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1. Introduction
One of the major functions of brain cells (neurons) is to receive, store, and participate in information retrieval – an important process for the successful daily activities of humans [1-3]. This function of neurons is termed ‘memory’ [1, 4, 5]. The present understanding of memory function is the product of the pioneering work of the German scientist Hermann Ebbinghaus [5]. Research suggests that many factors (both endogenous and exogenous) could affect memory function [6-8]. However, the effect of glucose on memory function remains extremely significant for the following reasons [9-12]. First, glucose is the vital energy substrate for neuronal functions [13, 14]. Second, inadequate level of glucose in the blood has been associated with a decrease in memory function [15]. Third, disorders in glucose metabolism have been related to various aspects of memory disorders [8, 16]. Furthermore, metabolic products of glucose in neurons themselves participate in one or more stages of memory formation [17-20]. Notwithstanding the significant accumulation of research data in last decades on the relationship between glycemiа and neuronal functions [11, 12, 21], the mechanisms of how glucose affect memory functions remains entirely not understood. In this chapter, we shall examine the possible mechanisms and processes involved in the glucose regulation of memory function. We shall elaborate on the effect of glucose on the major processes of memory functions, precisely on the formation and retrieval of “neural data” – memory.
2. Memory as an integral function of neurons
More than 90% of human activities are dependent on higher integrative brain functions – a major subdivision, which is the topic of our discussion in the chapter. The higher integrative brain functions are the driving force during physical work. This is because the brain is the “chief” that directs resources for the successful completion of the task. Successful activities of humans are largely dependent on memory function [22]. This function of neurons becomes vividly indispensable in situations involving its disorder. Memory is that function of neurons that involve storage and retrieval of information [22]. Some researchers have argued “forgetting” as an important aspect of memory function [23, 24]. This is partly because without forgetting, some new information might hardly go into storage. Hence, there are theories of forgetting – the most known ones are the single-trace fragility theory, decay theory, retrieval failure, interference theory, repression, consolidation theory [22]. Generally, several concepts/theories/models/hypotheses have been used to explain memory function of neurons [22, 25-27]. However, with steady scientific progress it is becoming clearer that none of these gives a complete, and precise definition of memory. In this regard, we shall also discuss briefly on the modern concepts of memory function of neurons in relation to cerebral glucose metabolism.
3. Factors that affect memory: Scanning for glucose’s role
Several factors affect memory functions, and they can either be endogenous or exogenous. Generally, the widely known substances/factors include narcotics, some prescription drugs, alcohol, some biomolecules (most notably glucose, fatty acids, amino acids), environmental factors, genetic and epigenetic factors [6-8, 21, 28]. Among the biomolecules that affect memory formation and retrieval, glucose is widely known and well-studied molecule. Glucose is the main substrate for memory formation and retrieval. Glucose not only provides the energy for memory formation and retrieval, but also, is involved in providing the necessary subunits or components for the formation of various neural components of the “neural data” – memory [9, 11, 12, 14, 21, 29, 30].
4. Glycemia: A key regulating factor for memory formation and retrieval
Decades of research have shown that a change in the glycemic level leads to a corresponding change in memory function of the brain [21, 29-41]. For example, decrease in blood glucose below the set point is reported to negatively affect memory function [9, 21, 29, 30]. Glycemia affect both memory formation and retrieval [9, 29].
Results of several studies have observed an inverted-U shaped dose-response relationship between glucose load and memory [31-34]. Recent study has shown that the optimum dose of glucose memory enhancement may differ under conditions of depleted glucose resources, and has other peculiarities [21].
Several controversies in the glucose memory facilitation effect remain. While some previous studies reported a “no effect relationship” between glucose and memory function [35, 36], others confirm this dose-response relationship [9, 31, 37, 38]. Researchers have suggested that this relationship is extremely dependent on the type of cognitive/memory task [39, 40]. Modulating factors of the glucose memory facilitation effect include physiological state (body mass index etc.), glucose dose, types of cognitive tasks used and cognitive demand [9, 39]. These factors are the possible sources of variance in the glucose facilitation of memory. Owen and colleagues (2008) investigated the dose response relationship of the glucose memory facilitation effect at glucose dosages of 0, 15, 25, 50 and 60 g [9]. They also examined the interactions between length of fasting interval (2 hours versus 12 hours) and the optimum dose of glucose. Their results revealed glucose facilitation of spatial working memory and verbal declarative memory following 25 g glucose. Furthermore, they observed that glucose memory facilitation effect is dependent on the following: the greater the length of fasting, the greater the glucose dose needed to facilitate memory [9]. So, at overnight fast (approximately 12 hours) the higher dose of glucose (i.e. 60 g) was needed to facilitate memory, whereas the lower dose (25 g) enhanced working memory performance following a 2 hour fast [9].
Figure 1.
