Students’ demand to develop leadership competences.
\r\n\tCongenital hearing loss means hearing loss that is present at birth. I have managed children with hearing loss for many years, and the most touching thing is the light that blooms on the face while the hearing-impaired child heard his mother's voice at first time. The scene of "happy tears" impressed me so much. To hear the voice that has not been heard is so pleasant, as if this ordinary listening experience is a supreme listening enjoyment.
\r\n\r\n\tAge-related hearing loss means a progressive loss of ability to hear high frequencies with aging, also known as presbycusis. Among them are the influence of internal and external factors such as genes, drugs and noise exposure. The studies pointed out that the brain stimulation of the hearing-impaired person is greatly reduced compared with subjects with normal hearing. The connection of auditory cortex and other brain areas has declined a lot, which is probably one of the important causes of dementia or even depression in the elderly.
\r\n\r\n\tNoise-induced hearing loss is hearing impairment resulting from exposure to loud sound. There is actually continuous and endless noise in many workplaces, which may cause chronic and cumulative damage. Some young people often work hard but easily neglect to protect themselves. In addition, in recent years, entertainment noise (such as nightclubs, concerts, and personal listening devices) has caused hearing impairment in young people. These should be avoidable and preventable.
\r\n\r\n\tHearing Science is the study of impaired auditory perception, the technologies and other rehabilitation strategies for persons with hearing loss. Public health has been defined as "the science and art of preventing disease", improving quality of life through organized efforts. To avoid the “epidemic” of hearing loss, it is necessary to promote early screening, use hearing protection, and change public attitudes toward noise.
\r\n\r\n\tBased on these concepts, the book incorporates updated developments as well as future perspectives in the ever-expanding field of hearing loss. Besides, it is also a great reference for audiologists, otolaryngologists, neurologists, specialists in public health, basic and clinical researchers.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-678-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-677-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-679-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4b7dbb02ba00e7412422cd5dbffa029",bookSignature:"Dr. Tang-Chuan Wang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10529.jpg",keywords:"Hidden Hearing Loss, Plasticity, Electrophysiology, Otoacoustic Emission, Newborn Hearing Screening, Genetics, Aging, Hearing Aids, Noise Exposure, Occupational Hearing Loss, Epidemiology, Prevention",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 1st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 30th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 18th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 19th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Tang-Chuan Wang is an excellent otolaryngologist-head and neck surgeon in Taiwan; a research scholar of Harvard Medical School and University of Iowa Hospitals. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"52362",title:"Development of Leadership Competencies During Studies at an Institution of Higher Education: Students’ Opinion",doi:"10.5772/65269",slug:"development-of-leadership-competencies-during-studies-at-an-institution-of-higher-education-students",body:'\nIn recent decade, in scientific literature, the significance of the leadership for efficiency and progress of different organizations and all society has been especially emphasized [1, 2]. For a long time, decent results and success were related to the efficient leadership of the high‐level managers [3–5]. However, the idea of parallel (or shared) leadership which emerged under the influence of cognitive and social psychology (firstly, in studies of business and politics leadership, but later applied also in health sciences, public administration, education, etc.), which emphasizes the leadership as a process in which every person in an organization as a leader and formal managers increases work quality and improves results of an organization all together by mutual work [6], has revealed the significance of every person as a leader. In the parallel leadership process, responsibility is shared in two ways: managers are responsible for strategic leadership, whereas other persons who take non‐formal leadership role take responsibility for the leadership of organizational process and activity [6]. This idea about leadership involves a shared responsibility for creating a better world in which to live and work which manifests in a passion to engage others in bringing about purposeful change [7].
\nYet in 1991, it was said that if society wants more professionals to assume the role of a leader, the systematic approach to this matter is needed and arguments that future professionals has to begin develop their leadership competences, while they are students at the institutions of higher education, i.e., universities and colleges [8].
\nHigher education plays a particularly large role in creating and shaping the quality of leadership in today\'s society, and the leadership is one of the most crucial results in higher education [9]. It has been determined by scientific researches that each person has the leadership potential and students not only may enhance, but actually enhance their leadership competences during the studying at the university or college [10, 11]. When leadership abilities improve, the social activeness of young people increases, energetic and positive character traits develop, and the participation in academic activity as well as in the activity of student organizations increases [12–14].
\nIt has been noticed that in recent years, more and more attention has been paid for the issue concerning how students are trained for leadership; at the same time, it has been searched for most effective methods and activities [15–21].
\nHowever, in research works the lack of students’ own opinion on the development of leadership competencies has been felt, i.e., there is the lack of data on how students themselves feel the need to develop leadership competencies at higher school, to what extent this demand has been realized and how students prefer to develop their leadership competences [22–24].
\nAlthough there are studies exploring leadership development at the universities and colleges done, most often they explore either students who study nature sciences [19, 25], students of social sciences, or students of humanities. And that might be the reason hindering effective implementation of a leadership development policy at the contemporary universities and colleges. Many higher education institutions across the Europe are multidisciplinary. Faculties of Social sciences, Humanities, Mathematics and STEM, Computer sciences, Maritime, etc., are held there. And the vision for students’ leadership development is one for all. In order to create integrated vision for effective development of leadership competences that would be consistent with the needs of students from different faculties, systematic study is needed. The display of students’ needs and preferences on leadership development is important because it could help to display factors for the improvement of an object researched as well as create possibilities to purposefully act, fulfill expedient intervention into the processes of development of leadership competencies in order to seek to improve them, and achieve better results in development of students’ leadership competencies.
\nDue to practical relevance, taking into account the lack of scientific research, the issue of students’ opinion about development of leadership competencies during studies at an institution of higher education has been chosen for this study.
\nThe aim of this study is to reveal students’ opinion about developing leadership competences during the studies at an institution of higher education.
