Knowledge and skill outcomes achievable via SL-based design and PBSL.
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",isbn:"978-1-83968-236-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-235-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-237-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",bookSignature:"Dr. Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Prof. Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Ph.D. Zvi Loewy",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",keywords:"Collagen, Proteoglycans, Arthritis, Congenital Diseases, Osteogenesis Imperfecta, Blood Vessels, ECM - Tissue Interfaces, Elasticity, Cartilage Implant, Bone Graft, Angiogenesis, Extracellular Triggers",numberOfDownloads:18,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Most recently, dr. Madhurapantula has been involved with developing microscopy techniques to establish macroscopic stress vs. strain relations in body tissues that present mixed tissue compositions, in conjunction with X-ray diffraction scanning techniques to establish tissue composition.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Prof. Orgel is a multi-disciplinarian by research and professional practice with international name recognition in the collagen and connective tissue fields and in X-ray diffraction.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhurapantula holds a Ph.D. in Biology from the Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, with a focus on the molecular structure and function of type I collagen. Since obtaining his Ph.D., he has worked on various ECM based research projects on understanding the structural aspects of various fibrous tissue assemblies in the human body, in non-disease and disease conditions. He is an expert in the field of in situ X-ray fiber diffraction. Most recently, he has been involved with developing microscopy techniques to establish macroscopic stress vs. strain relations in body tissues that present mixed tissue compositions, in conjunction with X-ray diffraction scanning techniques to establish tissue composition. 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Dr. Loewy is on the faculty of the Touro College of Pharmacy and New York Medical College; is on the boards of the New Jersey Bioscience Incubator; and is an Editor of the Journal of Prosthodontics. 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Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50178",title:"Advanced Fabrication and Properties of Aligned Carbon Nanotube Composites: Experiments and Modeling",doi:"10.5772/62510",slug:"advanced-fabrication-and-properties-of-aligned-carbon-nanotube-composites-experiments-and-modeling",body:'\nBoth single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs), which possess remarkable multifunctional properties such as high Young’s modulus of 1 TPa [1], ultrahigh thermal conductivity of 2000–3500 W/mK [2,3], and outstanding electrical conductivity of 3×104 S/cm [4], have attracted much attention over the past decades [5]. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been considered promising effective additives for developing high-performance composites. Currently, in the widely-used approaches for fabrication of CNT-based composites, CNTs are randomly dispersed into the matrix. This approach, however, typically results in low volume fraction, poor dispersion and random orientation of CNTs in matrices, inducing very limited enhancements and much lower properties than expected. To overcome these limitations, various CNT Structures such as buckypapers [6], CNT arrays [7–9], and CNT yarns [10] have been developed to pre-arrange the CNTs prior to fabricating composites.
\nAmong those CNT post-treatments, assembling CNTs into CNT fibers has attracted tremendous attention. In general, there are three major methods for production of CNT fibers: (1) wet-spinning from CNT/acid or polymer solutions [11–13]; (2) dry-spinning from vertically aligned CNT arrays [10,14–17]; and (3) direct-assembling from CNT aerogels formed in chemical vapor deposition (CVD) [5,18–24]. The first method is also known as the wet-spinning method, while the others are known as dry-spinning methods.
\nThe obtained CNT fibers commonly possess satisfactory mechanical and electrical properties [5], and even higher strength and better flexibility than commercial carbon fibers and polymer fibers [25]. In order to further improve their properties (mechanical strength in particular), polymer infiltration is usually performed on the CNT fibers to obtain CNT fiber/polymer composites. The polymer can greatly enhance the inter-tube load transfer, inducing high mechanical strength of the composites.
\nIn 2000, Vigolo et al. [11] first fabricated CNT ribbons and fibers via the coagulation spinning approach that was widely used to synthesize polymer fibers. Figure 1(a) shows the schematic of the experimental setup used to make nanotube ribbons. In this method, SWNTs are homogeneously dispersed in a solution of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), which helps prevent CNTs from agglomeration. The CNT dispersion is then injected into the co-flowing stream of a polymer solution that contains 5.0 wt.% of polyvinylalcohol (PVA) to form CNT ribbons, as shown in Figure 1(b). Figure 1(e) shows a typical SEM image of the as-obtained CNT ribbon, revealing a preferential orientation of the nanotubes along the ribbon’s main axis. After the ribbons are washed and dried, most of the surfactants and polymers are removed. The ribbons are collapsed into fibers due to capillary force, as shown in Figure 1(c). These fibers are more flexible than traditional carbon fibers, as shown in Figure 1(d). The diameter of CNT fibers varies from 10 to 100 μm depending on fabrication conditions. The tensile strength, modulus and electrical conductivity of the obtained fibers are 300 MPa, 40 GPa and 10 S/cm, respectively.
\n(a) Schematic of the experimental setup used to make nanotube ribbons. (b–d) Optical micrographs of nanotube ribbons and fibers. (b) A single folded ribbon between horizontal and vertical crossed polarizers (scale bar = 1.5 mm); (c) A freestanding nanotube fiber between two glass substrates (scale bar = 1 mm); and (d) Tying knots reveals the high flexibility and resistance to torsion of the nanotube microfibers. (e) Scanning electron micrograph shows SWNT bundles are preferentially oriented along the main axis of the ribbon (scale bar = 667 nm) [11].
Vigolo’s technique is remarkable for further studies on fabricating continuous CNT fibers on a large scale, although this technique has some disadvantages. For example, the drawing of these as-spun gel fibers is slow (∼1 cm/min), and the solid fibers are short (∼10 cm) [26]. In addition, the fibers\' mechanical properties are low compared with those of component individual nanotubes. Moreover, mechanical performance is improved, mostly because PVA chains in a CNT fiber enhance load transfer efficiency between CNTs. However, the existence of the non-conductive PVA leads to lower electrical and thermal conductivity of the obtained CNT fibers than pure CNT sheets [27]. Thus, fibers composed solely of CNTs are desirable. In 2004, Ericson et al. [12] developed a method to fabricate well-aligned macroscopic fibers composed solely of SWNTs. In this method, purified SWNTs are dispersed in 102% sulfuric acid, which charges SWNTs and promotes their ordering into an aligned phase of individual mobile SWNTs surrounded by acid anions. This ordered dispersion is extruded into continuous lengths of macroscopic neat SWNT fibers. The obtained fibers possess a Young’s modulus of 120 ±10 GPa and a tensile strength of 116 ±10 MPa. Because these pure CNT fibers do not contain polymers, they demonstrate better electrical and thermal properties than fibers containing polymers, with an electrical conductivity of 500 S/cm and thermal conductivity of ~21 W/m K. In another method proposed by Behabtu et al. [13], high-quality CNTs are dissolved in chlorosulfonic acid and extruded into a coagulant (acetone or water) to remove the acid. The forming filament is further stretched and tensioned to ensure high CNT alignment in the structure. The resulting fibers possess a Young’s modulus of 120 ± 50 GPa and strength of 1.0 ± 0.2 GPa. The tensile strength shows a tenfold improvement over wet-spun fibers fabricated using the method developed by Ericson et al. [12]. At the same time, they display outstanding electrical conductivity (~29000 ± 3000 S/cm) and thermal conductivity (~380 ± 15 W/m K).
\nJust like drawing a thread from a silk cocoon, CNT fibers can be synthesized from a vertically aligned CNT array. In 2002, Jiang et al. [10] spun a 30-cm-long CNT fiber from a CNT array (~100 μm in height). In 2004, Zhang et al. [14] modified this technique by introducing twist during spinning. In this method, the nanotube arrays (~30 μm in height) are grown on an iron catalyst–coated substrate by CVD. Afterward, yarns are drawn from the array and twisted with a variable-speed motor. Figure 2(a) and (b) clearly show the SEM images of the structures formed during the spinning process. The obtained fibers have a tensile strength of ~460 MPa, modulus of ~30 GPa and electrical conductivity of 300 S/cm.