Comprehensive model of glucose memory facilitation
The mechanisms responsible for memory formation and retrieval are in constant perturbations of several factors (which might be competing factors, endogenous or exogenous in nature). The processes and mechanisms that ensure memory formation are the synthesis and activity of neurotransmitters (dopamine, d-serine, glutamate, acetylcholine etc), and receptor subunit systems; metabolic signaling pathways; LTP/LTD (long-term potentiation/long-term depression); genetic and epigenetic modifications. (Memory retrieval might involve the same systems and processes, but with different mechanisms). Both memory formation and retrieval involve other brain functions, including attention. The systems and processes earlier stated are affected by cerebral glucose, which can serve as a substrate or produce intermediate substrates for some stages of their syntheses. The cerebral glucose content is dependent on the plasma glucose, both of which are under constant regulation by the brain (hypothalamus), some internal organs (liver, kidney). The blood glucose is constantly regulated, also by the effect of the neuro-endocrine control on the gastrointestinal tract, organs (such as the liver and kidney), as well as the effect of the hypothalamus on these organs. The processes that are regulated in these organs by the higher regulatory centres (e.g. hypothalamus) are food intake, gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, glucose cycling – to ensure normal glycemic allostasis. These higher control centres, and the memory function are under constant pressure from modulating factors such as exogenous (e.g. environmental, ethanol), endogenous (ethanol, some physiological indices) – might affect the resultant effect of glucose on memory function. Alcohol actions [42-45] as represented on the model are one of a bi-directional effect of summation, meaning that alcohol affects memory, as well as glucose regulatory systems. The receptor systems of the brain could be modulated by both alcohol and glucose [46, 47]. Alcohol is a psychotic substance in widespread usage in the world. Importantly, this substance is also produced in vivo during biochemical reactions in an organism (including humans). In certain circumstances (varying physiological state, for instance during pregnancy, disease states), the level of endogenous ethanol produced significantly increases. This increase might have a protective effect, but the reason or mechanism on the general role of the increase in endogenous concentration ethanol is not fully known. Ethanol affects some neurotransmitters and receptor systems. Ethanol acts on ionotropic, metabotropic G-protein receptor, potassium ion channels [48-50]. Ethanol acts on metabotropic receptors of mGluR5, mGluR2/3, mGluR1 [51-53]. These metabotropic receptors (mGluR3 of the prefrontal cortex) have been also implicated in cognitive disorders in especially alcoholics [54]. mGluR5 and mGluR1 receptors have been recently implicated in cognition [53]. Ethanol causes hypoglycemia [43, 55]. Besides, it is reported that alcohol causes disorders in the expression of several genes, although the mechanisms remain not quite clear [56].
Glucose plays a pivotal role in memory and might enhance LTP/LTD [57] as hypoglycemia is associated with deficits in memory, and learning [58, 59]. Apart from producing ATP for neural energy, other substances may be synthesized from glucose that affects neuronal activity and functions (including memory) [60-62]. For example, it is known that d-serine (maybe synthesized from glucose molecule) affects LTP, synaptic plasticity, enhance information retrieval [60-64]. Hypoglycemia is associated with both d-serine and NO release aimed at enhancing LTP [58]. These substances can also regulate neuronal transcription factors [65]. A vast number of these signaling pathways, neurotransmitter and receptor systems, and are dependent on the activity level of neurons, and activity dependent transcriptions – activators and suppressor [66, 67]. Other brain cells (especially astrocytes) can modulate neuronal activity through various mechanisms, involving NMDA, d-serine, Ca2+, ATP, glutamate. Hence, these brain cells, which are affected by ethanol, might exert their resultant effect on neurons through astroglial linkages [68, 69].
5. Mechanisms of glucose effect on memory
While several studies have noted that glucose is a critical factor for memory function, what is not exactly clear is whether the effect is a direct or indirect one. In this section, we shall be mainly concerned with the mechanisms and processes of how glucose affects memory. Pertinent literature and latest developments in the field will be reviewed. It will be necessary to have in mind that memory function (formation and retrieval of neural data) is overlapped or is connected with other brain functions such as perception, attention etc. Therefore, glucose is a vital regulating factor for other brain functions. We shall consider the various views, concepts and models of how glucose affects memory function, and provide a comprehensive model of glucose memory facilitation effect (Figure 1).
5.1. Conceptual model of glucose memory facilitation
Smith and colleagues (2011) suggested a conceptual model of glucose facilitation of memory. Their neurocognitive model stipulates that glucose or acute stress/emotional arousal increases the concentration of circulating glucose in the periphery, and subsequently, the central nervous system. This increase in glucose exerts its effects on insulin, acetylcholine (Ach) synthesis and/or KATP channel function which subsequently leads to memory enhancement. Research has confirmed that there is specific cognitive domain that is most amenable to the glucose memory facilitation effect. The domain is episodic memory [41].
5.2. Comprehensive model of glucose memory facilitation
Memory formation or retrieval involves the synthesis of many biomolecules related to glucose metabolism [41, 70-73]. Glucose memory facilitation effect is a complex phenomenon comprising of several players including organs/systems of glucose metabolism, several competing factors, both genetic and epigenetic [42, 46, 72, 74]. Based on available data, here we propose a comprehensive model of glucose memory facilitation.