\nWell‐trained professionals need disciplinary knowledge and skills, but also competencies that prepare them to lead in an increasingly complex world [25], competences that prepare them to be influential in their professions and in the society, and competences that prepare them to create added value of the professional activities. These are the leadership competences.
\nActually, students when entering universities and colleges have a narrow view of leadership [25]. Usually, they think that leadership is based on the formal organizational position and formal authority. But as they deepen their professional competences during the study years, they can get wider view of what leadership is and how it works as well and of course realize that formal authority is not the only one the key to successful leadership. Ability to influence others is not less important. Scientifically trained people are called to lead in some points of their lives—in professional and/or social lives—and should be prepared to do that [25].
\nIt needs to be taken into an account that not only scientists argue the importance of development of students’ leadership competences. This approach is shared by some of the higher education institutions as well. For example, some universities recognize the importance of leadership, include leadership development to the objectives of the institution, encourage students to participate in the leadership, and with it encourage the growth of the society and its welfare [26, 27]. Recently, the leadership training in the study programs of higher schools as well as in non‐formal activities has become a tendency and is recognized as substantial regardless of what speciality students are going to acquire [28, 29].
\nThough person who leads in a professional or social life with or without formal leadership title should develop and strengthen his or her leadership competences continuously, there is one aspect why it is so important during the years at the higher school. According to Erik Erikson and his theory of psychosocial development stages, most of the students at the university are in their late adolescence—early adulthood age stage. In each stage, the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. The challenge of late adolescence—early adulthood age stage—is to create own identity. Thus, an institution of higher education has the potential to help young person discover and foster not only his or her professional, but leader\'s identity as well.
\nRecently, the leadership training in the study programs of higher schools as well as in non‐formal activities has become a tendency and is recognized as substantial regardless of what profession students are going to acquire [28, 29]. Thus, contemporary higher schools face the problem of how to help students to acquire and develop their leadership competencies during the study at an institution.
\nAfter the importance of leadership was emphasized, many higher schools included special leadership study subject to their educational curricula. But leadership researchers say that students’ leadership skills and competences have not changed much due to that. It is mainly explained by the large gap between leadership theory and practice, i.e., students who get theoretical knowledge of leadership do not know how to apply this knowledge in practice [30, 31]. It is also denoted that the training of leadership competencies is a complex process since it works with the development and perfection of a personality [31]. Convictions and experiences of students have strong influence on the quality of this process [32, 33], whereas each student has frequently an individual understanding of the leadership as well as different competencies and abilities necessary for the expression of leadership [31]. It is problematic to find the strategy that would satisfy the needs and abilities of all students.
\nLeadership researchers notice that there is a lack of empirical research for the development of leadership competences at higher schools [22, 34]. Still, some researches find the tendency of growth of that kind of researches and studies. For example, J.P. Dugan and S.R. Komives revealed that the main tendencies and trends of leadership development at the higher school were formed over the past 15 years. This formation was influenced by the many reasons, for instance, leadership theories change from the traits model to relations‐based model, the emphasizing of team‐work principles, ideas of voluntary activities, establishing of socially active communities, professionalization of leadership trainers and educators, dissemination of leadership ideas, etc. [22].
\nTree strategies for effective development of the leadership competences at the higher school can be listed after review of many studies on this topic was done:\n
involvement in various activities for the development of the leadership competencies into the curricula;
the promotion in practical activities; and
non‐formal training of the leadership competencies.
There are various ideas on how the activities training the leadership competencies could be involved into formal education programs. For instance, some authors argue that the leadership study subject or program is necessary at higher school [19, 22, 34, 35]. This is argued by the idea that students firstly have to get familiar with the theory of leadership and also understand that leadership can be developed, educated, and trained. It is considered that leadership study subject could provide basic ideas about leadership and its theories, and also help students understand what leadership is needed for, what moral values leader should follow, and what skills need to be developed for effective leadership. It is noted that such study subject should be taught during the first study years.
\nBut some authors replicate this opinion and argue that leadership cannot be developed with only one study subject. Corresponding activities should be involved into other study subjects as well [19, 22, 35]. Students need to be engaged in activities integrated into curricula that promote not only the development of leadership competences but—and that is very important—leader\'s behavior has to be trained [25]. The debate on social and cultural issues could contribute to the development of some of the leadership competencies in higher school. Discussions on various topics could help students to develop communication skills and develop a mind mapping. Debates also help to learn reason, the ideas, justify different opinions, evaluate the arguments, and seek a compromise [22, 34, 36]. It has to be mentioned that the activities have to be integrated in a way that directly relates to the practice [25].
\nSimilarly, the importance of application of active teaching methods is emphasized [36–39]. It is quite effective when active teaching methods are applied for teamwork. Teamwork should be organized in the way that a greater number of students would have an opportunity to become a team leader in different activities for different tasks and would have an opportunity to assess the importance of leadership and responsibility [22, 34].
\nAnother leadership development strategy is practical actions. These can be practical study activities during the lectures, study practice (practical work experience), internships, volunteer work in the communities, etc. Practical activities are important, because students get the opportunity to be leaders in action. It is based on the statement that students develop leadership by acting in it. Practical activities help students to experience taking the responsibility, to learn various principles of building the team and motivate team members to perform the tasks, to learn building the vision and strategy, trying different styles of leadership in action, and to compare leading in different situations and contexts. In this way, students develop their social and organizational skills, learn planning, and realize the importance of leader\'s moral values and the importance of teamwork [19, 22, 34, 35, 39]. Practical activities help students to bring theoretical professional knowledge to the real life and apply them purposefully in practical activities [40]. Therefore, it is important to ensure the interaction of theoretical and practical students’ training because that is the basis of future professional\'s competencies.
