association with the resulting landscape. Finally, we describe the aesthetic-perceptive values and the historic values, both deep-rooted in the villages where these formations appear [11, 15, 17, 47, 48].
\n\n | Values | \nThreats | \n
---|---|---|
Ecological and Biological | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
Cultural and identity-related | \n\n
| \n|
Aesthetic and perceptive | \n\n
| \n|
Productive | \n\n
| \n|
Historical | \n\n
| \n
Values of, and threats facing, the ash forests in our study area.
Of note is the value reached by some trees of Fraxinus angustifolia, not only as masses or formations but also as unique specimens due to certain features they display, such as longevity, shape, localisation, etc.
\nFinally, the biggest threats facing these forest landscapes refer to the disappearance thereof as a result of a radical change of uses, for example, urbanisation, with a change from rustic land to land zoned for development. Furthermore, other serious threats involve the disappearance of the key elements shaping this landscape, such as pruning, walls, enclosures, etc. We must also highlight changes in land uses, such as the intensification of livestock farming, which alters and depletes the floristic composition of pastures that are adapted to an extensive management regime involving livestock rotation.
\nThe present study achieved its main objective: mapping, typifying and characterising the ash forest on the southern slopes of the Guadarrama mountains. From an historical perspective, they can be said to constitute formations shaped by secular uses of the canopy and of the land. As the formations were located in the areas closer to the villages, the Byelaws and Regional Codes of the Comunidades de Villa y Tierra (communities) or of the councils constituted an instrument for regulating uses. These regulations, which still exist in many cases, have been decisive with regard to shaping the current forest structure. Results show that the ash forests presenting the highest values due to their surface area or state of conservation are the ones located in the rocky piedmont and in the lower areas in tectonic basins and depressions. Nonetheless, it is their current localisation in the more accessible sectors that poses the main threat facing these agro-landscapes, as a result of urbanisation, with villages expected to grow in the future.
\nAnother characteristic of these ash forests involves the traditional pollarding method, a land use described in the historical documentation from the end of the eleventh century. This practice constitutes one of the most significant identity-related values of traditional highland culture in Madrid’s Guadarrama mountains. As a result of the notable changes that have taken place in these sectors, a process we have already described in previous studies [49, 50], they should be considered as endangered landscapes. A specific figure of protection should therefore be proposed for these forest formations (i.e., cultural landscape); this status should be reinforced through inclusion in the regional and local planning.
\nAdditionally, results confirm that Fraxinus angustifolia depends strongly upon moisture and sub-surface water accumulation and, to a lesser degree, on slope. Within a scenario of higher temperatures, with less hydric availability and greater evapotranspiration [51], the presence of water proves to be determinant in relation to the vulnerability of this species in a future context of climate change. This fragility ought to constitute a priority line of future research, addressing the species within a broader framework as an indicator of change at regional level. In turn, there is a need for models and implementation strategies adapted to the new climatic scenarios; these should involve the collaboration and support of the different stakeholders.
\nIn conclusion, there is a need to question the current state of affairs and to propose management criteria for Guadarrama’s ash forests. The latest initiatives developed relating to pollarded ash forests (Seminars on pollarded ash forests organised by Madrid’s Politécnica University in November 2017 and by the Autonoma University of Madrid in November 2018) have focussed on detecting the dynamics and threats involved and on putting forward proposals to promote future maintenance of these formations. These potential guidelines are based upon three axes: establishment of regulations on pruning methods by the regional administration involving the participation of all the stakeholders (especially in terms of the interaction between forest rangers and landowners); promotion of research and knowledge in order to provide better management and actions for dissemination, awareness, and revitalisation of pollarding and of pollarded forests.