5.2.1. Neurotransmitter systems
Several neurotransmitter systems have been implicated in memory function. Here, we shall briefly consider a few of the principal neurotransmitter systems involved in memory function. The literatures report significant role of dopaminergic, glutamatergic, serotonergic, cholinergic, and noradrenergic systems in memory function [75-78]. We shall consider d-serine involvement in memory formation owing to the fact that its main receptor – the NMDA receptor is one of the key receptors involved in long-term memory formation (as a result of its long-term potentiation effect). Long-term potentiation, as opposed to long-term depression is an integral process necessary for memory formation (especially long-term memory) [68, 69]. In fact, the NMDA receptor itself is implicated as one of the “alcohol receptors” [79]. Therefore, bi-directional effect of summation might occur through alcohol effect on neurotransmitter receptor systems, and glucose metabolism. The resultant effect is aggravation of memory dysfunction.
5.2.2. Metabolic signaling pathways
Since glucose is a metabolic product or must be involved in the cell’s metabolic pathways before its usefulness is realized; therefore, it is necessary to assume that metabolic pathways, involving glucose molecule are those pathways crucial for memory formation or retrieval. Unfortunately, research in this aspect is scanty. A number of signaling pathways are involved in glucose metabolism, but there is no sufficient evidence on how they are associated with memory function [80]. The widely studied signaling pathways that have a relationship between glucose metabolism and memory functions [81, 82] include CREB pathway [83, 84], AMPK [85, 86], Notch signaling [87], mTOR pathway [88] etc. The mTOR pathway has been majorly implicated in both glucose and memory function. Importantly, it was reported that glucose specifically affects memory through this pathway [84, 88, 89].
5.2.3. Genetic and epigenetic regulation (activity dependent genes and epigenetic factors)
The enhancement of memory by glucose might be related partly to the functions of activity dependent genes [90, 91], as well as epigenetic modifications (DNA methylation and histone modifications) by glucose or its metabolites [10, 91-94].
Since epigenetic profile of the cells play crucial role in glucose metabolism and neuronal cell functions, here, we would suggest that the initial epigenetic data (program) of the involved cells responsible for glucose memory facilitation are partly important for the differences reported in the literature. Epigenetic mechanisms of glucose metabolism and memory functions are regulated by the activity of transcription factors [10, 95]. Due to the importance of glucose in the functioning of the CNS [96], this regulation may be modulated by glucose molecule itself. For example, the data of Li et al. (2010) indicate that glucose regulates gene transcription in the liver by increasing the level of ATP, hence inhibiting AMP-activated protein kinase and inducing hepatocyte nuclear factor 4alpha to stimulate cytochrome P450 7A1 gene transcription. Glucose also increases histone acetylation and decreases H3K9 methylation in the cytochrome P450 7A1 chromatin [97].
Recent experiments show that glucose is involved in the regulation of functions even at the progenitor cell level. Metabolism-sensing factors have recently been implicated in the regulation of neural stem cell fate through epigenetics modification [92, 98]. Hayakawa et al. (2013) reported that in embryonic stem cell population, glucose metabolite induces switching from the inactive state by Ogt-Sirt1 to the active state by Mgea5, p300, and CBP at the Hcrt gene locus [92]. The many pathways of glucose metabolism allows for the inclusion of its metabolic products into numerous cellular activities. For example, substrates of glucose metabolic pathways (acetyl-CoA, ATP, NAD+, glutamine, UDP-N-acetyl-glucosamine, N-acetyl-D-mannosamine etc.) are candidates of epigenetic modifications. Acetyl-CoA is a donor of histone acetylation. NAD+regulates Sirt1, a member of the sirtuin family, which functions as histone deacetylase and is also a metabolic sensor [92] (for review see Hayakawa et al. 2013). Epigenetic regulation by glucose or its metabolites affects memory functions and glucose metabolism itself through a shift in the cellular concentrations of critical metabolites implicated in higher integrative brain functions and metabolism.
A key mechanism for this epigenetic regulation is executed by the peripheral circadian oscillation [99]. However, importantly the peripheral clock and the central one could have some kind of metabolic associations. The concentration of NAD+/NADH plays critical link between metabolism and circadian rhythm [99]. Glucose and other metabolic substances may modulate the circadian rhythm by fluctuations in NAD+/NADH ratio. Compelling evidences now indicate that circadian misalignment could cause serious metabolic problems. In fact, transgenerational inheritance in metabolic alterations could be related to some mechanisms of epigenetic origin modulated by circadian clocks. Methylation of the leptin gene is associated with impaired glucose tolerance in the period of gestation [100]. This and many other discoveries on transgenerational inheritance represent substantial contribution to understanding the pathogenesis of diabetes, obesity in children [100-102].
Epigenetic regulations are not only affected by metabolites, but also body mass index, intrauterine environment, exercise, and other environmental factors [101].