\nSince then, many efforts have been made to optimize spinning processes and to improve the performance of CNT fibers. Spinning fibers from higher CNT arrays can effectively improve fiber performance. For example, Zhang et al. [15] reported the spinning of CNT fibers from relatively long CNT arrays (0.65 mm), which resulted in the strength and Young’s modulus of the CNT fibers reaching 1.91 GPa and 330 GPa, respectively. Furthermore, Li et al. [16] spun CNT fibers from 1 mm CNT arrays. Their tensile strength reached up to 3.3 GPa, which is much higher than that of CNT fibers from the 0.65 mm array. In aiming to achieve the goal of providing a continuous process for the solid-state fabrication of CNT yarns from CNT forests, Lepro et al. [17] spun fibers from CNT forests grown on both sides of highly flexible stainless steel sheets, instead of the conventionally used silicon wafers, as shown in Figure 2(c), (d) and (e). They reported that the catalyst layer is shown to be re-usable, decreasing the need for catalyst renewal during a proposed continuous process.
\n(a) and (b) SEM images of a carbon nanotube yarn in the process of being simultaneously drawn and twisted during spinning from a nanotube forest outside the SEM [14]; (c–e) Spinnable CNT forest grown on flexible stainless steel substrate [28].
Studies have found that not all CNT arrays can be spun into fibers, and the degree of spinnability of CNTs is closely related to the morphology of CNT arrays [29,30]. Several research groups have made efforts to study the mechanism of spinning fibers from CNT arrays. Kuznetsov et al. [28] developed a structural model for the drawing of sheets and fibers from CNT arrays. Huynh et al. [30] studied the roles of catalyst, substrate, temperature, gas flow rates, reaction time with acetylene, etc. to identify and understand the key parameters and develop a robust, scalable process. More recently, Zhu et al. [31] pointed out that the entangled structures at the ends of CNT bundles are critical for the continuous drawing process. Further fundamental studies of this mechanism are critical for fabricating spinnable CNT arrays and improving the properties of CNT fibers.
\n\nIn both of the above-mentioned methods, individual CNTs are first produced in the form of CNT powders or arrays. In this method, fibers are achieved through the post-process of spinning. Unlike the in-direct methods, CNT fibers can be assembled directly in a CVD process in which individual CNTs are synthesized. In 2000, Zhu et al. [18] first reported the direct synthesis of 20cm long ordered SWNTs with a diameter of approximately 0.3mm using a floating catalyst CVD method in a vertical furnace. In 2004, Li et al. [19] reported a method for the direct spinning of long CNT fibers from aerogels formed during CVD. Figure 3(a) is a schematic of this direct spinning process. In this method, reaction precursors are mixed and introduced into a tube furnace operated at 1200°C. In a reducing hydrogen atmosphere, the nanotubes form an aerogel in the hot zone of the furnace and are stretched into cylindrical hollow socks which are then pulled and collected continuously out of the furnace as fibers. Figure 3(b) and (c) show SEM images of the aligned CNT fibers after condensation by acetone vapor. CNT fibers, spun directly and continuously from aerogels, demonstrate both high strength (up to 357 GPa) and high stiffness (8.8 GPa), which are comparable to those of commercial fibers [20].
\n(a) Schematic diagram of the direct spinning process for CNT fibers [21]; (b) and (c)SEM micrographs of a fiber that consists of well-aligned MWNTs [19]; (d) Schematic diagram of the CNT fiber-spinning process using a horizontal furnace [24].
The as-spun CNT fibers fabricated using the above methods usually have a porous structure, and the CNTs within the fibers have poor alignment [14,19,32]. Hence, the CNT fibers should be further densified to obtain a more closely-packed structure and better alignment of the CNTs. Since the van der Waals interaction strongly depends on the contact area between CNTs, much space and many pores between CNT bundles could lower the degree of this interaction. By applying the densification process, the densified CNT fibers can have reduced interspace between CNTs and an improved contact area, leading to an increased van der Waals interaction. As a result, these highly dense structures have a stronger van der Waals interaction between CNT bundles, hence improving fiber performance [32–34].
\nWhile classical composite fibers consist of CNTs embedded in a polymeric matrix, fibers fabricated by the wet-spinning technique consist of an interconnected network of polymers and CNTs. The spinning conditions, such as the flow velocity of the polymer solution and the injection rate of the CNT solution, has no measurable effect on the CNT orientation in the resulting fibers. However, when the fibers are immersed in an appropriate solvent or heated, the network of polymers and CNTs can be loosened and stretched, resulting in a significant improvement in CNT alignment. For example, Vigolo et al. [35] enhanced the CNT alignment of their SWNT/PVA fibers by re-wetting, swelling and re-drying the fibers vertically under a tensile load with a weight attached to the end of the fiber. The solvent used in the study was comprised of water, acetone and acetonitrile. Once re-wetted and swollen by the solvent, the fibers could be stretched up to 160% with significantly improved alignment, as shown in Figure 4. This indicates that the networks of CNTs and absorbed polymers form cross linked assemblies that can be elastically deformed. As a result, their strength and stiffness increased from 10 GPa and 125 MPa, to 40 GPa and 230 MPa, respectively, after the stretching.
\nSeparately, Miaudet et al. [36] reported an increase in tensile strength of CNT/PVA fibers from 1.4 GPa to 1.8 GPa after the hot-stretched treatment. The reduction of PVA chain alignment from ±27° to as low as 4.3°, and the nanotube alignment to as low as 9°, suggested that better alignment of the CNT and PVA chains was the main reason for the improved mechanical performance of the hot-stretched fibers.
\nSEM images of an as-spun fiber (a), and (b) a stretched CNT fiber [35].
CNT fibers spun from dry-spinning and floating catalyst techniques can be densified by applying a mechanical force in their lateral direction. The densification methods can be classified into two categories: indirect approaches (such as liquid densification, twisting [32], drawing through dies [37], or an aligning and tension system [38]); and direct approaches (such as rubbing/false twisting [39] and mechanical compression [40]).
\nThe alignment and mechanical performance of as-spun CNT fibers can be improved through liquid densification. In this method, a liquid such as acetone or ethanol is absorbed into the fibers and subsequently evaporated, resulting in a dense CNT structure. The fibers are densified due to the surface tension of the solvent and the fiber diameter is reduced accordingly. The densification process slightly improves nanotube alignment (Figure 5) and enhances load transfer between nanotubes, ensuring that most of them are fully load-bearing. Liu et al. [41] studied the mechanical properties of twisted fibers with and without acetone densification. The diameter of the yarn changed from 11.5 to 9.7 μm after shrinking. Although the maximum strain of the yarn remained unchanged (~2.3%), the Young’s modulus (~56 GPa) of the shrunk fiber was slightly greater than before shrinking (~48 GPa). Liu et al. [41] also reported a change in diameter and maximum load of twisted fibers before and after shrinking. After acetone shrinking, the diameter reduction ranged from 15% to 24%, and the load increase ranged from 15 to 40%, indicating that tensile strength was enhanced. Among common solvents (water, ethanol and acetone) used to shrink CNT yarns, acetone showed the best shrinking effect.
\n(a) SEM images of a twisted fiber before, and after shrinking (b) [41].
The as-spun fiber is relatively loose with noticeable spaces between CNT bundles. Increasing the twist angle is an effective method for densifying CNT fibers. Since it brings CNTs into closer contact with each other, twisting improves the friction coefficient μ between CNTs, therefore contributing positively to fiber strength [15]. Zhang et al. [15] compared the tensile behaviors of twisted and untwisted CNT fibers spun from the same 650 mm height array. After twisting, the diameter of the fiber decreased from 4 to 3 μm (Figure 6), while tensile strength increased from 0.85 GPa to 1.9 GPa [15].
\nSEM images of as-spun CNT fiber (a), and the same fiber after post-spin twisting (b) [15].