\nThis research was funded by the Madrid Regional Govt. via a call for environmental activities and projects (Order 3326/2017), through the Project “Mejora de la cartografía del Hábitat de Interés Comunitario 91B0 Bosques de Fresnedas de Fraxinus angustifolia y Fraxinus ornus en el territorio de la Comunidad de Madrid”. (“Enhancement of the cartography pertaining to the Habitats of Community Interest 19B0 Ash Forests of Fraxinus angustifolia and Fraxinus ornus”) within the territory of the Madrid Regional Autonomy”.
\nThis fact is mainly due to the presence of many different species of leishmania, its vectors and hosts in different parts of the world. More than 20 pathologic species of leishmania and over 30 species of Phlebotomus—the vector- are known worldwide (Figure 1, Table 1).
\nTaxonomy of leishmania family [1].
Subgenus | \nL. (Leishmania) | \nL. (Leishmania) | \nL. (Viannia) | \nL. (Viannia) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Old World | \nL. donovani | \nL. major | \n\n | \n |
\n | L. infantum | \nL. tropica | \n\n | \n |
\n | \n | L. killickia | \n\n | \n |
\n | \n | L. aethiopica | \n\n | \n |
\n | \n | L. infantum | \n\n | \n |
New World | \nL. infantum | \nL. infantum | \nL. braziliensis | \nL. braziliensis | \n
\n | \n | L. mexicana | \nL. guyanensis | \nL. panamensis | \n
\n | \n | L. pifanoia | \nL. panamensis | \n\n |
\n | \n | L. venezuelensis | \nL. shawi | \n\n |
\n | \n | L. garnhamia | \nL. naïffi | \n\n |
\n | \n | L. amazonensis | \nL. lainsoni | \n\n |
\n | \n | \n | L. lindenbergi | \n\n |
\n | \n | \n | L. peruviana | \n\n |
\n | \n | \n | L. colombiensisb | \n\n |
Principal tropism | \nViscerotropic | \nDermotropic | \nDermotropic | \nMucotropic | \n
Leishmania found in humans [1].
Species status is under discussion.
Taxonomic position is under discussion.
On the other hand, deterioration of the eco-systems by human beings also contribute to the spread of the disease in the world.
\nLeishmaniasis has four clinical forms. These are cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL, local—LCL or diffuse—DCL), mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL), visceral leishmaniasis (VL), post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL), (Table 1).
\nIn this section we aimed to reveal the epidemiologic analysis of different types of leishmaniasis in all over the world in every aspect.
\nLeishmaniasis, as being one of the world’s most neglected diseases, affects mainly the poor, developing countries; 350 million people are thought to be at risk of contracting leishmaniasis. It is estimated that approximately 12 million men are ill and 2 million new cases occur annually [1, 2].
\nWith new epidemics occurring in endemic areas and the spread of leishmaniasis to previously free areas because of migration, tourism, and military activities. Leishmaniasis is a disease of the poor, occurring mostly in remote rural villages with poor housing and little or no access to modern health-care facilities. In endemic areas, diagnosis of any form of leishmaniasis puts a huge financial strain on an already meagre financial resource at both the individual and community levels [3].
\nVisceral leishmaniasis: approximately 90% of new cases occur in the world’s cases of India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Ethiopia, Sudan and Brazil are seen. The annual number of cases worldwide has been estimated to be visceral leishmaniasis, between 200,000 and 400,000. The two important causative agents of visceral leishmaniasis (VL), namely Leishmania (L) donovani and L. infantum, cause significant health problems [1, 4].
\nVisceral leishmaniasis (VL), also known as “kala azar,” is caused by parasites of the L. donovani complex in some parts of the world. The L. donovani complex can be found throughout Asia, North Africa, Latin America and Southern Europe, affecting mostly vulnerable and uncared populations. As being the most severe form, VL is almost always fatal if left untreated. It is characterized by undulating fever, loss of weight, splenomegaly, hepatomegaly and/or lymphadenopathies and anemia L. infantum, the other causative agent of VL, is found in Southern Europe, North Africa and West and Central Asia [1, 5].