\nIn the debates about the practical activities, it is proposed to involve mentors in developing of leadership competences of students. In our case, older students, professors, supervisors, and other persons who have greater experience could take the mentor\'s role. Researches reveal that mentors influence students’ leadership positively. Mentors motivate student to get involve into academic, sport, and artistic activities more active. So students get the opportunity to develop new skills, learn new behavior, and understand the specific of the chosen profession [22, 35, 39, 41].
\nIt is indicated that leadership competences can be developed effectively not only by involving activities into formal education process, but also when students get involved into non‐formal education activities. Participation in students’ and youth organizations helps students to understand the importance and meaning of working in a team. It is suggested to choose the organizations according to student\'s own preferences and interests; learn its vision and goals; try to combine own ambitions with organization\'s objectives; and also develop skills in teamwork [19, 22]. And formal leaders of student and youth organizations more frequently have stronger leadership abilities and more often have the features characteristic of leaders [22].
\nAnd there is one more idea of non‐formal leadership development founded and valued by the researchers. Cooperation between higher and high schools makes strong framework for students’ leadership. Person\'s experience from the high school plays important role when he or she comes to university or college. If person understands leadership nature and importance as early as possible in the high school, the development of his or her leadership competencies is much more efficient. That is why it is proposed to higher schools to build cooperation with the high schools, run joint projects and organize seminars and conferences [22, 34].
\nRegardless of what ideas of leadership development are raised, it is necessary to build such an education environment that would be favorable for effective students’ leadership development. This includes the organization of the study process, the active involvement of students, as well as the professionalism of teachers. If teachers are leaders, if they know leadership theory and practice and are able to motivate, students have much better learning outcomes and stronger leadership competencies as well. It is also important for students to feel safe in a moral way and be not afraid to express their points of view. This makes positive effect for the development of their leadership opinion [19, 22, 34]. Besides, (self)‐evaluation of the leadership competencies of students is significant [22, 34]. This could help to realize one\'s positive and negative features, systemize abilities and knowledge, and evaluate the lack of what knowledge and abilities is present.
\nAfter theoretical literature analysis and justification of the assumption that it is appropriate to start educate people for leadership yet in a higher education institution, it was decided to carry out an empirical research and to determine the situation regarding the leadership development at the universities and colleges.
\nScientific problem of this research has been detailed by raising the following questions:\n
What is thea demand of students to develop leadership competencies and what is the realization of it while studying at higher school?
What are the most preferred ways for effective leadership development?
Mixed method is used for the research [42]. This means that both quantitative and qualitative data are used to reveal the scientific problem of the study. Priority neither to the quantitative nor qualitative data is given. It is believed that both kinds of data complement each other to give the better results.
\nQuantitative data are gathered via survey using questionnaires based on the model presented below in Figure 1.
\nResearch model on demand of development of leadership competencies and its realization at higher school.
Random sample of Lithuanian higher education institution was done, and senior undergraduate students were invited to participate in the survey. Eight hundred and fifty‐seven questionnaires were filled‐in by students who are studying nature sciences, social sciences, and humanities and sent back to the researcher.
\nThe demand of development of leadership competencies at higher school was evaluated by analyzing percentage distribution of the answers; differences of demand expression were evaluated by using Friedman\'s criterion, whereas differences of demand expression according to sex, type of higher school, scientific field, and formal leadership position demand were evaluated using Mann‐Whitney test. The realization of demand to develop leadership competencies was analyzed by evaluating percentage distribution of answers, and differences of respondents’ demands according to their sex, higher school type, scientific field, and intention to occupy leading work positions in the future were evaluated by using Chi‐square test and Mann‐Whitney test.
\nQualitative data collection is intended to gather information about activities preferred for effective leadership development. Twenty students participated in two sessions of focus group interviews to gather qualitative data. Additionally, 53 students sent their feedback essays and explained their own experience about leadership development at the university/college. Content analysis was used when analyzing and interpreting the data.
\nWhen analyzing students’ responses (see Table 1), it is clear that students want to develop their leadership competencies. Majority of students marked that they want higher school to help them learn how to be a leader. Major part of the respondents expressed the willingness to have a special study subject devoted to development of leadership competences and students would like that each study subject would help them in leadership development as well. Only minor part of students thinks that the education of leadership competencies is their own concern and higher school should not care about it.
\n\nDemand expression | \nMin | \nMax | \nSD | \nEvaluation of demand expression (%) | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Absent | \nUnclear | \nPresent | \n|||||
Willingness that higher school would help to learn how to be a leader | \n5.27 | \n1 | \n6 | \n0.674 | \n7.30 | \n29.30 | \n63.40 | \n
Willingness to have a separate study subject devoted to development of leadership competencies | \n5.36 | \n1 | \n6 | \n0.566 | \n9.30 | \n41.60 | \n49.10 | \n
Willingness that each study subject would help to develop leadership competencies | \n4.93 | \n1 | \n6 | \n0.964 | \n3.30 | \n44.80 | \n5180 | \n
Development of leadership competencies is a personal concern of each person; accordingly, higher school should not care about that | \n2.57 | \n1 | \n6 | \n1.458 | \n44.00 | \n38.90 | \n17.20 | \n
Students’ demand to develop leadership competences.
After the comparison of responses given by females and males students, it has emerged that their demand to develop the leadership competencies at higher school partly differs (see Table 2). Females (comparing with males) have stronger willingness that higher school would help them to develop the leadership competencies, whereas males more often think that the development of leadership competencies is their own concern and higher school should not really care about it. Females as well as males’ willingness to have a separate special study subject devoted to the education of leadership competencies and to develop the leadership competencies through other study subjects is similar.