The as-spun CNT fibers can be densified by being drawn through dies of different diameters. The average measured fiber diameter was determined by die size. Sugano et al. [37] densified CNT fibers spun from CNT arrays by drawing them through densifying dies with different diameters (d = 30, 35, 55, 75 μm) (Figure 7(a)). The fibers were deformed elastically after drawing CNTs through the die, and their density increased with decreasing die diameter. As CNT fibers are held together by van der Waals forces between MWNTs, these forces increased due to higher apparent density with decreasing distance between MWNTs, as shown in Figure 7(b). As a result, their strength was significantly enhanced after treatment.
\n(a) Schematic view of untwisted CNT yarn in the process of being drawn from the aligned MWNT array and past the sheet through a die; (b) SEM image of surface morphologies of the resulting CNT fiber.
The aligning and tension system is one of the most effective methods of enhancing CNT alignment and performance of CNT fibers. Tran et al. [38] first modified the traditional dry-spinning process to improve CNT alignment of their CNT fibers (Figure 8(a)). In this modified system, a capstan effect rod system (CERS) is added to a dry-spinning system to regulate tension and torque to the fibers. As the fibers pass through a CERS, the increased tension extends and aligns the bundles (Figure 8(b) and 8(c)). This process has two effects: (i) aligning CNTs in the fibers during the initial tensioning; and (ii) condensing the CNT bundles. The first effect increases contact length between bundles, and the second effect reduces the distance between CNTs. The significant increase in fiber strength from 0.45 to 1.2 GPa after the treatment is due to better alignment of the fiber bundles and higher fiber compaction.
\n(a) The schematic of modified CNT yarn spinning; (b) SEM images of surface morphologies of CNT fiber spun from traditional process; and modified process (c) [38].
Generally, the drawback of the indirect approaches is their low densifying forces. The liquid densification method, for example, employs the surface tension of volatile solvents such as acetone or ethanol to densify the CNT fibers. Its densifying force is therefore limited by the low surface tension of the solvents used [32]. Similarly, the compressive force produced by drawing CNT fibers through a die results from the drawing forces and the die size used. These drawing forces are limited by fiber strength, while a significantly smaller die could damage the fiber structure, resulting in poor strength [37]. Therefore, CNT fibers cannot be adequately densified with these methods, and their performance remains unsatisfactory.
\nDirect approaches are considered the best solution to overcome the above limitations. As the densifying forces are applied directly to CNT fibers, the forces can condense the fibers into a much denser structure [40].
\nCNT fibers can be densified using several traditional textile twistless methods such as rubbing. Miao et al. [39] used a rubbing roller system (Figure 9(a)) to densify CNT web drawn from a vertically aligned CNT forest into a compact twistless yarn. As the system used a constant rate false twisting process, there is only a temporary twist on the incoming side of the yarn, and the yarn on the outgoing side (and thus the final yarn) will be twistless. As can be seen in Figure 9(b), the resulting yarn consists of a high packing density sheath with CNTs lying straight and parallel to the yarn axis, and a low density core with many microscopic voids. With an increased contact length between CNT bundles in the high packing density sheath, the mechanical performance of the core-sheath structured, twistless carbon nanotube yarns are significantly higher than that of their corresponding twist-densified yarns.
\n(a) The schematic of the core-sheath, twistless CNT yarn fabricated by a rubbing roller system; and (b) SEM image of the resulting yarn.
Wang et al. [40] reported that CNT fibers densified by the pressurized rolling system showed highly packed structures with a densification factor of up to 10 (Figure 10(a)). Moreover, the densified fibers can reach an impressive average strength of 4.34 GPa, which is the highest extrinsic CNT fiber strength reported to date [40]. In addition, Tran et al. [24] presented a modified densification method to produce a highly packed CNT structure. As shown in Figure 10(b), CNT fibers were sandwiched between two sheets of A4 paper and pressed by a stainless-steel spatula with an applied force of approximately 100 N, at 45° to the fiber axis. The spatula was subsequently slid across the A4 paper, along the fiber axis, to compress and mechanically densify the fibers into a ribbon shape while the compressive force was maintained. The CNT ribbon in this study also showed a densification factor of up to 10, while the strength and electrical conductivity of the densified fibers approached impressive values of 2.81 GPa and 12,000 S/cm, respectively. The study showed that the mechanical densification treatment may have increased the CNT bundle size and inter-CNT contact, and induced better alignment (Figure 10(c) and (d)), resulting in improved properties of the densified CNT fiber.
\nThe schematic of mechanical densification methods using (a) pressurized rolling system, and (b) spatula; SEM images of the surface morphology of the (c) as-spun CNT fiber, and (d) densified CNT ribbons [24].
The outstanding physical and mechanical properties of aligned CNT assemblies make them promising for the research and development of high-performance composites. The final properties of the composites are affected by many factors, such as, morphology of individual nanotubes and impregnating method.
\nPure CNT assemblies including fibers and films have an ineffective load transfer between CNTs as the CNTs interact with each other via weak van der Waals forces. Among all methods used to enhance load transfer between CNTs, polymer impregnation is one of the most effective treatments in enhancing the mechanical properties of CNT assemblies. This reinforcement mainly stems from the enhanced inter-tube load transfer and the crystallinity of the impregnated polymer. Several impregnating methods are used to fabricate aligned CNT polymer composites.
\nDip coating or soaking is widely used to impregnate polymer into CNT assemblies. In this method, CNT assembles are immerged into polymer solution for sufficient infiltration and then taken out for curing. Liu et al. [32] reports the mechanical properties of PVA impregnated fibers spun from CNT arrays. Figure 11 shows the schematic of the CNT/polymer fiber manufacturing process and compares the tensile properties of a CNT/PVA fiber with two types of pure CNT fibers. As can be seen, the CNT/PVA composite fiber with 19 wt.% PVA possesses a tensile strength of 1.95 GPa. This result is 255% higher than that of simply twisting the CNT fiber and 103% higher than that of a CNT fiber subjected to twisting and shrinking by acetone. The greater strength of the CNT/PVA fiber stems from the decrease in fiber diameter due to the high wettability between dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and CNTs, and the increase in tensile load due to improved load transfer efficiency between CNTs after PVA impregnation (Figure 11(b)).
\n(a) Schematic of the CNT/polymer fiber manufacturing process; and (b) stress-strain curves of a typical SWNT/PVA yarn and two types of pure SWNT yarns. [32]
Similarly, Tran et al. [24] reported an outstanding enhancement of the electrical and mechanical performances of MWNT fibers through the combined treatments of mechanical densification and epoxy infiltration. Compared to the mechanical performances of CNT fibers produced by different post-treatments, the combined post-treatments employed in their study showed better effects, with enhancement factors of more than 13.5 for tensile strength and 63 for stiffness. After the first mechanical treatment, their condensed CNT ribbons achieved a tensile strength much greater than that of the best CNT fibers spun with wet-spinning and array-spinning methods, as shown in Figure 12. When further combined with epoxy infiltration, the CNT/epoxy ribbons reached significantly greater strength (up to 5.2 GPa) and stiffness (up to 444 GPa), which are very comparable to those of commercial PAN carbon fibers as shown in Figure 12. Furthermore, while the strength of their CNT/epoxy ribbons was comparable to that of the best double-walled CNT (DWNT) ribbons produced by the floating-catalyst method [40], their stiffness was much higher. The results suggest that by using a polymer infiltration treatment, the performance of MWNT fibers with low electrical and mechanical properties could achieve the performance of many other high-strength fibers.
\nComparisons of mechanical properties of the best CNT fibers from array-spinning [15] and wet-spinning [13], ribbons from aerogel spinning, and PAN carbon fibers [40].