\nPost-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) is another clinical composition of kala azar and it is seen in all areas endemic for L. donovani. It especially comments in East Africa and on the Indian subcontinent with a prevalence of 50 and 10%, respectively [1, 6].
\nCutaneous leishmaniasis: approximately 90% of the world’s cases of Afghanistan, Pakistan, Sudan, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Iran, Iraq, is seen in Brazil and Peru. The annual number of cases worldwide has been estimated to be visceral leishmaniasis, cutaneous leishmaniasis: between 700,000 and 1.2 million [1]. Old World species: L. major, L. infantum, and L. tropica, New World species, such as, L. amazonensis, L. chagasi, L. mexicana, L. viannia (V) naiffi, L. (V.) braziliensis, and L. (V.) guyanensis [6, 7]. Antroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL) is caused by most Leishmania species, occur in most subtropical and tropical regions (for example, L. major from Africa and Asia, and L. mexicana from Central and South America), and by many species in the subgenus Viannia, which are limited to Latin America (for example, L. (V) brasiliensis) [6].
\nOld World cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by L. tropica (seen particularly in the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East, Pakistan and India) and L. infantum, (found sporadically in the Middle East, South Russia, and rural regions of Africa). New World cutaneous leishmaniasis, caused by L. brazilensis and L. mexicana is seen in Mexica and South America. Leishmaniasis exists on every continent except Australia, the Pacific Islands and Antarctica. The parasites that cause leishmaniasis are found in 98 countries around the world [7].
\nL. tropica, L. major, L. aethiopica and L. infantum causes Old World cutaneous leishmaniasis. Leishmania tropica is mainly seen in urban areas and causes ACL. Related vectors are Phlebotomus sergenti and Phlebotomus papatasii. Lesions are generally dry and remain without ulceration. During the course lesions change to papules [1, 8].
\nL. tropica is found in urban areas. It causes ACL via the vectors Phlebotomus sergenti and Phlebotomus papatasii. The lesions are dry and stay for a long period of time without ulceration. Thereafter, painless lesions as papules, tubercles or nodules subside without scarring in 9–12 months [8].
\nL. major infections generally cause wet lesions in habitants of rural areas. Incubation period is less than 4 months. Lesions are usually seen on the legs. They start as acute papillary infection in the bite area and advances into pustular ulcers in 1–3 weeks. The infection is categorized as “zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ZCL)” due to the transmission to rodents, dogs via Phlebotomus papatasi [9].
\nL. infantum often causes small (0.5–1 cm), solitary ulcers on the face [10].
\nL. aetropica lesions are seen in the mouth and nose with local or wide spread dermal involvement. Lesions rarely become ulcerated. Healing may take 1–3 years or more [11].
\nL. braziliensis, L. mexicana, L. amazoensis, L. guyanensis, L. panamensis and L. peruviana cause New World cutaneous leishmaniasis [8, 12].
\nThe disease caused by L. braziliensis is named “espundia.” The infection leads to metastatic lesions, damages and deformation of the cartilage and soft tissues by affecting buccal and nasal mucosa [13].
\nL. mexicana causes usually solitary, painless lesions in the pinna. It leads to chronic lesions in the pinna called “chiclero’s ulcer” [14].
\nL. guyanensis infection is consisted of flat ulcerative plaques with leakage in whole body. The lesion is called “pianbois” in Uruguay and Venezuella [15].
\nL. amazonensis causes solitary or multiple lesions with rarely spontaneous remission. It is rare in humans [8].
\nL. peruviana infection causes solitary or multiple painless dermal lesions they usually subsided spontaneously in 4–5 months. This infection is called uta [16].
\nLesions of L. panamensis are ulcers without spontaneous improvement the reservoirs are dogs and monkeys [12].
\nL. venezuelensis generally causes solitary painless nodular lesion. [12, 17].