It might be possible that epigenetic dysregulation of cerebral glucose metabolism is the result of cognitive impairment since glucose metabolism is controlled by epigenetic mechanisms and is also associated with cognition. Emerging evidences indicate that metabolic regulation (through epigenetic mechanisms) might be involved in memory function disorders. Reports show that a major pathogenesis of the CNS disorder such as Alzheimer\'s disease involves metabolic alterations, especially in glucose metabolism and associated hormonal or peptide signaling. Metabolic disorders in CNS pathologies are associated with brain insulin signaling. For example, a substantial quantity of insulin receptors is located in the hippocampus (a brain region which is basically concerned with the acquisition, consolidation and recall of new information) [103]. Impaired brain insulin signaling is implicated in cognitive impairment. Moreover, cognitive impairment is associated with diabetes and obesity, which are metabolic disorders [104]. De la Monte (2009) reported that in the initial stage of Alzheimer\'s disease, cerebral glucose metabolism is reduced by 45% and cerebral blood flow approximately by 18% [104]. Earlier, Arnáiz et al. (2001) reported that among twenty patients with mild cognitive impairment, impaired cerebral glucose metabolism and cognitive functioning were able to predict deterioration in mild cognitive impairment [105]. Mild cognitive impairment is an important indicator of the development of Alzheimer\'s disease. Notably, impairment in cerebral glucose metabolism was even a better predictor (75%) compared to neurospcyhological tests (65%) widely used in the assessment of cognitive impairment [105]. The authors further concluded that measures of temporoparietal cerebral metabolism and visuospatial function may aid in predicting the evolution to Alzheimer\'s disease for patients with mild cognitive impairment [105].
These data are very important especially when we consider the increasing prevalence of cognitive disorders. For instance, it is estimated that in 2030 years, the cases of Alzheimer\'s disease in relation to 2012 will double (35.6 million). No doubts, research in this direction is exceedingly necessary [106]. Previously other authors have also reported that impairment in cerebral glucose metabolism is associated with decline in cognition and memory functions. Schapiro et al (1988) studied the rate of cerebral metabolism for glucose with positron emission tomography and [18F]2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose in a 47 year-old man with trisomy 21 Down\'s syndrome and Alzheimer related dementia, and reported poorer general intelligence, visuospatial ability, language, and memory function compared with younger (19-33 years) patients with Down\'s syndrome [107]. Cerebral metabolism for glucose in the older patient was 28% less than in the younger patients. Besides, hypometabolism was reported in the parietal and temporal lobes of the brain cortices. Importantly, the study of Schapiro et al (1988) was probably one of the most comprehensive investigations to show the association between different diseases involving CNS disorder and their relationship with cerebral glucose metabolism [107]. Approximately a decade after Schapiro et al.\'s (1988) work [107], Pietrini et al. (1997) reported another predictor method for Alzheimer\'s disease risk prior to dementia in patients with Down\'s syndrome who were above 40 years (mean of 50 years) of age [108]. Pietrini, et al. (1997) confirmed their hypothesis that despite normal cerebral glucose metabolism at rest, an audiovisual stimulation (was used as a stress test) revealed abnormalities in cerebral glucose metabolism before the development of dementia in the parietal and temporal cortices which represent most vulnerable regions to Alzheimer\'s disease [108].
These CNS pathologies are now believed to be regulated by epigenetic mechanisms [109] and could have pretty good correlations with epigenetic mechanisms of cerebral glucose metabolism. Other CNS pathologies involving cognitive impairments such as epilepsy [110], schizophrenia [111, 112], Parkinson\'s disease [113], multiple sclerosis [114] had been associated with disturbances in glucose metabolism.
Figure 2.
Interacting system (comprising of memory function, error monitoring and processing system, and modulators) of the reciprocability of neural systems of memory and the error monitoring and processing system. The modulators between the two reciprocals are glucose, other endogenous and exogenous substances/factors. N/B: Glucose can be an endogenous, as well as an exogenous factor; exogenous sources include per os administration of glucose, etc.; endogenous sources include gluconeogenetic production of glucose molecules, etc.
6. Glucose error commission depression effect: Cue to an overlapping bridge of neural error systems, memory and glucose metabolism?
Our data and those of other authors show strong negative relations between glycemia and error commission. Whether this is due to the effect of glucose on memory or neural systems of error commission, is what is not exactly clear (see figure 2). There are no precise borders between the brain regions responsible for memory and error commission. Therefore, it is possible that the effect of glucose on error commission could be the resultant effect on the chief brain regions for memory function. Neural systems (or regions) of memory implicated in error commission have been linked to brain regions also involved in some aspects of memory function [115-117]. The brain systems concerned with error commission are referred to the error monitoring and processing system. The major regions of the brain concerned with error commission are the anterior cingulate cortex, basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex. These brain regions (especially the prefrontal cortex) are also implicated in memory function [45, 115, 117].
7. Effect of alcohol on glycemia and memory: More than just a bi-directional modulating effect
Alcohol is the most prevalent psychotic substance in the world. While alcohol affects glucose metabolism, memory also remains one of the most vulnerable functions of the brain that suffers from the negative effect of alcohol use [15, 16, 29, 30, 44, 45, 118]. Hence, there is the need to examine its effect on memory function and glucose regulatory mechanisms. Here, we view alcohol as a positive modulating factor for memory (especially at endogenous concentration), and as a psychopathological substance at blood concentrations higher than the normal physiological level.