Liu et al. [23] fabricated CNT/polyimide aerogel (CNT/PIA) composite fibers by dip-coating the CNT fibers in a sol solution, and then drying them using the supercritical CO2 drying process. In the CNT/PIA composite fibers, CNT fibers are tightly wrapped by porous polyimide aerogel, showing a core-shell structure. This core-shell structure resulted in the light weight, low density and high surface area of the composite fiber. Owing to the superior properties of the CNT fibers (stiffness of ~450 MPa, tensile strength of ~83 MPa and electrical conductivity of ~419 S/cm), the CNT/PIA composite fibers achieve significant enhancements in mechanical and electrical properties (stiffness of ~68.1 MPa, strength of ~11.6 MPa and electrical conductivity of ~418 S/cm), compared with the pure PIA and other CNT/PIA composite [42–46]. It was also found that the mechanical and electrical properties of CNT/PIA composite fibers decline with an increase in the diameter of CNT fibers.
\nResin transfer molding (RTM) is a very common and cost-effective method to fabricate composites in industries, in which the liquid resins are first injected to the preforms and then cured to be solid. Given its capability of making composites with large sizes and complex shapes, RTM is expected to be appropriate for preparing CNT/epoxy composites in large scale. Liu et al. [5] developed aligned CNT/epoxy composite films by combining layer-by-layer and vacuum-assisted RTM (VA-RTM) method using direct chemical vapor deposition (CVD)-spun CNT plies. The CNTs in the plies are well-condensed during the VA-RTM process (Figure 13(a)), leading to much higher mass fractions of CNTs (up to 24.4 wt.%) compared with those obtained from the conventional dispersion methods. Due to good alignment of the condensed CNTs in the plies, the CNT/epoxy composite with 24.4 wt.% CNTs achieves ~5 and ~10 times enhancements in their Young’s modulus and strength, respectively. A high tensile toughness of up to 6.39 × 103 kJ/m3 was also obtained in the composite films, making them promising candidates for protective materials, as shown in Figure 13(b). The electrical conductivity of the aligned CNT/epoxy composites reaches as high as 252.8 S/cm for the composite with 24.4 wt.% CNTs, which is ~20 times greater than that of the CNT/epoxy composites obtained using dispersion methods [47–49].
\n(a) Experimental set-up of the RTM process for preparing CNT/epoxy films; and (b) The CNT weight fractions and the thickness of CNT/epoxy composite films as a function of CNT plies. [5].
The aforementioned methods are mostly regarded as off-line methods in which highly packed CNT assembles are used as preforms. Because the preforms are already tightly packed, however, these methods often have the problem of the uniformity of infiltration. As a result, the un-infiltrated part may become defects and limit the overall performance of the composites [50]. In order to control the uniformity of infiltration and avoid over-infiltration, Liu et al. [50,51] developed a one-step approach of “spray winding” to fabricate high-performance CNT composites. In this on-line infiltration method, CNT sheets, drawn out from CNT arrays, were continuously collected (wound) onto a rotating mandrel under the spray of a polymer solution, as shown in Figure 14(a). The spray-wound CNT/PVA composite films, the CNT fraction is tunable, and could be as high as 65 wt.% to reach the best mechanical properties. The best film had the tensile strength, stiffness and toughness up to 1.8 GPa, 45 GPa, and 100 J/g, respectively, much better than the fibers made by the same CNT and PVA and many other CNT/polymer composites. The high performance can be attributed to the long CNTs, highly-aligned tube morphology, and good interfacial bonding between CNT and PVA, which were obtained simultaneously. In order to control the exact layers of the composite films in large scale, Zhang et al. [52] reported a “layer-by-layer (LBL) deposition” method to produce CNT polymer composites, as shown in Figure 12(b). This on-line deposition method allowed PVA to infiltrate into the CNT film efficiently, resulting in a remarkable improvement in the mechanical property of CNT/PVA composite. The composite film possessed a tensile strength of 1.7 GPa, which is almost one order of magnitude and 20 times higher than those of the pure CNT and PVA films, respectively.
\n(a) Schematic view of spray winding [50]; and (b) Schematic illustration of the LBL deposition process [52].
Individual nanotube morphologies, such as length and alignment, have great influence on mechanical and physical properties of CNT polymer composites. Wang et al. [53] reported an ultrastrong and stiff CNT/composite using a stretch-winding process. The unstretched composites exhibited strength of 2.0 GPa, Young’s modulus of 130 GPa and electrical conductivity of 820 S/cm. After stretching the strength, Young’s modulus and electrical conductivity were increased to as high as 3.8GPa, 293 GPa and 1230 S/cm, respectively. These remarkable improvements can be ascribed to the enhancement of CNT alignment and decreasing of waviness. The alignment of the CNTs was characterized by polarized Raman. Specifically, the shift of the intensity ratio (IG‖/IG⊥) of G band peaks was measured. Following the stretch-winding process, the intensity ratio for the 12%-stretched sheet is increased to 7.6 from 1.6, indicating that alignment of the CNTs in the nanocomposites was significantly improve via the stretching process. Therefore, the improved CNT alignment is correlated with the observed improvements in mechanical and electrical properties of the composites.
\nPark et al. [54] studied the effects of nanotube length and alignment on thermal conductivity of MWNT/epoxy composites. It was found that the long-MWCNT composites exhibited higher thermal conductivity than the short-MWCNT composites with the same weight percentages. At room temperature, 10 wt.% short-MWCNT/epoxy composite showed thermal conductivity of 0.35 W/mK, while the long-MWCNT composites showed 2.6 W/mK even at lower concentration of 6.38 wt.%. To improve the in-plane thermal conductivity, CNT sheets (60 wt.%) were stretched mechanically. The thermal conductivity increased up to 83 W/mK (25% stretched) and 103 W/mK (40% stretched) along the alignment direction compared to 55 W/mK of the random sample.
\nDue to the unique morphology of aligned CNT composites, it is difficult to directly measure their thermal conductivity, especially for composites in thin film and long fiber structures. Proper computational modeling is required to accurately predict the thermal conductivity of aligned CNT composites. The widely-used effective medium theories (EMTs) can well predict the thermal conductivity of CNT composites obtained using dispersion methods. However, the EMTs generally fail to predict the thermal conductivity of aligned CNT composites, since they cannot take into account the complex morphology of CNTs and the thermal boundary resistances (TBRs) at both CNT-CNT and CNT-matrix interfaces [55]. The TBRs are the resistances to the heat flow at interfaces, which have been regarded as the bottleneck of thermal conduction in CNT composites [56].
\nIn order to accurately predict the thermal conductivity of aligned CNT composites, Duong et al. [57] developed an off-lattice Monte Carlo (MC) approach by quantifying thermal energy through a large quantity of random thermal walkers. Thermal walkers have a random Brownian motion in the polymer matrix, which is described by the position changes of thermal walkers in each direction. The position changes take values from a normal distribution with a zero mean and a standard deviation, as expressed as below:
\nwhere Dm is the thermal diffusivity of polymer matrices, and ∆t is the time increment of the simulation [58]. When a walker jumps to the CNT-polymer matrix interface, it may jump into the CNT with a probability fm-CNT, or remain within the polymer matrix with a probability (1- fm-CNT). The probability is a function of the TBR between polymer and CNT, Rm-CNT, obtained using the acoustic mismatch theory (AMT) [59]:
\nwhere ρ is the density of polymer, Cp is the specific heat of polymer, and v is the sound velocity in the polymer matrix. Due to the ballistic phonon transport and ultrahigh thermal conductivity in the CNT [60], thermal walkers are assumed to travel at an infinite speed inside the SWNT [61]. The walker is allowed to exit from a CNT to the matrix by using another probability fCNT-m, which is related to fm-CNT in a way that satisfies the second thermodynamic theorem [62,63]:
\nwherein VCNT and ACNT are the volume and surface area of a CNT, and σm is the standard deviation of Brownian motion in the polymer matrix. Cf-CNT is the thermal equilibrium factor at the polymer-CNT interface, which is dependent on the geometry of the CNTs, and the interfacial area between the CNT and the matrix.