\nL. garnhami usually causes solitary or multiple lesions and may spontaneously be healed in 6 months [12].
\nThe Eastern Hemisphere (Old World): leishmaniasis is found in some parts of Asia, the Middle East, Africa (especially in the tropical region and North Africa), and Southern Europe.
\nThe Western Hemisphere (New World), leishmaniasis is found in some parts of Mexico, Central America, and South America. It is not found in Chile or Uruguay.
\nLeishmaniasis is seen in most tropical and subtropical regions with climate, mainly in South and Central America, Africa, Asia, and Southern Europe. The leishmaniasis is considered as one of the neglected tropical diseases (NTD) (Figures 2 and 3) [18].
\nWorld VL distribution in the last 10 years [19].
World CL distribution in the last 10 years [19].
\n
Phlebotomus spp. (sandfly). (Old World).
Lutzomyia spp. (New World).
Humidity and moisture, whether from rainfall or in the soil, have often been identified as important for the sandfly, with humidity influencing breeding and resting [6].
\nSandflies belonging to either Phlebotomus spp. (Old World) or Lutzomyia spp. (New World) are the primary vectors; domestic dogs, rodents, sloths, and opossums are amongst a long list of mammals that are either incriminated or suspected reservoir hosts [1, 21, 22]. Most of its foci in the Old World have a Mediterranean climate and sand fly vectors, usually Phlebotomus (Larroussius) species, Phlebotomus species (P. papatasi, P. sergenti, Phlebotomus alexandri, P. tobbi, Phlebotomus syriacus, Phlebotomus neglectus, Phlebotomus perfiliewi, Phlebotomus galilaeus, Phlebotomus transcaucasicus, and Phlebotomus halepensis) two Sergentomyia species (Sergentomyia theodori and Sergentomyia dentata), (Phlebotomus ariasi and Phlebotomus perniciosus, Phlebotomus longicuspis) can diapauses for human visceral leishmaniasis [21, 22, 23, 24].
\nIn contrast to malaria, there is little evidence for the effect of vector control in leishmaniasis because terrestrial habitat of Phlebotomus is mostly unknown.
\nLeishmania species are transmitted to human via vectors, blood transfusion, organ transplantation or vertically via transplacental route. Other factors that cause the transmission of the disease are contact with contaminated materials or needle stick injuries in the labs [25, 26, 27].
\nLeishmania-infected humans especially in poor socioeconomic conditions play a pivotal role as a reservoir in transmission of the agent to vectors or to other hosts. In another words, one can say that human beings contribute the disease transmission by themselves [26, 27]. Poor living conditions in adobe, wooden houses, barns create a tendency towards an increase of vectors [27, 28, 29].
\nIn all three clinical types of Leishmania spp., antimonials (sodium stibogluconate [SSG]), miltefosin (MIL), amfoterisin B (AmB) veparomomisin (PMM)) are being used [30]. Children and people with immune suppression, HIV infection or malignant diseases cause rapid spread of leishmaniasis. Apart from these, undiagnosed or untreated infected people create an important risk factor. Especially drug resistance and high expense of the medication cause insufficient treatment [27, 28, 29]. The first drug resistance was reported in VL treatment against SSG and against MIL, in India and Nepal, respectively [31, 32, 33]. Later, resistance against MIL was also reported in one patient with HIV and another two patients with Indian origin [34, 35].
\nVerma et al. showed that the effectiveness of PMM was decreased by 6 times for the promastigote forms of L. donavani [36]. Invasion of macrophages by PMM-R parasites led to increased nitric oxide (NO), whereas the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) remained unchanged. This finding shows resistance of Leishmania spp. against PMM [36]. Similarly, Deep et al., reported high recurrence rates in patients with VL and PKDL when treated with MIL [37].