8. Conclusion
Glucose is the foremost energy substrate for neuronal functions (memory). It provides the energy bonds needed for the formation of memory and takes part in information retrieval from neural stores. Both glucose and its metabolites are involved in different stages of memory formation and retrieval. Several factors such as ethanol, some physiological indices, and other competing factors modulate the effect of glucose on memory function.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/46632.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/46632.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46632",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46632",totalDownloads:1218,totalViews:144,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 3rd 2013",dateReviewed:"January 20th 2014",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 18th 2014",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/46632",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/46632",book:{slug:"glucose-homeostasis"},signatures:"M.O. Welcome and V.A. Pereverzev",authors:[{id:"145006",title:"Dr.",name:"Menizibeya",middleName:null,surname:"Welcome O.",fullName:"Menizibeya Welcome O.",slug:"menizibeya-welcome-o.",email:"menimed1@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Memory as an integral function of neurons",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Factors that affect memory: Scanning for glucose’s role",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Glycemia: A key regulating factor for memory formation and retrieval",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Mechanisms of glucose effect on memory",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1. Conceptual model of glucose memory facilitation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2. Comprehensive model of glucose memory facilitation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"5.2.1. Neurotransmitter systems",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"5.2.2. Metabolic signaling pathways",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"5.2.3. Genetic and epigenetic regulation (activity dependent genes and epigenetic factors)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Glucose error commission depression effect: Cue to an overlapping bridge of neural error systems, memory and glucose metabolism?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"7. 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Belarusian State Medical University, Minsk, Belarus
Belarusian State Medical University, Minsk, Belarus
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1. Introduction
Carbon-based materials are a very well-established commodity generally used in materials science [1]. Nowadays, many commodities makes use of carbon fibres as they become an unavoidable asset for the global market [2]. Carbon fibres represent the most diffuse high-tech carbon materials, but carbon black played the main role in these materials. Carbon black (CB) harvests a great global carbon revenue due to its use for the production of plenty of composites but mainly for tyres [3]. Over the years, high-cost carbon materials such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene-like materials have gained the attention of the scientific community with their amazing conductivity and optic and mechanical properties [4, 5]. Despite the expected revolution, nanosized allotropic carbon form did not have much progress in the research area. In a very optimistic report, Segal [6] dreamed that the world was ready for the industrial-scale production of graphene, but after a decade, single-layer graphene is still sold at 200 €/cm2, while graphene oxide costs 100,000 €/kg [7]. On the other hand, CB is sold for around 1 €/kg [8]. New-generation high-tech carbon materials (i.e. CNT, graphene and graphene oxide) have not yet fulfilled the promise for a new carbon era. While the industry waits for large-scale commercialization of high-quality affordable carbon allotropes, new materials have been considered through engineered carbon for profitable business. In recent years, a new material has emerged as the most promising for the integration of carbon production with waste management [9, 10, 11]. This material is biochar, the solid residue from pyrolytic conversion of biomass. Biomass waste stream is one of the most abundant worldwide, and it is generally disposed through incineration. This presents both an environmental issue and an economic loss due to the transformation of a high-quality material into heat. Accordingly, a more profitable advantage was found in their thermal conversion for the production of biofuels [12, 13], chemicals [14] and other materials [15]. Conversion of biomass into liquid fuels is challenging due to the high oxygen content compared with traditional oil-derived products (i.e. gasoline, virgin nafta, diesel). On the contrary, biochar production is a process full of opportunities with the emergence of carbonaceous material from both lignocellulosic and non-lignocellulosic biomasses. This bioderived carbon is used in many applications [16] due to its properties and low cost attested at around 1–2 €/kg [17, 18, 19]. Actually, biochar has found a large-scale application for soil health improvement [20, 21, 22] and as solid fuel with a heating content of around 40 kJ/mol [23]. Nonetheless, these applications are limited and unable to exploit the full potentiality of biochar due to their easy tunability with simple process adjustment [24].
In this book chapter, we report an overview of the composite applications of biochar to prove its feasibility as a replacement for traditional carbon materials and as a solid competitor with high-tech reinforced plastics.
2. Biochar: production ways
Biochar is produced through thermochemical routes such as torrefaction, pyrolysis and hydrothermal carbonisation and as residue of gasification.
Torrefaction is a low-temperature thermal conversion used to densify the biomasses for energy purposes [25]. The process temperature is in the range from 200–350°C, and the conversion requires long residence and processing times. Torrefaction is characterised by biochar and biochar-like yields [26]. The carbon percentage of solid residue is generally around 50–60 wt.% [27], but it can reach 72–80 wt.% using microwave process with the addition of microwave absorbers as reported in several studies [28, 29, 30, 31]. Microwave use leads to the drastic reduction of process timescale from hours to minutes.
Pyrolysis is a high-temperature thermochemical conversion which induces the cracking of polymers with the formation of low-molecular-weight compounds in an oxygen-free or oxygen-poor atmosphere [12, 32]. Pyrolysis is run using different heating technologies [33] and apparatus design [34, 35, 36, 37] at a temperature range from 450–700°C [38] with huge variations in product fraction yields. Pyrolysis of biomasses was deeply studied, and the main mechanisms can be rationalised in a few different steps. The first is the release of moisture from the feedstock, increasing the surface area and improving the pore structure, which favours a quick release of volatiles and minimizes char-catalysed secondary cracking. Lignocellulosic biomass behaviour during pyrolysis could be rationalised through the behaviour of the main components as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The pyrolysis of cellulose takes place between 430 and 470°C and hemicellulose between 470 and 600°C while lignin between 600 and 800°C. During this process other reactions such as dehydration of the sample, pyrolysis of the volatiles present, formation of levoglucosan from cellulose [39] and formation of substituted aromatic rings from lignin [40] take place together with the formation of carbon.