\nBy using the developed MC approach, Duong et al modeled SWNT-epoxy and SWNT-polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) composites [64]. The thermal conductivity of SWNT-epoxy and SWNT-PMMA composites were accurately predicted. The effects of the SWNT orientation, weight fraction and TBRs on the thermal conductivity of composites were quantified. The quantitative findings showed that in SWNT-PMMA composites with 1.0wt.% of SWNT loading, aligned SWNTs achieved enhanced thermal conductivity 15 times higher than that of PMMA, whereas, the randomly dispersed SWNTs only resulted in thermal conductivity ~5 times higher than that of PMMA [64]. This indicated the superiority of aligned CNT composites.
\nSince CNTs are normally grown into forests or spun into fibers, the contacts between CNTs may play a significant role to modify the thermal conductivity of composites. Duong et al. then modified their model to study the effect of CNT-CNT contacts on the thermal conductivity of both SWNT-epoxy and MWNT-epoxy composites [65,66]. A representative volume element (RVE) was built based on the real CNT-epoxy composites, as shown in Figure 15. In MWNT-epoxy composites with 20 vol % of MWNT loading, aligned MWNTs without contacts achieved a thermal conductivity nearly 40 times higher than that of epoxy, while, aligned MWNTs with contacts induced a thermal conductivity only 20 times higher than that of epoxy. This indicated that CNT-CNT contacts in aligned CNTs may reduce the thermal conductivity of composites. The anisotropic thermal conductivity of aligned CNT composites was also quantified. In both SWNT-epoxy and MWNT-epoxy composites, the thermal conductivity parallel to the aligned CNTs was much higher than that perpendicular to the aligned CNTs. The SWNT-epoxy composites had more significantly anisotropic thermal conduction than MWNT-epoxy composites.
\nSchematic drawing of CNT reinforced composites, and aligned CNTs in a polymer as a representative volume element [65].
Bui et al. modified Duong’s approach to investigate the thermal behavior of the SWNT-polystyrene (PS) composites at different volume fractions and at various temperature [67]. It was found that the thermal conductivity of SWNT-PS composites increased with the temperature rise. By validating with experimental data [68], the TBRs at both SWNT-PS and SWNT-SWNT interfaces were estimated by using the MC approach. The calculations at various temperature showed that the TBR between SWNT and PS increased with the rise of temperature. A TBR value of SWNT-SWNT was estimated to be 12.15×10-8 m2K/W at 300K, which was higher than that between SWNT and PS (2.21×10-8 m2K/W). Bui et al. also conducted the comparable study between graphene-polymer composites and SWNT-polymer composites [69]. The quantitative results showed that graphene nanosheets were more effective than SWNTs to enhance the thermal conduction in polymer composites.
\nRecently, multiphase polymer composites, which contain more than one type of additive in the matrix, have attracted much attention [70,71]. The multiphase composites can combine the merits of all the components, inducing advanced multifunctional properties. Diverse multiphase polymer composites have been developed, such as CNT/nanoparticle/polymer composites [70,71], CNT/graphene/polymer composites [72,73], CNT/fiber/polymer composites [74,75] and CNT-stabilized polymer blends [76]. Since there is no effective approach to study thermal properties of CNT multiphase composites, Gong et al. [77] extended Duong’s MC approach to investigate heat transfer phenomena in CNT multiphase composites. In Gong’s model, a three-phase poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) composite containing SWNTs and tungsten disulfide (WS2) nanoparticles was chosen as a case study, as shown in Figure 16(a) [78]. The TBRs at all interfaces (i.e. SWNT-PEEK, WS2-PEEK and SWNT-SWNT) were taken into account in their model. The results showed that the thermal conductivity of multiphase composites increased when the CNT concentration increased, and when the TBRs of CNT-PEEK and WS2-PEEK interfaces decreased. The thermal conductivity of composites with CNTs aligned parallel to the heat flux was enhanced ~2.7 times relative to that of composites with randomly-dispersed CNTs.
\nThe model could also quantitatively study the effect of the complex morphology and dispersion of SWNTs, (e.g., individual and bundled SWNTs, the number of SWNT bundles, and the number of SWNTs per bundle), on the thermal conductivity of multiphase composites. It was found that the TBR at the SWNT-SWNT interface played a significant role in the thermal conduction of the composite with SWNT bundles. As presented in Figure 16(b), the thermal conductivity of the three-phase composite decreased with the rise of SWNT-SWNT TBR. A critical SWNT-SWNT TBR was found to be 0.155×10-8 m2K/W, which dominated the heat transfer mechanism in the three-phase composite. Proper treatment may be used to reduce the SWNT-SWNT TBR, such as the condensation of SWNT fibers, to enhance the thermal conductivity of multiphase composites with aligned SWNTs [78]. Besides the CNT multiphase composites, Gong et al. also modified the MC model to study the thermal conduction mechanisms in graphene composites [79] and CNT aerogels [80], as well as the multiphase biological systems containing CNTs [77,81,82], which indicated that the MC approach may be applicable for modeling heat transfer in diverse aligned CNT composite systems.
\n(a) Schematic plot of the computational model of the SWNT/WS2/PEEK composites with SWNT bundles; (b) Effect of the SWNT-SWNT TBR on the thermal conductivity of the SWNT/WS2/PEEK composites [78].
Both the CNT fibers and their polymer composites fabricated using the methods outlined in this article attain superior mechanical, electrical and thermal properties compared with CNT composites fabricated using the conventional methods. Their advanced properties make them promising candidates for diverse applications, such as protective materials in airplanes and electrode materials in energy storage devices. For the diverse industrial applications of the aligned CNT composites, more studies should be carried out to fabricate the composites on a large scale and at low cost. New synthesis approaches can be developed to control the diameter of composite fibers and the size of composite films. To enhance their mechanical properties, cross linking should be created within CNT fibers through proper post-treatments. Chemical compositions and fabrication conditions require optimization for better polymer infiltration into the aligned CNT fibers, to achieve enhanced properties of the aligned CNT composites.
\nIn the twenty-first century, “engineers are called to be change-makers, peace-makers, social entrepreneurs, and facilitators of sustainable human development” [1]. Preparing engineers to meet these challenges requires a rich educational experience. In particular, the way in which students are taught the design process is important. The products, processes, and infrastructure designed by engineers are critical to human quality of life, with an array of positive and negative impacts that should be carefully considered. More broadly, the designs of engineers are having global environmental effects. A rich design experience will reinforce to students the coupled socio-technical challenges they will face in practice, and prepare them to recognize and wrestle with the complex array of ethical issues that are inherent in all designs.
It is not sufficient that engineers have a great depth of technical knowledge, so-called I-Type education. Engineering education has been moving toward a T-shaped model that adds breadth skills that cross the boundaries of a single profession, such as teamwork, communication, and global understanding [2, 3]. Perhaps we need to move beyond T-shaped engineers to envision “cluster” type engineers [1], who will sit with a broad array of stakeholders (including members of the public and those in policy, social scientists, and natural scientists) to design appropriate and sustainable processes and products that better meet an array of environmental, social, and economic objectives.
It is our claim that service-learning can serve as an ideal basis for design education that strives to meet the aforementioned goals of educating global citizen engineers. In addition, the hard work invested by students and educators can yield tangible results that serve real people, as opposed to designs in AutoCAD or objects that are displayed at a design fair and then go to waste. Engaging with communities may also broaden the diversity of students interested in becoming engineers, both in terms of recruiting students into engineering majors in higher education as well as retaining students to graduate with engineering degrees and enter the engineering workforce [4].
This chapter begins by defining service-learning (SL) and community engagement and briefly describing their history in higher education and in engineering. Next, frameworks and theories of design that are particularly relevant to SL are presented, with a focus on human-centered design. This section is followed by a discussion of essential elements of SL-based design projects, as well as challenges and pitfalls of SL as a pedagogy for design education. The student knowledge, skills, attitudes, and identity that can result from SL-based design projects are presented next. Examples of SL-based design programs and courses are integrated throughout the chapter to illustrate concepts and best practices. This chapter is intended to provide the reader with an introduction to service-learning as a vehicle for design education, and to provide additional resources for readers who wish to delve into more detail with the theory and practice of this pedagogy.