\nIn conclusion, due to immune problems of the patient, co-existence of other diseases, inappropriate use of the drugs during the medical treatment of leishmaniasis, “drug resistance” may occur via gene over-expression, deletion, single nucleotide polymorphisms generating stop codons or amplification of sets of genes [38, 39, 40]. This very important for epidemiological standpoint and thus proper use of drugs when needed should be stressed, and also new drug formulations and/or vaccine should be investigated.
\nTechnological advances let the people travel all over the world. This may cause vectored spread or spread directly by infected people [41].
\nDogs are very important in terms of the epidemiology of leishmaniasis. All forms of leishmaniasis namely cutaneous, mucocutaneous and visceral types may be found in dogs. Since the infected dogs are important reservoir of the disease, their controls and treatments are mandatory for the disease control. Dogs as pets are being controlled by vets however stray or wild dogs, fox species like Lycalopex vetulus [42], Cerdocyonthous [43] may cause outbreaks. Dogs are natural hosts for L. infantum, L. chagasi, L. tropica and L. peruviana as well as being infected by them. Especially they are endemic in dogs in Mediterranean region, Asia and Latin America. Leishmania infantum is the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis and it is prevalent especially in Mediterranean region. Vectors for this type are Phlebotomus ariasi, P. major, P. perniciosus, P. longicuspis, P. chiensis, P. mongolensis, P. papatasi [44, 45]. In the same region, the causative agent of zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis is L. tropica and the vectors are P. perfilievi, P. papatasi and P. sergenti [1, 46]. In South America, the causative agent of canine cutaneous leishmaniasis is L. chagasi and the vectors are Lu. longipalpalis, Lu. evansi, Lu. gomezi [1].
\nComparing to dogs, eradication of the infectious agent of leishmaniasis from the rodents is more difficult and even sometimes impossible.
\nDifferent rodents such as Didelphis albiventris (opossum), Mus musculus (domestic mouse), Microtus socialis, Rattusrattus (black rat), Cercomys cunicularius (wild rat), Mesocricetus auratus (Syrian hamsters) in America, Africa and Asia lead to spread of leishmaniasis [47, 48, 49, 50, 51].
\nPhlebotomus papatasi, vector of L. tropica, transmitted cutaneous leishmaniasis to small rodents such as Psammomys obesus (Israel), Meriones crassus (Israel), Meriones libycus (Iran), Rhombomys opimus (Iran), Rhombomys opimus (Iran), Meriones sacramenti (Egypt) [9].
\nRattus rattus and Rattus norvegicus have been found naturally infected with L. infantum in the Mediterranean and in Next Orient endemic areas (Table 2) [49, 52, 53].
\nLeishmaniaspecies | \nDisease | \nCountries (suspected) | \nLandscapes | \nReservoir hosts | \nVector | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Old World | \n|||||
L. donovani | \nAVL, DCL, CL | \nNortheast India, Nepal, Bangladesh, (Bhutan), Sri Lanka, Republic of China, Sudan, Ethiopia, (Chad), (Yemen), Kenya | \nRural, peri-domestic | \nHuman anthroponosis | \nP. (Eu.) argentipes, P. (La.) orientalis, P. (Sy.) martini | \n
L. donovani | \nAVL | \nPeople’s Republic of China | \nRural, peri-domestic | \nUnknown | \nP. (Pa.) alexandri, P. (Ad.) species | \n
L. donovanib (L. archibaldi) | \nAVL, ZVL, ML | \nSudan, Ethiopia, (Chad), (Yemen) | \nRural, Acacia—Balanites forest | \nHuman anthroponosis | \nP. (Larroussius) orientalis | \n