Hydrothermal carbonisation is a thermal cracking used to produce crude-like oil and hydrochar under moderate temperature and high pressure [41] using aqueous solvent [42], nonaqueous solvent [43, 44] or subcritical/critical media [45].
Finally, gasification is the conversion of biomass into combustible gas by heating in air [46], pure oxygen or steam [47] at temperatures higher than 800°C with or without a catalyst [48]. Products from gasification are a mixture of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen and water vapour. Biochar is not the main product of gasification, but it is characterised by a simultaneous high carbon and ash content.
In summary, Figure 1 shows the main stage of biomass conversion.
Figure 1.
Conversion of lignocellulosic biomasses to carbon structures.
Furthermore, it is relevant to notice that leaves, stems, bark and roots are different lignin/cellulose ratio and mechanical properties. The same is true for different species.
Some of these differences could be retained into biochar and induce appreciable properties.
Also, the graphitic domains formed during pyrolytic treatment could undergo a stacking rearrangement leading to a graphitization of biochar with the increasing temperature.
3. Biochar-based reinforced plastics
Nowadays, reinforced plastic materials are one of the largest global markets in the polymer sector with an expected global revenue of up to 130 M$/year in 2024 as summarised in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Reinforced plastic worldwide revenue with a prediction for the year 2024 [49].
Carbon-containing reinforced plastic is one of the most relevant materials with an annual production of up to 150 kton/y in 2018 [50]. As clearly reported in Figure 3, around 80% of the total carbon-containing reinforced plastic is represented by polymer host materials, 49% of which comes from thermoset resin and 30% from thermoplastic polymers. Among them, carbon fibre-reinforced epoxy polymers are the larger amount. This is due to their numerous applications in all-capital high-tech sectors ranging from aeronautics and aerospace industries [51] to automotive industries [52]. In this global scenario, biochar plays a minor role even if it could be used, and it is going to consolidate itself as a trustworthy commodity with its production flexibility and property tunability [53].
Figure 3.
World’s carbon-based reinforced plastic production in 2018 [50].
Therefore, the main uses of biochar in both thermoset and thermoplastic matrices are overviewed.
Carbonaceous-reinforced thermoset resins are the most commonly used materials dispersed in plenty of different polymer hosts [54, 55, 56]. Epoxy resins are the most deeply applied and used around the world. Consequently, the replacement of carbon fibres and carbon black, carbon soot and anthracites with biochar has gained a great interest. Khan et al. [57] described the mechanical and dielectric properties of high-temperature-annealed maple-derived biochar dispersed into a two-component epoxy resin. Biochar filler was used in concentration ranging from 0.5 wt.% to 20 wt.%. The authors clearly showed the improvement of mechanical properties using filler loading of up to 4 wt.%. Regarding electric properties, Khan and co-workers found that a low loading of multiwalled CNTs induced the same effects of a 20 wt.% loading of biochar. Recently, Bartoli et al. [58] described the relationship between the biochar morphology and related composite mechanical properties using a biochar loading of 2 wt.%. The authors achieved a 40% increment of maximum elongation using a rhizomatous grass-derived biochar and Young’s modulus increment using a wheat straw as a source for biochar production. The authors suggested that smooth surface could induce an improved mobility inside the epoxy matrix, while highly porous and channelled surfaces do not. Additionally, they suggested that the dispersion methodology adopted based on ultrasonication, summarised in Figure 4, reduced the size of biochar particles with a direct relation with the original morphology of the very same particles.
Figure 4.
Ultrasonication methodology for the effect dispersion of biochar inside the epoxy resin host.
Furthermore, pyrolytic temperature is the main and critical parameter for tuning biochar properties with the goal of improving resin properties. The interactions between epoxy resin and biochar particles. Bartoli et al. [59] studied the effect of the heating rate and maximum pyrolytic temperature on biochar. Furthermore, cellulose templates could be used for the production of biochar fibres and balls using selected precursors. As a matter of fact, biochar produced from wasted cotton fibres could be recovered as carbon fibre shape showing a property enhancement of epoxy resin host matrix [60, 61], while the one produced from cellulose nanocrystals could be recovered as micrometrics ball or nanometric needles [62].
Authors showed the complex relationship of produced biochar with related containing epoxy composites. Sample prepared at different temperature and using different heating rate increment or the Young’s modulus or the toughness of the reinforced plastics. Interestingly, the biochar produced at very high temperature of up to 1000°C generally induced a high increment of elongation probably due to the unpacking of the aromatic ring of epoxy host.
Similarly, Giorcelli et al. [63] proved the effectiveness of maple tree-derived biochar produced at 600°C and 1000°C, observing a drastic improvement of maximum elongation compared with neat resin.