\n\n\n\nThe demand to develop the leadership competencies of students from different scientific fields does not differ (see Table 2). It does not really matters if young person study mathematics, chemistry, IT, social sciences, or humanities; most of the respondents expressed the willingness that higher school would help them to learn how to be a leader. They would like to learn leadership from the leadership study subject and also would like every study subject to help them to develop leadership competencies.
\nAlthough demand to develop the leadership competencies at higher school is similar, both of those students who would like to occupy leading (formal) work positions in the future and of those who would not like, still those students who have the formal leadership demand express stronger demand to have a separate study subject at higher school devoted specially for this aim (see Table 2). However, students who do not have the formal leadership demand would like more to develop the leadership competencies while studying each subject.
\nDemands | \nSex | \nScientific field | \nFormal leadership demand | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Other indicators | \nAverage of ranks | \nOther indicators | \nAverage of ranks | \nOther indicators | \nAverage of ranks | \n||||
Females | \nMales | \nNature sciences | \nSocial sciences and Humanities | \nWould like to occupy leading work positions | \nWould not like to occupy leading positions | \n||||
Willingness that higher school would help to learn how to be a leader | \n U = 7859 z = −2.55 p = 0.011 r = 0.14 | \n172.80 | \n142.79 | \nU = 10,213 z = −0.45 p = 0.652 r = −0.02 | \n164.69 | \n169.74 | \n U = 5397 z = −1.58 p = 0.112 r = −0.09 | \n168.06 | \n145.16 | \n
Willingness to have a separate studies subject devoted to education of leadership competencies | \n U = 8625 z = −1.19 p = 0.232 r = −0.06 | \n163.30 | \n177.84 | \n U = 10,147 z = −0.58 p = 0.557 r = −0.03 | \n168.25 | \n166.49 | \n U = 5026 z = −0.85 p = 0.024 r = −0.05 | \n169.93 | \n136.73 | \n
Willingness that studying of each subject would help to educate leadership competencies | \n U = 8109 z = −1.87 p = 0.061 r = −0.10 | \n170.45 | \n148.08 | \n U = 8386 z = −2.92 p = 0.503 r = −0.16 | \n182.87 | \n189.99 | \n U = 4422 z = −3.53 p = 0.001 r = −0.20 | \n158.07 | \n205.99 | \n
Education of leadership competencies is a personal concern of each individual; that\'s why higher school should not care about it. | \n U = 7186 z = −3.19 p = 0.001 r = −0.17 | \n157.75 | \n197.55 | \nU = 8825 z = −2.33 p = 0.089 r = −0.13 | \n173.62 | \n169.12 | \nU = 5295 z = −1.52 p = 0.084 r = −0.08 | \n168.98 | \n142.85 | \n
Students’ demand to develop leadership competences.
Students’ demand to develop the leadership competencies at higher school is realized partially. It is possible to judge as 58.5% of respondents signified that they acquired the leadership competencies during studies at higher school. Differences according to sex and type of higher school are not statistically significant (see Table 3). However, statistically significant difference was estimated in one case: those students, who would like to be formal leaders, comparing with those who do not endeavor to reach it, feel that they have developed leadership competencies more at higher school.
\n\n\nWhile evaluating the leadership competencies acquired during studies at higher school, majority of respondents (75.2%) evaluated them as ‘good’ or ‘rather good’. In this case, none of differences according to sex and the scientific field have not been determined. However, it has emerged that those students who would like to occupy formal leading work positions, in comparison with those who would not, evaluate better the leadership competencies acquired at higher school.
\nRespondent characteristics | \nRespondent groups | \nYes (%) | \nNo (%) | \nχ2 | \ndf | \np | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | \nFemales | \n59.98 | \n40.02 | \n0.157 | \n1 | \n0.695 | \n
Males | \n58.58 | \n41.42 | \n||||
Scientific field | \nNature sciences | \n63.43 | \n36.57 | \n0.577 | \n1 | \n0.456 | \n
Social sciences and Humanities | \n57.64 | \n42.36 | \n||||
Formal leadership demand | \nWould like to be leaders in future | \n61.52 | \n38.48 | \n3.754 | \n1 | \n0.047 | \n
Would not like to be leaders in future | \n47.35 | \n52.65 | \n
Acquisition of leadership competencies at higher school.
However, only one sixth (14.8%) of respondent had a special subject on leadership studies. Students from social sciences and humanities more often stated that they studied this subject (χ2 = 11,823; df = 1, p = 0.001). Besides this special studies subject, in respondents’ opinion, subjects such as psychology, organizational behavior, human resources, and organization management helped to develop their leadership competencies.
\nQualitative research results lead to the insights that the development of leadership competencies receives quite attention in the study programs of higher education institutions of Lithuania. The respondents’ replies allow discerning a systematic leadership competencies development model through various activities: participating in the lectures delivered by the university teachers and experts practitioners, workshops/seminars, study practice, students’ scientific conferences, university projects, outings to various institutions, activities of students’ organizations, reading study‐related literature, taking individual consultations with teachers, individually performing practical tasks, sharing learning experience with other students, and performing study‐related tasks collaboratively.
\nBut, according to the research participants, the special leadership subject is still rare in Lithuania. Still, students would like to have such a subject. This opinion was reasoned by claiming that students would like to get acquainted with leadership theory as well as realize how leadership could be developed. Students would like leadership study subject to provide fundamental knowledge about leadership theory and practice, and knowledge concerning what leadership is necessary for, what value should leaders’ activities be based on, what leadership styles are, and how they enable to act in one or another situation. Students also expressed willingness to learn leader\'s behavior aspects. They would like to learn the effective speaking, negotiating professionally, and not only learn how to manage stress, but how leader can help others (i.e., team members and followers) to manage stress in difficult situations.