Service-learning is defined as “a credit-bearing, educational experience in which students participate in an organized service activity that meets identified community needs and reflect on the service activity in such a way as to gain further understanding of course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility.” [5] Service-learning in higher education was pioneered by Ernest Boyer [6, 7] and other scholars in non-engineering professions [8, 9, 10] and was identified by George Kuh [11] as a high impact educational practice critical to the retention of early career college students. Service-learning, and more broadly civic engagement, which encompasses curricular and co-curricular efforts to ensure that the university is using its resources to partner with communities and other stakeholders to address complex societal issues, are a well-defined part of the higher education landscape in the USA. Campus Compact, the major professional society for civic engagement in higher education, has more than 1100 universities as members.
Models of service-learning were presented by Heffernan [12], and include (among others) a discipline or placement based model, in which students are situated within the community and perform community service to meet their learning objectives, as well as a problem-based or deliverable model, in which student create or co-create (with community) a product to fulfill course requirements. Service-learning in engineering has largely used the deliverable model, in which students deliver designs or designed and built artifacts.
Leah Jamieson pioneered service-learning in engineering through the Engineering Projects in Community Service (EPICS) program at Purdue University [13, 14]. This model features vertically integrated teams consisting of an approximately equal number of first-year, sophomore, junior, and senior engineering students who take a course repeating times for semester credit and who work together on addressing community issues using human-centered design. The teams are also multidisciplinary, including students studying an array of engineering and non-engineering disciplines. The community partnerships are often long-standing, with EPICS conducting a number of projects with partners over many years. Examples of projects conducted by EPICS in partnership with communities include hands-on exhibits for science museums, custom toys for children with disabilities, and software for elementary schools, non-profits, and public agencies. The EPICS model has expanded to include approximately 40 colleges of engineering nationally and internationally [15]. Edmund Tsang [16] is the editor of the engineering volume of the American Association of Higher Education’s Service-Learning in the Disciplines. Numerous early models of service-learning in engineering are shared in this volume.
Though there is much work on service-learning in engineering, engineers serving the common good through co-curricular (outside the classroom) methods also play a large role in learning through service (LTS) activities [17, 18]. Many pre-professional and practicing engineers have participated in engineers without borders (EWB), whose mission is “To be the beating heart of the engineering movement for sustainable global development, building and evolving engineering capacity throughout the world.” (
There has been a proliferation of curricular and co-curricular opportunities for civic engagement in engineering since the turn of the century. SL design projects have been integrated into introductory courses for first-year students, technical core courses, and senior capstone design. Readers are encouraged to consult the International Journal for Service Learning in Engineering: Humanitarian Engineering and Social Entrepreneurship (IJSLE), especially two special issues published in 2014 and 2015, Opportunities and Barriers to Integrating Service-Learning into Engineering Education [19] and University Engineering Programs that Impact Communities: Critical Analyses and Reflection [20]. Additionally, the Community Engagement Division of the American Society for Engineering Education was created in 2012 and has a resource page for general knowledge in this area (
The design process can be modeled in a number of ways, with specifics that vary somewhat depending on whether engineers are designing infrastructure at the community scale (e.g. a bridge, road, power system), physical products that are owned at a household or personal level (e.g. a car, computer), or processes (e.g. computer software). Some methodologies are more congruent than others with service-learning. The human-centered design process has often been used to frame service-learning (e.g. [21, 22]), and also aligns with numerous elements in the conceive-design-implement-operate (CDIO) process [23]. Human-centered design puts the people who are the users/community members at the heart of the process, engaging them throughout all phases. Optimally, service-learning embraces the notion of designing with communities. Figure 1 offers a visual representation of the human-centered design process. The hexagon in the center represents the team of people working together on a particular issue (inspired by [1]), which is embedded in the complex ecosystem of the technical, social, and environmental realms. The community members (C) are “at the table” working side-by-side with engineers (E) and other experts in policy (P) and natural and/or social scientists (S). There are opportunities to harness community expertise in all phases of the design process.
Conceptual model of the human-centered design process as a collaboration among engineers (E) and community members (C) with contributions by policy makers (P) and scientists (S), situated within larger environmental, social, and technical realms.
An individual or the community collectively should identify a problem or situation they believe engineers might be able to contribute to solving or improving. The community should be the driving force, with a vision of partnering with engineers. In other words, problem identification should not be externally imposed. An engineer might share data with the community that she/he believes indicates an issue, but should not presume that her/his external perceptions of a ‘problem’ are authentic to a specific individual or community. Otherwise, there is an implication that a particular community or individual is at a ‘deficit’, needing charity or help from an “expert” engineering student, versus being co-equal partners in working to improve a situation.
Once an issue has been identified by the community, the next step is to gain a thorough understanding of the issue. It is important to realize that a particular problem is situated within a larger framework of the planet and environment at large, the society and economy in which a community or individual resides, various cultural norms and legal constraints, and interactions among these complex systems. Engineers should have a strong understanding of the technical issues that are relevant to a problem, as well as community issues that they can gain perspective on through research. Critically, they also need to partner with others “on the ground” to fully understand other conditions relevant to the problem. In this stage, students should talk with and listen to their community partners. Ideally, this process includes contextual or transformational listening, which is a skill that must be thoughtfully developed [24, 25, 26]. The public and community should not be viewed as a monolith; there are sure to be an array of individuals and groups with different perspectives. Engaging an array of stakeholders early in the process can yield important benefits. The more students in their role as novice engineers can immerse themselves in the communities and with the people their engineering is designed to serve, the more likely they are to better understand and appreciate the needs of the ultimate users of the co-created design. This approach aligns with the ideas of empathic design [21, 27]. Students may also need to recruit partners or work with other disciplines to gain a thorough understanding of relevant constraints and criteria.
The next phase in the process focuses on divergent thinking, where individuals imagine an array of potential solutions. Engineers often bring examples of solutions that have worked in similar situations. But each situation is unique, and engineers should not force fit technology to a problem. The analogy is often that engineers have a set of tools, and just because they have a “hammer” does not mean that is the right tool for the job. Students should not position themselves in roles as experts, but as learners, collaborators, and facilitators, bringing their ideas and inviting ideas from others. Interactive discussions with a broad array of stakeholders are likely to yield a diverse array of creative ideas. This step is critical to the process, in order for the best solutions to be among the array of options being considered.
Next, there should be a thoughtful process of evaluating the range of ideas under the set of local constraints and criteria, to narrow in on a sub-set of potentially feasible, appropriate, and optimal solutions. This process should be conducted by the community members and engineering students working together in a participatory design process. The evaluation process should consider the larger context of the issue, including the social and environmental spheres. Engineers then create conceptual designs, which allow rough evaluation of metrics such as cost, environmental emissions, etc. Typically a number of the important criteria that determine an optimal solution are subjective. Thus, community members must be engaged in contributing to the design and evaluating these issues. The community should select the ‘optimal’ solution from among the sub-set of options that went through the conceptual design phase. This is a convergent phase of the design cycle, and may be challenging given that different stakeholders may have different perspectives on ‘optimal.’
Engineers then typically handle the majority of the detailed design phase, which largely resides in the technical realm. Engineering students may complete this work if carefully supervised by instructors with appropriate expertise; some projects will require that licensed Professional Engineers review the designs. More forward-thinking SL programs are engaging in co-design among community members, students, and engineers. Where appropriate, prototypes of products are created, which can then go through testing by the community. In the case of infrastructure, computer models are built and subjected to expected human and natural conditions (e.g. hurricane); results are shared with stakeholders. Design changes can be made in response to the testing feedback cycle. This iterative process can often be viewed as a microcosm of the full design process (e.g. a problem might be identified in the prototype, alternative fixes are proposed and evaluated, etc.). The teams of engineering students and faculty should be completely transparent with stakeholders, explaining what they are doing and why. This approach provides an opportunity for co-equal learning among all of the participants in the design process, and is inclusive of both community members and engineering students.