Temperature also affected the electrical properties of biochar and biochar-containing composites. High thermal annealed biochar could represent a solid choice for the production of conductive epoxy composites. Giorcelli et al. [64] described that highly graphitic biochar induced better performances during DC electrical conductivity measurements. Temperature treatment and related graphitization processes lead to an improved ability of these materials to shield microwave radiation with similar outputs with respect to multiwalled CNTs [65] even under thin-film shape [66].
The other huge field of composite materials is represented by thermoplastic reinforced plastics. In this very same field, polyolefin represents the greater amount of worldwide production. Among them, biochar-containing polyethylene was studied by Arrigo et al. [67] using an exhausting coffee-derived biochar produced at 700°C. The authors described the rheological and thermal properties of biochar-related composites with a filler loading up to 7.5 wt. %, showing a decrement of the dynamics of polymer chains in the host matrix related to the confinement of the polymer chains on the biochar surface. Additionally, the well-embedded biochar particles improved the thermo-oxidative stability of polyethylene composites produced. Zhang et al. [68] studied the temperature influence on biochar production from poplar and its use as filler for high-density polyethylene. Curiously, the microcrystalline structure of the polymer was not affected by the presence of biochar according to the thermal data collected. A different trend was reported for the mechanical properties that were appreciable different in the comparison between neat and biochar-loaded poly(ethylene) with an improvement of flexural strength and a decrement of the impact strength. Zhang et al. [69] valourized agricultural waste streams through pyrolysis, and the resulting biochar was used as filler for ultra-high-density poly(ethylene). The authors observed improvement in their mechanical properties and improvement in the flame retardancy of the high filler loading materials. Similar results were achieved by Sundarakannan et al. [70] using biochar derived from cashew nuts. Also Li et al. [71] investigated the high loads of biochar in ultra-high-molecular-weight poly(ethylene), achieving a remarkable electromagnetic interference shielding properties using an 80 wt.% of bamboo biochar pyrolysed at 1100°C. This material showed a very high conductivity of up to 107.6 S/m. Furthermore, Bajwa et al. [72] described the use of biochar for the production of a composite blend based on high-density poly(ethylene), poly(lactic acid) and wood flour with superior thermal stability.
The other largely used polyolefins is poly(propylene). Poly(propylene) is widely applied for the realisation of biochar-based composites due its workability. The main application of poly(propylene)-related composites is in the automotive sector. Tadele et al. [73] published an interesting comparative study on life cycle assessment of biochar used in automotive, showing the feasibility of its use. Das et al. [74] reached the same conclusions about the economic feasibility of the use of biochar instead of traditional carbonaceous fillers. The authors showed the appreciable cost reduction of a biochar-containing composites achieving the same properties of carbon black-based ones due to the sensible reduction of compatibilizer down to a maximum of 3 wt.%. The affordability of the cost of biochar was the core of the research proposed by Behazin et al. [75]. In this study, a pyrolysed perennial cane was used as filler of a polymer blend based on poly(propylene)/poly(octene-ethylene). The produced composite contained a filler loading ranging from 10 to 20 wt.% and showed the very strong interactions between polymer matrix and biochar particles. The most detailed and comprehensive set of studies about poly(propylene) and biochar interactions was conducted by Bhattacharyya research group and his co-workers as attested by many papers [76, 77, 78]. During this pluri-annual research, the authors investigated the kind and magnitude of interactions between filler and poly(propylene). They conclude that the addition of several types of biochars lead to a general improvement of the mechanical and thermal properties of related poly(propylene) composites together with the induction of flame retardancy properties. Additionally, Elnour et al. [79] studied the relationship between biochar properties and related poly(propylene) composites showing an increment of stiffness together with unaffected tensile strength. In the same period, Poulose et al. [80] mixed date palm-derived biochar with poly(propylene) showing the negligible effect of biochar on the storage modulus in a range of concentration of up to 15 wt.%. Poly(ethylene) and poly(propylene) are not the only polyolefins used for the production of carbon-based composites. Other largely used polyolefin matrices were poly(vinyl alcohol) and its derivatives [81, 82] and poly(acrylonitrile) [83]. Both of those two polymeric hosts are used for the realisation of piezo sensors due to their elastic properties.
Furthermore, polyesters were used for the realisation of carbon-based reinforced materials. As an example, polyamides were impregnated with biochar as described by Ogunsona et al. [84]. The authors mixed nylon 6 with the biochar produced from the pyrolysis of Miscanthus canes. The biochar used was produced using a process temperature ranging from 500–900°C. The different temperatures used affected the output of the composites with a beneficial effect on only the high-temperature-treated biochar and a detrimental effect on the others. In 2019, Sheng et al. [85] modified bamboo biochar through the addition of silyl groups on the particle surface for the production of poly(lactic acid) composites. Surface functionalization showing an appreciable enhancement of maximum elongation of up to 93% was compared with neat polymer matrix.
Recently, biochar was used for the realisation of biopolymer composites based on polysaccharides such as cellulose [86], starch [87] or gluten [88] under the vision of blue and green economy for a total bio- and sustainable productive line.