\nThe research helped to identify a unique role of practice in developing leadership competencies—namely this activity of studies was evaluated by the respondents as the most helpful activity in developing various leadership competencies during studies. It turned out that participation in the projects implemented at the university added the least to the development of leadership competencies. However, this is possibly due to the fact that students are simply too little engaged in such activities.
\nThe research also revealed that different activities during studies have a different impact on the development of separate leadership competencies. The communication and teamwork competencies are developed in various activities the most, while the vision/goal setting competencies are developed the least.
\nBesides the different activities, students stressed the importance of teachers’ professionalism. The participants of the research said that they see teacher as a model of the profession. Teachers’ knowledge, passion, and leadership are transmitted to students.
\n1. The issue of development of students’ leadership competences at the higher school started a couple of decades before. But there are only few years when it is analyzed actively. Both researchers and the institutions of higher education suggest agree on necessity of development of students’ leadership competences and support such a learning and training by using strategies of formal and non‐formal education.
\nThough the strategies of development of the leadership competencies at different higher schools are basically similar and none of the ideas of training of the leadership competencies is considered as superior than others, integrated strategy is seen as the most effective way for leadership development.
\n2. Although more than half of students, who participated in the research, stated that they acquired the leadership competencies at higher school, there are more of those who would like to acquire such competencies. Only a little part of students (17.2%) thinks that the education of leadership competencies is their own concern and, consequently, higher school should not care about it. The rest of students more or less state that they would like higher school help them to develop the leadership competencies.
\nComparing answers of students from universities and colleges, it has emerged that their demand to educate the leadership competencies differs partially. College students expect support from higher schools and wish that each subject studies would help them to educate the leadership competencies. However, the demand realization of the education of leadership competencies in both student groups statistically does not differ significantly.
\nResearch results helped to identify the students’ group that separates from other by its demand to educate the leadership competencies and realization of this demand; these are students who in future would like to occupy leading work positions. Such students feel themselves as being acquired the leadership competencies at higher school and evaluate them better. Consequently, it is possible to consider that their demand to develop the leadership competencies is more realized than of those students who in future are not planning to occupy leading work position. However, these students also have stronger demand to have a special study subject devoted to the leadership competencies at higher school.
\nThe conclusions of exploratory research provide useful information about the situation concerning development of leadership competencies at contemporary Lithuanian higher education. As (1) Lithuania is modern country, facing the same problems and challenges as other modern countries do, and (2) the research had a big sample and was fulfilled nationwide, the results and insights of this research are significant and relevant not only in Lithuania, but can be taken into an account in other modern countries as well.
\n3. The idea of integrated strategy for effective leadership development at the institutions of higher education has been reasoned in the theoretical part of this study, and students’ opinion about it was revealed together with the evaluation of the importance of various activities and usefulness of tasks for development of leadership competencies.
\nThe research results have revealed the special significance of practical activities and the importance of it to the development of leadership competencies.
\nDue to the insights occurred from the research results, it becomes possible to form a few recommendations for the higher education institutions:\n
According to contemporary and modern study program forming principles oriented to the education and development of competencies, it is recommended to prepare and offer students special subjects of leadership studies. The subjects should provide fundamental theoretical knowledge about leadership theory;
After the theoretical and empirical reasoning of the significance of applying the integrated strategy for effective leadership development, it is recommended to include various activities for leadership development to the other study subjects as well;
After research results revealed the importance of teachers’ professionalism and teachers’ leadership competencies, it is recommended to the institutions of higher education pay much attention to the qualification and professionalism of teachers;
After the research has revealed the significance of practical activities for the development of leadership competencies, it is necessary to add different practical activities for the study process.
Riparian ecosystems are diverse, dynamic and complex habitats. They are the interface between terrestrial and aquatic systems, encompassing different environmental gradients, communities and ecological processes [1]. Riparian vegetation has ecological functions of immense biological importance within these ecosystems, since it provides habitat and food for a wide variety of terrestrial organisms, as well as maintains its stability, by providing a buffer zone that filters sediments, controls nutrients and stabilizes river banks [2], increasing the biological diversity and productivity of their aquatic communities. In a broad context, the term riparian refers to the biotic communities and the environment adjacent to streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, and some wetlands [3]. Recently, riparian vegetation has been defined as the complex of plant communities growing in the riparian zone that is, in the transitional region between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems [4].
Riparian vegetation is strongly affected by fluvial processes such as flooding and alluvial soil deposition forming a terrestrial flora that is distinctive in structure and function [2]. The plant diversity of riparian forests comprises a wide range of taxonomic groups and life forms with a variety of morphological, anatomical, physiological and reproductive adaptations which allows them to persist in these habitats [5]. It has been widely accepted that the main threat to the diversity and abundance of native flora of riparian ecosystems is related to anthropogenic activity [6]. This includes the conversion of natural lands into areas of varied anthropic use such as agricultural use, transformation into pastures, introduction of forest species and deforestation practices, among others [1, 7, 8]. This situation, coupled with climate change, has strongly reduced the number of native species in these ecosystems putting many of them at risk of extinction and it is predicted that the impact of climate change on the stressors of riparian communities will probably increase in the future [9].
In order to control the erosion of riparian vegetation, it is necessary to implement plans to promote the natural regeneration and restoration of disturbed areas [10]. This can be possible by knowing the plasticity of the species, that is, their ability to change their phenotype in response to variations in the environment [11]. From the ecological point of view, the plasticity can facilitate the adaptation of species that grow in riparian ecosystems [12], as it allows them to explore different habitats and expand their geographical distribution [13]. However, genetic adaptation is required for the persistence of these characters [14].
This chapter summarizes a wide range of literature regarding the main morphological and anatomical characteristics of vegetative organs, as well as dispersal mechanisms that allow riparian vegetation to adapt and survive in riparian ecosystems. The aim of it is to provide a deep and updated overview of these basic principles, which must be taken into account in order to undertake appropriate measures for the rehabilitation, adaptation and sustainability of riparian ecosystems.