L. donovanib (L. archibaldi) | \nAVL, DCL | \nSudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, (Uganda) | \nRural, savannatermite mounds | \nHuman anthroponosis | \nP. (Sy.) martini | \n
L. infantum | \nZVL, ZCL | \nMed Europe, North Africa, Southwest Asia, People’s Republic of China | \nRural, peri-domestic | \nDomestic dog, wild canids, domestic cat | \nP. (La.) ariasi, perniciosus | \n
L. infantumc (L. chagasi) | \nVL, CL | \nLatin America: not Peru or Guianas | \nRural, peri-domestic | \nDomestic dog, wild canids | \nLu. (L.) longipalpis | \n
L. major | \nZCL | \nNorth Africa, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Meadle Asia India | \nPeri-domestic | \nHuman anthroponosis | \nP. papatasi, P. duboscqi | \n
Le. (Le.) tropica | \nACL | \nNorth Africa, Middle East, Iran, Afghanistan | \nUrban | \nPeridomestic, including suburbs; human | \nP. (Paraphlebotomus) sergenti | \n
Le. (Le.) tropicac (Le. (Le.) killicki) | \nZCL | \nNorth Africa, MiddleEast, Sub-Saharan Africa | \nRural | \nRockyarid; hyraxes, Rodents | \nP. (Adlerius) arabicus P. (La.) guggisbergi | \n
Le. (Le.) aethiopica; | \nZCL,DCL, ML | \nEthiopia, Kenya | \nRural, Rocky highlands | \nHyraxes | \nP. (La.) longipes P. (La.) pedifer | \n
New World | \n|||||
Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum | \nZVL, ZCL | \nLatin America: not Peru, Guianas | \nPeridomestic, including suburbs | \nDomestic dog | \nLutzomyia (Lutzomyia) longipalpiss.l. | \n
Leishmania(Viannia) braziliensis | \nZCL, ML | \nEast of Andes: not Guyana, Suriname | \nPeridomestic, silvatic | \nRodents, marsupials, dog | \nL. (Psychodopygus) wellcomei L. (Nyssomyia) neivai L. (Ny.) whitmani | \n
Le. (V.) braziliensis | \nZCL, ML | \nWest of Andes, northern Venezuela: not El Salvador | \nPeridomestic, silvatic | \nRodents, marsupials, dog | \nL. (Pifanomyia) ovallesi | \n
Le. (V.) peruviana | \nZCL, ML | \nPeru | \nPeridomestic, silvatic | \nRodents, marsupials, dog | \nL. (He.) peruensiss.l. L. (Pf.) verrucarums.l. | \n
Le. (V.) guyanensis | \nZCL, ML | \nEast of Andes: not Paraguay | \nSilvatic | \nArboreal edentates, others | \nL. (Ny.) umbratilis | \n
Le. (V.) panamensis | \nZCL, ML | \nWest of Andes, northern Venezuela: not Mexico, Belize, El Salvador | \nSilvatic | \nArboreal edentates, others | \nL. (Ny.) trapidoi L. (Ny.) ylephiletor L. (Ny.) edentula L. (Tricholateralis) gomezi | \n
Le. (V.) shawi | \nZCL | \nBrazil | \nSilvatic | \nArboreal | \nL. (Trichophoromyia) ubiquitalis L. (Pf.) nuneztovari | \n
Le. (V.) lainsoni | \nZCL | \nBolivia, Peru, Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname | \nSilvatic | \nRodent Agouti paca | \nL. (Trichophoromyia) ubiquitalis L. (Pf.) nuneztovari | \n
Le. (V.) colombiensis | \nZCL | \nPanama, Colombia, Venezuela | \nSilvatic | \nCholoepushoffmanni | \nL. (He.) hartmanni | \n
Le. (V.) naiffi | \nZCL | \nBrazil, French Guiana, Panama | \nSilvatic | \nDasypusnovemcinctus | \nL. (Ps.) ayrozai and other species L. (Ny.) trapidoic | \n
Le. (Le.) amazonensis | \nZCL, DCL | \nEast of Andes: not Guyana, Paraguay | \nSilvatic, non-climax forest | \nTerrestrial rodents, Marsupials | \nL. (Ny.) flaviscutellata | \n
Le. (Le.) mexicana | \nZCL, DCL, ML | \nWest of Andes, southern United States: not Peru | \nSilvatic, non-climax forest | \nTerrestrial rodents, Marsupials | \nL. (Ny.) olmecaolmeca | \n
Le. (Le.) venezuelensis | \nZCL, DCL | \nNorthern Venezuela | \nSilvatic | \nUnknown | \nL. (Ny.) olmecabicolor | \n
Abbreviations: TC, transmission cycle; A, anthroponotic; Z, zoonotic; V, visceral; C, cutaneous; M, mucosal; D, diffuse; L, leishmaniasis. P., Phlebotomus; Pa., Paraphlebotomus; Pf., Pifanomyia; Sy., Synphlebotomus La., Larroussius; Lu., Lutzomyia.