4. Conclusions
In this chapter, we provided overview of the most recent applications of biochar in the field of polymer composite production with a focus on more useful and unusual ones. We also described in detail the possibility of using biochars as a sound replacement for traditional fillers in both thermoset and thermoplastic composite materials. The researches herein described the feasibility of biochar used in different industrial sectors as a solid alternative to traditional and nanostructured materials. The adaptive nature of biochar presents a very strong point of advantage for spreading its use across the field of materials science.
\n',keywords:"biochar, composites, sustainable production, carbon materials",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71582.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71582.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71582",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71582",totalDownloads:219,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 30th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 2nd 2020",datePrePublished:"March 28th 2020",datePublished:"February 3rd 2021",dateFinished:"March 28th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The global market of carbon-reinforced plastic represents one of the largest economic platforms. This sector is dominated by carbon black (CB) produced from traditional oil industry. Recently, high technological fillers such as carbon fibres or nanostructured carbon (i.e. carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphene oxide) fillers have tried to exploit their potential but without economic success. So, in this chapter we are going to analyse the use of an unconventional carbon filler called biochar. Biochar is the solid residue of pyrolysis and can be a solid and sustainable replacement for traditional and expensive fillers. In this chapter, we will provide overview of the last advancement in the use of biochar as filler for the production of reinforced plastics.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71582",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71582",signatures:"Mattia Bartoli, Mauro Giorcelli, Pravin Jagdale and Massimo Rovere",book:{id:"10045",title:"Fillers",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Fillers",slug:"fillers",publishedDate:"February 3rd 2021",bookSignature:"Emmanuel Flores Huicochea",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10045.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206705",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores Huicochea",slug:"emmanuel-flores-huicochea",fullName:"Emmanuel Flores Huicochea"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"39628",title:"Dr.",name:"Mauro",middleName:null,surname:"Giorcelli",fullName:"Mauro Giorcelli",slug:"mauro-giorcelli",email:"mauro.giorcelli@polito.it",position:null,institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Turin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",email:"larsawes@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Turin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"319032",title:"Dr.",name:"Pravin",middleName:null,surname:"Jagdale",fullName:"Pravin Jagdale",slug:"pravin-jagdale",email:"pravin.jagdale@iit.it",position:null,institution:{name:"Italian Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"319033",title:"Dr.",name:"Massimo",middleName:null,surname:"Rovere",fullName:"Massimo Rovere",slug:"massimo-rovere",email:"massimo.rovere@polito.it",position:null,institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Turin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Biochar: production ways",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Biochar-based reinforced plastics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Burchell TD. Carbon Materials for Advanced Technologies. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier; 1999'},{id:"B2",body:'Holmes M. Global carbon fibre market remains on upward trend. Reinforced Plastics. 2014;58:38-45'},{id:"B3",body:'I.C.B. Association. What Is Carbon Black?; 2019. Availabe online: http://www.carbon-black.org/ [Accessed: 17 December 2019]'},{id:"B4",body:'Endo M. Carbon nanotube research: Past and future. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics. 2012;51:040001'},{id:"B5",body:'Singh V, Joung D, Zhai L, Das S, Khondaker SI, Seal S. Graphene based materials: Past, present and future. Progress in Materials Science. 2011;56:1178-1271'},{id:"B6",body:'Segal M. Selling graphene by the ton. 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Mechanical property analysis of biochar derived from cashew nut shell waste reinforced polymer matrix. Materials Research Express. 2020;6:125349'},{id:"B71",body:'Li S, Huang A, Chen Y-J, Li D, Turng L-S. Highly filled biochar/ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene/linear low density polyethylene composites for high-performance electromagnetic interference shielding. Composites Part B: Engineering. 2018;153:277-284'},{id:"B72",body:'Bajwa DS, Adhikari S, Shojaeiarani J, Bajwa SG, Pandey P, Shanmugam SR. Characterization of bio-carbon and ligno-cellulosic fiber reinforced bio-composites with compatibilizer. Construction and Building Materials. 2019;204:193-202'},{id:"B73",body:'Tadele D, Roy P, Defersha F, Misra M, Mohanty AK. A comparative life-cycle assessment of talc-and biochar-reinforced composites for lightweight automotive parts. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy. 2020:1-11'},{id:"B74",body:'Das O, Bhattacharyya D, Sarmah AK. 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Journal of Cleaner Production. 2020;252:119898'},{id:"B87",body:'George J, Azad LB, Poulose AM, An Y, Sarmah AK. Nano-mechanical behaviour of biochar-starch polymer composite: Investigation through advanced dynamic atomic force microscopy. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 2019;124:105486'},{id:"B88",body:'Das O, Hedenqvist MS, Johansson E, Olsson RT, Loho TA, Capezza AJ, et al. An all-gluten biocomposite: Comparisons with carbon black and pine char composites. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 2019;120:42-48'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mattia Bartoli",address:"mattia.bartoli@polito.it",affiliation:'
Department of Applied Science and Technology, Polytechnic of Turin, Torino, Italy
Department of Applied Science and Technology, Polytechnic of Turin, Torino, Italy
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