Phenotypic plasticity has long been recognized as the property that allows species to face the heterogeneity of the environment, being of great importance from the adaptive point of view. Due to the fact that it can cause changes in attributes of ecological importance and in heterogeneous environments, species with greater phenotypic plasticity can form ecotypes [11] reducing their extinction risks. Likewise, modular plasticity is also important, since it can influence the activity of meristems and the morphological and anatomical characteristics of vegetative organs mainly stems and leaves more than of the whole plant [15].
Globally, natural and anthropogenic stressors cause multiple disturbances in all riparian environments affecting biological processes in riparian vegetation that reduces their resilience and genetic diversity [6] as summarized in Figure 1. One of the factors that most affects the development of riparian plants is being subject to dry soils during some time of the year and flooded soils during others. Another group of plants may be under stress from excessive water during great part of their life cycle because of permanent flooding. In both groups the sheets of water in the soil can cause severe hypoxia, and even anoxic conditions in the radical zone [16].
Main stressors, plant disturbances and processes affected in riparian vegetation.
Riparian plants can cope with the physical disturbances of floods through traits that allow the survival of individuals or that facilitate their rapid growth in the population [17]. The following two main strategies for the adaptation of plants to immersion have been recognized: an escape strategy and a waiting-quiescence one. The former involves the lengthening of shoots to restore the contact of leaves with the atmosphere which is beneficial when a flood is prolonged and superficial. The latter strategy is based on the conservation of energy to prolong survival during the submerging and allowing growth to resume after water backs off, which is beneficial in case of short duration floods and/or deep submersion [18].
The responses of plants to floods are morphoanatomical, physiological and biochemical. These traits vary among species due to their genetic characteristics the age of the plants and the duration and depth of the water sheet to which they are submitted. It has been suggested that morphoanatomical changes are likely involved with long-term acclimation [18].
Resistance strategies include flexibility of stems leaves and roots and the reduction of the size of the plant and brittle branches, among others. These strategies help plants face events that disturb their development [17, 19]. The appearance or modification of morphonatomical characters that enhance oxygen supply could be one of the causes of acclimation of a species under flood conditions [20]. Among the used strategies, the following stand out: the formation of adventitious roots, the development of aerenchyma in submerged roots and stems, the establishment of barriers to prevent the radial loss of oxygen in the roots, the formation of hypertrophic lenticels and cracked stems and the hypertrophy in the stem base [16, 17]. The morphological and anatomical adaptations in the root and shoot of riparian vegetation are summarized in Figure 2.
Main morphoanatomical adaptations in riparian vegetation.
Flooded soils are low in oxygen, due to reduced exchange rates with the atmosphere. Hypoxia in the radical tissues induces anaerobic respiration and increased consumption of stored carbohydrates [19]. Lack of energy affects growth, cell maintenance, reduced nutrient absorption and even root death [21].
The primary root system of plants subject to flooding is strongly affected by reduction of their biomass, as well as by that of the length and diameter of the roots. This is due to cellular damage at the membrane level. In some species, roots can turn black and die when flooded. In mature trees the root system can break down during prolonged soil flooding, so the production of new roots is an important process [22].
The riparian plants can avoid (or “resist”) the effects of water deficit by developing either deep roots that extend to the water table, or resistant traits that allow rapid recolonization [17].
Among the adaptation strategies in the radical system to hypoxic conditions we can mention:
The formation of adventitious roots, which is an adaptive mechanism of ecological importance in riparian plants, since it allows to replace roots that have died or have been affected due to waterlogging. It is necessary to distinguish among different types of adventitious roots, as it has been proven that their formation is regulated differently. The adventitious roots are separated into two large groups: the first one includes those potentially established in the embryo such as those of the monocotyledons, the nodal roots of some eudicotyledons and the stilt roots; the second group is composed of the roots whose formation is induced by a stressor (in this case flooding) which may or may not be nodal [23].
In some species the primordia of adventitious roots are formed during normal development, but they emerge when plants are under a sheet of water (e.g. Rumex palustris). However, it has been suggested that in others taxa submergence induces root development (e.g. Eucalyptus species). The moment of emergence of adventitious roots induced by floods is specific to each species [22, 24] and depends on factors such as the stage of development of the plant, water temperature, and the depth and duration of the flood [25].
Floods can promote the formation of roots from the hypocotyl, knots beneath the ground (crown), or above it (brace), as well as internodes. Adventitious roots facilitate gas flow, water transport, and nutrient absorption during and after floods ensuring plant survival [26]. Likewise, it has been pointed out that the formation of these roots in trees improves their internal aeration and promotes water absorption after the first floods as observed in a Mapire igapó [20].
The formation or increase in number of adventitious roots has been confirmed by various authors in different tropical riparian species, such as: Polygonum ferrugineum and P. stelligerum [27], Senna reticulata [28], Tabebuia rosea [29] and Triplaris gardneriana [30].
Another important adaptive trait of roots in riparian vegetation is the formation of abundant buttress roots and stilts [31]. Buttress roots are common in plants that grow on riverbanks and streams, as well as in trees that lack a deep root. They are closely related to the duration of the flood period and the dynamics of the habitat [32]. It has also been pointed out that buttresses roots are common in trees that develop on substrates where their anchorage is difficult, such as those with a thin layer of sediments (e.g. Byrsonima amazonica), while in areas with deep layers many stilt roots are formed, as occurs in Alchornea castaneifolia [31]. Buttress and arch roots are piles in sloping areas, providing stability. Its occurrence has been cited in Aquilaria malaccensis and Drypetes spp. [33].