There are two different types of transmission;
In many geographic areas, infected people are not needed to sustain the transmission cycle of the parasite in nature; transmission cycle continue via the infected animals (rodents or dogs, felines). Leishmania infection in reservoir animals are specifically named; if it is in dogs, it is named as canine leishmaniasis whereas in cats, it is called feline leishmaniasis dogs species of Leishmania species in the reservoir in animals, canine leishmaniasis, which is in feline called leishmaniasis. L. infantum is the most common and important cause of canine leishmaniasis worldwide. The zoonotic transmission of L. infantum, from canine to humans, is not only in the Mediterranean region where it may have originated, but also it may be found in many of the drier regions of Latin America. Leishmania species reported from dogs include L. mexicana, L. donovani, and L. braziliensis. These Leishmania species are occasionally reported from the cats. Cats are at risk of infection especially in areas where these parasites are endemic [6, 54, 55].
In some parts of the world, infected people are needed to sustain the cycle; this kind of transmission (human—Phlebotomus—human) is called anthroponotic transmission.
Full knowledge on these two transmission cycles is very important in effective prevention of leishmaniasis [54, 55].
\nUnlike other parasites, it is extremely difficult to eradicate whole kinds of species of Leishmania in nature. This is contrary to some other parasites. As example Plasmodium vivax is specific to human, thus it can be eradicated by vector control. However, this is not the case for Leishmania spp. [54, 55].
\nThere are many check points to establish the control of the disease. Firstly, all patients with leishmaniasis should be properly treated. Leishmania transmission is dependent on the togetherness of contaminated sandflies with the reservoir hosts, and humans. Additionally, climatic and environment factors are important, too.
\nAs the development of chemical insecticides use such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) against mosquito was a key component of the eradication, similarly they were proposed to have an effect on the sandflies, vectors of visceral leishmaniasis [56, 57, 58]. Since DDT use is found to be harmful to the environment and people, its use is prohibited by the World Health Organization [59]. At the moment there isn’t any strategy to control Phlebotomine by using insecticides by governments [60, 61]. Preliminary experiments for developing a vaccine against Leishmania spp. was reported [62]. However, the vaccine did not appear to protect against visceral leishmaniasis [63]. fucose-mannose ligand from an extract of L. donovani has been used in conjunction with a saponin adjuvant in attempts to vaccine [64]. Further studies are needed to develop an effective vaccine against leishmaniasis.
\nLeishmaniasis is still an important parasite disease in all over the world. The reasons are presence of many different species of Leishmania, and their ability to survive in many different organisms, such as vectors, dogs, rodents, humans. Leishmania spp. may cause different clinical scenarios by affecting different tissues and organs. As eukaryotic cells, Leishmania spp. can survive in the immune system of the most advanced organism, human. Presence of amastigote forms even in the hosts’ defensive cells shows the strength of the parasite.
\nLeishmaniasis is an important public health problem. Thus, relevant public health policies such as education of the people especially in endemic areas, multidisciplinary approach, diagnosis, treatment will be helpful in the elimination of the disease. Additionally, further epidemiological studies as well as vaccination studies will continue to strive for eradication.
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