The implementation steps, such as manufacturing a designed product, are often thought of as ‘detached’ from users and communities. However, in service-learning projects there are often opportunities to engage communities in this phase. For example, community participation in constructing a school playground, building a Habitat for Humanity home, community participation in building a Bridges to Prosperity (B2P) bridge, and locals producing ceramic water filters for point-of-use household treatment of drinking water in a micro-enterprise [19, 20]. Community involvement in the implementation step can be particularly impactful and contributes to the community “taking ownership” of the constructed artifact that they co-designed and helped to construct. The same is true in the operation, maintenance, and monitoring phases of a project. Community understanding of the process and ultimately their sense of ownership is fostered by their intimate involvement in all phases. The greater the participation of the community in all phases of the project, the greater the overall sustainability of a project over the long term—and across the interconnected areas of societal, environmental, and economic issues.
Done well, service-learning enacted through a model of human-centered design requires frequent engagement with the community across all stages of the design process. The more engaged community members are in the entirety of the design process, the better the outcome will fulfill project goals. Community members may not be immediately available at the discretion of a student design team, and communication processes and timelines need to be respectful of these preferences and needs. The feedback cycle among members of a design team that stretches across disciplines requires thoughtful consideration at each step. Catalano [28] advocates for a contemplative paradigm, which he combined with service-learning in a senior capstone design course. The various elements in the human-centered design process imply that a majority of significant service-learning design projects will have timelines that stretch beyond the confines of a single academic term. This “feature of the landscape” requires creative thinking to integrate community-scale design problems into higher education, adapting traditional course structures (e.g. [29] ‘tyranny of the semester’). A thoughtful process to design the SL experience is encouraged. The Learning Though Service Program Model Blueprint is a tool that can facilitate this process, considering the perspectives of a wide range of stakeholders (e.g. students, community members, instructors, the university, intermediaries such as non-governmental organizations, practitioners) with respect to value propositions, relationships, and resources [30].
A sub-set of engineering service-learning design focuses on poverty alleviation, in programs such as Humanitarian Engineering and Engineering for Developing Communities. Nelson [31] described four different mental models that are commonly used to frame design processes associated with poverty alleviation: income first, needs first, rights first (including human-centered design), and local first. A well-being framework brings these four mental models together. The framework supports the importance of deeply engaging with communities and recognizing their unique expertise in their local context. Because poverty is framed as “the systematic failure to achieve wellbeing objectives”, the framework lends itself to a series of metrics that can form the basis of design objectives, constraints, and criteria; for example, “material sufficiency, bodily health, social connectedness, security, and freedom to make choices around action” (p. 2). A service-learning design program at Ohio Northern University is a case example of the well-being framework [31].
Entering into service-learning design projects, instructors may want to consider servant-leadership as a framework for their teaching and as a model for students to consider when they engage with communities [32]. Design instructors will have a role as a “guide on the side”, with a mindset of mentoring or serving both their students and the community partner, and being mentored and served by these constituents. A case study of this approach was a service-learning project in a senior thermodynamics course at the Milwaukee School of Engineering [32]. The LSU Community Playground Project, which is affiliated with a first-year engineering design course, required the service-learning instructor to develop a servant leadership approach to be successful; the evolution from becoming a “traditional” engineering educator to a servant leader engineering educator is described in [33]. Stoecker [34] takes this concept further, suggesting that engaged faculty frame their work as community organizing.
There are several essential elements of successful service-learning-based projects. The authors strongly suggest that faculty who wish to use this pedagogy work with their university’s office of civic engagement and/or service-learning to help identify community partners and to assist with planning and executing their projects within a reciprocal framework. Other groups, such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs), may be key stakeholders, particularly in international service-learning projects.
In terms of reciprocal partnerships, an asset based model of collaboration is ideal because it acknowledges the resources and assets that the university and community “bring to the table,” as well as identifies the needs that each constituent seeks to meet through partnership. For example, universities might have assets with respect to discipline-specific knowledge and monetary resources, while communities might have assets with respect to community-specific knowledge and capacity resources. Partnerships are more successful when constituents combine their strengths to address a community issue together rather than a charity model in which one constituent helps the other. Another way to frame this asset based philosophy is that each constituent will both learn something from and teach something to the other.
The 2006 Community Partner Summit [35], p. 13 and Portland State University’s 2008 Partnership Forum [36], p. 3 identified the following essential components for successful community-university partnerships:
Quality processes (open, honest, respectful; relationship-focused, characterized by integrity; trust-building; acknowledgement of history, commitment to learning and sharing credit)
Meaningful outcomes (specific and significant to all partners)
Transformation (at individual, institutional, organizational, and societal levels)
These essential components are achieved by practicing the following processes ([36], pp. 3–4):
Asset (resources, strengths, and interests) identification and recognition for all partners
Dialog within partners and between partners
Creation of common language
Relationship-building strategies
Describing and understanding each other’s culture
Learning together
Collaborative problem posing and solving
Collaborative agenda setting
Identification and recognition of each partner’s needs, issues and challenges
Self-assessment and reflection within each partner group and between partners
Constant negotiation and modification
Supporting infrastructure in each partner’s organization
Another important component of a successful service-learning partnership is reflection, or metacognition. Professionals constantly reflect on what they are doing, why they are doing it, and next steps; students need to develop this skill that professionals may forget that they practice, because this practice is so embedded in their daily work. There are many models of reflection ranging from the simplest (what, so what, now what) to those that are more complex [37, 38]. Lima and Oakes [39] have a list of reflection questions in Chapter 2 of their textbook on service-learning in engineering. Reflection can be used to catalyze and assess student learning.
A thoughtful assessment plan should be developed, to help ensure that the outcomes desired for both communities and students are achieved. This plan should include formative assessment to enable during-course adjustments, as well as summative assessment to provide ‘lessons learned’ for the future. Assessment methods for student outcomes are well documented (see examples in [40]). Community outcomes have been rigorously studied in fewer instances, and are an area where additional scholarship is needed.
Even when adhering to all essential components and processes for successful partnerships, there can still be challenges and pitfalls. For example, as mentioned previously, it can be difficult to manage partnerships within the time constraints of a semester: most community issues involve people working on them throughout the year, not in 15-week blocks. This constraint may require some thought in terms of deploying a design and maintaining it once it is built. Repeating courses with the same community partner is one way to address this issue; others have created infrastructure to complete and maintain projects [39, 41]. Such considerations ensure that a design effectively serves the community, instead of being dumped on the community. Student resistance to participating in service-learning classes is also possible [32]; explicitly and repeatedly connecting the service activities to the learning objectives in class allays most student concerns. Finally, communication can be an issue, particularly where media is concerned. University media tend to focus on the students and faculty involved in a service-learning project and typically portray the community-university relationships as the university helping the community [42]. An explicit conversation among constituents about uniform talking points for media, and if at all possible, media interaction with all constituents present, is recommended. See [42], for more details.
Across all disciplines, service-learning has been shown to be an impactful pedagogy. A recent meta-analysis of SL across 62 studies (all included a control group, elementary through postsecondary level students with 68% college undergraduates) determined that SL resulted in “significant gains in five outcome areas”: academic achievement (grades or test performance; highest mean effect size, ES, 0.43), social skills (leadership, cultural competence, social problem solving; ES 0.30), attitudes toward self (self-esteem, self-efficacy, personal abilities, feelings of control; ES 0.28), attitudes toward school and learning (academic engagement, enjoyment of course; ES 0.28), and civic engagement (civic responsibility, altruism; 0.27) [43]. It is unclear whether or not any of the studies included in the meta-analysis included engineering students, but the results are nevertheless compelling.