In some riparian species pneumatophores are noticeable, which are specialized roots with negative geotropism that grow outside the water. These develop as ascending erect organs with lenticels along the surface and spongy tissue that allow the flow of oxygen and facilitates its diffusion throughout the plant. This type of roots has been observed in Pithecellobium latifolium and, experimentally, in some palms that grow at the headwaters of rivers and in swampy areas, for example, Euterpe and Mauritia [31].
Another root adaptation to flooding is the increase in its porosity generated by evenly distributed intercellular spaces, small lagoons or the formation of aeren-chyma in the cortex [23, 34]. This tissue constitutes a low-resistance internal pathway for the movement of gases among the different parts of the plants thus improving oxygen supply to the roots [35]. The presence of this tissue prevents anaerobiosis in the root system, making it an efficient mechanism that contributes to the general adaptation of tree species to long-term floods [36].
It has been indicated that roots of plants in mesic environments have a porosity (percentage of air spaces) of 2 to 7% of their volume, while in flooded areas this porosity can reach values close to 60% [37]. The formation of aerenchyma may be less important for the longitudinal flow of oxygen in adult trees because lagoons are destroyed [38]. In this case, ATP production in radical cells is achieved by reducing the number of cells that consume oxygen in the cortex [39].
Species that normally grow in the Amazon were classified according to the presence and development of gas exchange and mobilization system: the first group with roots lacking spaces; the second group with pronounced intercellular spaces in roots, but which are not modified with hypoxia treatments; the third group with intercellular spaces in roots, which are partially modified when plants are subject to flooding; and the last group in which species produce a large quantity of adventitious roots with well-developed aerenchyma [34].
In herbaceous species or in seedlings of different biotypes primary aerenchyma of diverse origin occurs. However, when secondary growth has occurred secondary aerenchyma is formed, mainly from the phellogen [35, 40].
The presence of constitutive aerenchyma, or that induced by hypoxia in roots and stems of riparian plants, has been verified in various studies. The first occur in Guazuma ulmifolia [41] and in three shrub species of Melastomataceae that inhabit areas with frequent flooding [42], and the last in Eucalyptus camaldulensis subsp. refulgens an Australian timber species which grows mainly on the river banks and their alluvial plains, but which can endure drought [22].
Likewise, in Rumex palustris, a species tolerant to flooding, has been indicated a greater development of the aerenchyma than in R. acetosa, the latter being an intolerant species to this condition [43]. In Tabebuia rosea seedlings, aeriferous parenchyma was evident in roots and stems, as well as in Handroanthus chrysotrichus stems in which aerenchymatous phellem was noticed [29].
The development of aeriferous parenchyma, lenticels and fissures or cracks allows the axial diffusion of gases especially oxygen between air space and the internal part of roots [34].
Deposition of hydrophobic compounds (suberin and lignin) can be found in the cortical region of the roots as barriers of thick-walled cells. Suberin deposits are able to prevent radial loss of oxygen from the root cortex to the rhizosphere [17, 34, 44]. Suberized walls are reported to diverse degrees, mainly in the exodermis of young roots of species typical of varzeas in Manaus, Brazil [39].
The hypoxic condition induced by floods promotes a greater diameter in roots due to a thicker cortex. Likewise, the area occupied by the stela is smaller which suggests that both features are variables to consider in the adaptability to waterlogging conditions [45]. However, this response may be the opposite, and a reduction in root diameter may occur [29, 46]. In Guazuma ulmifolia and Genipa americana, species with high plasticity adaptable to flooded soils, the reduction on these traits is associated with energy savings [41].
Previous considerations correspond mainly to the adaptations observed in root system of herbaceous plants and seedlings of tree species, which could be associated to the difficulty of working with underground systems in trees. It is important to further study the roots traits of adult individuals since it is not certain that those obtained from seedlings could be extrapolated [20, 34].
Initially, the importance of some biotypes in riparian vegetation should be highlighted. Trees and shrubs play an important role by blocking wind and stabilizing terrain. Herbs contribute to the stabilization of soil and are valuable tools for the rehabilitation of degraded riparian environments [47]. It is important to know the mechanisms that each species has to tolerate or adapt to the conditions of each particular habitat in order to have tools to choose useful species to reforest when necessary.
The impact of hypoxia on stem tissues has not been widely studied. It was also pointed out that it occurs particularly at the meristem level, especially when flood water is muddy and makes it difficult for light to pass through [21].
Few details have been reported regarding the adaptive importance of rhizomes and stolons in plants from riparian environments. However, it is known that amphibian species can develop rhizomatous and stoloniferous stems with cortex made up of aerenchyma, which constitutes an adaptive trait. These types of stem have been observed in amphibian species such as Cynodon dactylon and Paspalum distinum [48].
Likewise, the shrubby species Ficus squamosa is able to grow stolon-like stems when it grows on banks of the Ping River in Thailand [49]. The development of these types of stems constitutes an adaptive advantage not only because the presence of aerenchyma allows them to stay afloat, but also because they constitute diaspores of propagation of the species since these fragments can be part of a new individual [48].
Stem nodulation has been observed in several species of legumes that inhabit flooded, or likely to flood places. This phenomenon is an adaptation which allows legumes to fix nitrogen in these environments. Plant species that exhibit stem nodulation are typically tropical or subtropical and grow in wetlands, rivers or lake margins, and belong to Aeschynomene, Sesbania, Neptunia and Discolobium genera [50]. Along with the formation of nodules, some species develop a large number of parenchymal cells, which facilitates the entry of sufficient oxygen for different metabolic functions [51].
Stems do not have selective barriers (such as the exodermis and endodermis) but they can develop a cuticle, which due to its hydrophobic characteristics can perform the same function as the previously mentioned tissues [40]. However, it is possible that in riparian plants with stolons and rhizomes those tissues differ. Nonetheless, this assumption must be verified through further morphoanatomical studies.