Within engineering, previous research has identified a number of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and identity (KSAI) outcomes that could result from engineering student engagement in project-based service-learning (PBSL); [40] presented a literature review from numerous published sources. While that study extended beyond SL in design settings, SL-based design should have the capacity to yield the same array of outcomes. SL-based engineering design education can achieve all of the core technical outcomes one would expect from engineering design in general (aligned with the academic achievement outcome in the meta study), while also realizing a number of additional outcomes. The potential outcomes of SL-based design education that map to the technical and professional knowledge and skills expected of engineers internationally and by U.S. accreditation are summarized in Table 1 [44, 45].
Knowledge and skill outcomes achievable via SL-based design and PBSL.
A greater complexity and range of design constraints are typical in SL-based projects compared to other design experiences. Service-learning executed through human-centered design may be superior to standard design pedagogy in developing communication skills with diverse audiences and teamwork/leadership skills in interdisciplinary settings. In addition, PBSL in engineering has been shown to yield enhanced creative design; cultural competency and leadership (social skills); self-confidence; attitudes toward community service; and engineering identity. The compiled data in [40] indicated outcomes for which the projects with a SL context yielded enhanced outcomes in comparison to non-SL projects.
SL-based design embeds an array of ethical issues, both microethics and macroethics, and may be particularly impactful in building students’ ethical reasoning skills. In a faculty survey on ethics and societal impacts instruction, 212 respondents who described their capstone design course as including ethics and/or societal impact topics indicated that these topics were taught via service-learning [46]. Zoltowski and her collaborators [47] have been developing instruments and methods to measure ethical gains as a result of SL-based design experiences (e.g. [48]).
In addition to knowledge and skills, attitudes are important to the professional success of engineers and are explicitly recognized in CDIO [23] and the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Civil Engineering Body of Knowledge for the 21st Century (CEBOK). The third edition of the CEBOK [49] explicitly includes affective domain goals and rubrics associated with seven outcomes. Attitudes supportive of professional practice that may be specifically developed via a SL design experience, such as “value effective and persuasive communication to technical and non-technical audiences” which requires “empathy… with diverse clients and stakeholders” ([49], pp. 2–42–43). The professional attitudes listed in the CEBOK3 (pp. 2–53) and developed specifically via SL may include creativity, flexibility, consideration of others, empathy, honesty, integrity, respect, sensitivity, thoughtfulness and tolerance. Humility [50] and empathy [51] have been proposed as important mindsets in working with communities.
Of additional interest is the extent to which SL-based design is effective at developing students’ creativity and innovation skills. This has not yet been rigorously studied using established instruments (such as the Creative Engineering Design Assessment Purdue Creativity Test or Purdue Creativity Test [52]); rather, the data reflects student self-assessments in surveys or anecdotal statements by instructors. One of the more rigorous assessments was associated with a first-year mechanical engineering design course [53]. A sub-set of the design projects were SL-based and included leadership training. Students engaged in SL projects had a statistically significant gain in the self-assessed extent to which they possessed creativity/ingenuity on the post- versus pre-assessment using a five-point scale; gains were not statistically significant among students working on non-SL design projects. In a senior product design course with service-based projects, students rated their creativity at a higher level on the post-survey than the pre-survey (average ~6.55 increased to ~6.95 on nine-point scale; p < 0.05); this compared to a gain of about one-point in their self-rated product design skills [54]. Fully anecdotal statements regarding growth in students’ creativity and/or innovation skills in association with service-based design projects were made in a number of other papers [55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61].
Another set of proposed outcomes from SL-based design is that it may help attract students to engineering majors and/or retain students in engineering, particularly women and underrepresented minorities. Many students are drawn to engineering due to a desire to make a difference, help others, and improve society. SL projects offer tangible examples of these outcomes, inspiring students and providing rewarding experiences. Three large service-learning programs in engineering have data related to the impacts of their program in recruiting/retaining female students: the Service Learning Integrated Throughout a College of Engineering (SLICE) program at the University of Massachusetts Lowell [62], EPICS at Purdue University [63], and the Humanitarian Engineering and Social Entrepreneurship (HESE) program at Pennsylvania State University [64]. Other SL programs have reported on the large percentage of women among the participants, such as the Humanitarian Engineering Center at Ohio State University [65] and engineers without borders [66, 67] provided data from a variety of developing community programs. The real-world tangible nature of SL design projects is a significant motivator, in addition to making a positive difference.
Service-learning has co-equal goals of benefits to community partners and student learning. Assessment is needed to demonstrate whether SL design projects have met these goals. SL projects may have impacts at the individual, organizational, community, or system scales [68]. Jiusto and Vaz [68] present a model that considers these impacts to both communities and academics, which can inspire instructors considering the use of SL as a design pedagogy to think beyond immediate impacts. This broader systems-level perspective can include potential project outcomes such as improvements in the health and well-being of community partners, while recognizing how these outcomes might contribute to enhancing community sustainability or social cohesion. Identifying impacts of interest in partnership with all stakeholders is the first step in developing a plan to assess these impacts.
In practice, SL has often focused its assessment efforts on student learning and less on evaluating the impacts on community partners and communities; this imbalance is evident both for SL in the context of engineering design and SL more broadly [69, 70, 71]. Reynolds [72] provides a critical review of literature on community perspectives on service-learning, and conducted research on the perspectives of the international partner community in Nicaragua on their partnership with the College of Engineering at Villanova University. Although this was a research project, assessment lessons can be learned. Observations, interviews with community organization representatives, interviews with community residents, and document reviews were conducted. Community partners confirmed the tangible results of improved access to clean water and healthcare which saved lives, but also described trust, a sense of pride, and connections/awareness as important outcomes. The community also had less positive perceptions that included feeling like their community was a laboratory for students. The community also had goals toward student learning, including shifting students’ perspectives from helping to learning and having a responsibility to others.
These findings represent the particular ways in which SL projects were conducted in this instance and their specific community partners, and should not be generalized. However, these important insights provide an example of the types of outcomes that assessment can illuminate. Others have also used interviews [73, 74] and surveys [14, 74, 75] to assess community partner satisfaction and other perspectives on SL engagement. Readers are encouraged to consult participatory action research models [76] to learn more about the process of planning, executing, and evaluating projects together; communication, transparency, and shared power in decision-making are hallmarks of these approaches.
Design projects and their products should be monitored over time to evaluate sustainability and long-term impacts. This process is easier for projects in local communities and more challenging for international projects, but is critical in all cases. SL projects could model practices and processes used in international development work for monitoring and evaluation (M&E), which typically include mixed-methods [77]. The community and/or students can be involved in monitoring the designed systems, and can work together to resolve any issues that are identified. On-going collaboration with groups charged with monitoring and evaluation is also a strategy. For example, with the LSU Community Playground Project [33, 41], once community-designed playgrounds are built at public schools, a company that subcontracts with the school system to provide grounds and maintenance services to the schools takes over the maintenance of the playgrounds. On-going communication among the playground project, the school system, and the company ensures that playgrounds are re-designed, built, and maintained based on need.
Done well, service-learning based engineering design can yield a rich array of benefits for engineering students and communities. However, faculty must carefully plan their course and partnership in order to achieve the full potential of SL-based design. Engineering faculty and students should enter into the design process from a mindset of humility and listening, being respectful, and embracing the expertise of the community. This positioning is often different from the techno-centric, “expert” perspective that pervades engineering. To instill this human-centered or empathic design perspective in students, their first formal education on the engineering design process should promote these views. This approach can perhaps grow into participatory design in the senior year. One challenge is the fact that many engineering faculty members have not previously experienced such approaches, either during their education and training, or in practice. Fortunately, the literature provides rich examples for faculty to draw from to implement this methodology in their own courses. We believe that best practices in service-learning in engineering design make our students better engineers and enables our profession to fulfill its highest purposes.
The authors gratefully acknowledge our community partners and academic collaborators over the years, from whom we have learned and grown professionally and personally.
This work was partly supported by the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture (LAES project #94261). Publication of this chapter was funded by the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries Open Access Fund.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest related to this work.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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