Species adapted to prolonged flooding avoid anoxia by spreading out of the water [17]. The lengthening of seedlings shoots or epicormic is a response to flooding of various plant species. It ensures the restoration of contact with the atmosphere in order to maintain internal aeration [52]. This lengthening occurs mainly in internodes and petioles, which causes leaves to approach the surface achieving better lighting conditions. Rumex palustris [53] and Chloris gayana benefit from this strategy, which is considered an escape during prolonged periods of flooding [54].
Sometimes fissures or cracks are visible in the basal part of young stems of grasses and trees, which are the result of pressure exerted by the development of cells of the aerenchymatous phellem on the epidermis and on some other external cortical layer until it is broken exposing the internal tissue to the atmosphere [55]. In Sesbania javanica [56], Tabebuia rosea and Myracrodruon urundeuva [29], cracks were observed on the surface of the seedling stems, growing in flooded soils.
Many flood-tolerant riparian species develop hypertrophic lenticels on stems which penetrate the phellogen layer and allow gas exchange. Hypertrophic lenticels facilitate the absorption of oxygen by the plant, but they are also supposed to contribute to the release of carbon dioxide and volatile compounds, such as acetaldehyde and ethanol [57]. These structures were observed in the riparian species Schinus terebinthifolius, in which they appear as soft whitish masses in the basal portion of the stems [58]. They are also a response to flood in Sesbania javanica [52], Tabebuia avellanedae, a riparian species of the Paraná River-Brazil [59], and in Guazuma ulmifolia [41]. In Genipa americana they are still present under non-stressful conditions, thus they are considered constitutive. However, waterlogging stress causes an increase in its frequency and size [41].
Some species of riparian zones have characteristics in their woods that allow them to adapt to watercourses. Therefore, they constitute an alternative in the stabilization and protection of river slopes. Knowledge of the internal structure of wood is essential to understand its behavior in these habitats, particularly when it comes to structural features related to flexibility [60].
The set of adaptive characteristics of wood can, as a whole, be called “anatomical rheophilic syndrome”. It is characterized by: small and solitary vessels of 100 μm in diameter, multiple radial, with walls 2.5–5.0 μm thick; scarce or absent axial parenchyma; narrow rays; and the presence of gelatinous fibers [61]. These woods are constituted by: 10 to 30 percent of vessels, 0 to 5 percent of axial parenchyma, 10 to 20 percent of rays and 60 to 70 percent of fibers. Several of these characteristics have been observed in riparian species such as Colliguaya brasiliensis [60] and Aspidosperma riedelii [62].
In riparian environments trees can be inclined or crooked, which is the result of the so-called tension wood, characterized anatomically by the lack or scarce lignification in cell walls of the fibers, as well as by the presence of an internal gelatinous layer in them (so-called G fibers). These cells support high stresses in mature organs, allowing their movement, or reinforcing their structure and stability [63]. G fibers have been observed in Sebastiana commersoniana [64] and Ludwigia species [65] when these grow in flooded soils.
Likewise, the presence of macules in the wood has been highlighted. This structures are parenchymal cells with thicker walls than those of the adjacent cells with starch and phenolic compounds, which facilitate anaerobic survival. These structures were observed in Sebastiana commersoniana [64] and in Eugenia inundata [66].
Leaves are the most plastic plant organ. Therefore, their morphology and anatomy are usually closely linked to the environment in which plants grow [67]. Several foliar parameters have been considered important for the adaptation to specific riparian microenvironments among them size and mass, water content, and anatomical characteristics of the leaf surface and mesophyll.
A common foliar adaptation in riparian species subject to waterlogging conditions is the elongation of the petioles of submerged leaves which allows them to emerge, thus avoiding the low luminosity to which they are exposed during flood periods [52]. In the Amazonian floodplain, many tree species shed their leaves in the first week to months of waterlogging or submergence and produce new ones near the end of the flood period [68]. However, in these ecosystems there are also evergreen trees that keep their leaves throughout the waterlogging period, even when completely submerged. These leaves are generally xeromorphic [20, 69, 70].
In trees of a seasonally flooded forest of the Mapire River in Venezuela, it has been found that both submerged and non-submerged leaves have xeromorphic characteristics such as: thick cuticle, large epidermal cells, bifacial mesophyll and abundance of sclerenchyma. These traits remaining practically unchanged regardless of the phase of the flood cycle [70]. It is believed that these trees experience a water deficit during the waterlogging phase similar to that faced by plants from dry habitats, due to a decrease in water absorption by roots. Therefore, these xeromorphic leaves allow trees to cope with the drought during the non-waterlogging phase [69]. In riparian species that are not periodically flooded both mesomorphic and xeromorphic adaptations may occur [71].
The riparian species Guazuma ulmifolia and Sapium glandulosum have contrasting histological characteristics in the leaf blade [71] and also in the midrib and petiole (Figure 3). G. ulmifolia shows higher density of xylem vessels (narrow diameter) and a greater development of sclerenchyma (Figure 3A,B) than S. glandulosum (Figure 3C,D) on both midrib and petiole. These traits are associated with xeromorphic leaves [72, 73] because they can maximize the efficiency of water transport into the leaf and prevent foliar collapse under drought conditions [74]. These anatomical differences can help explain the environments in which they grow: S. glandulosum frequently inhabits floodplains and swampy areas [75, 76] whilst G. ulmifolia has been reported in both floodplains [77, 78] and dry and intervened areas [71, 79]. Furthermore, the secretory cavities in the midrib and petiole of G. ulmifolia (Figure 3A,B) accumulate a mucilage that can retain water [41] and has also been associated with a defense mechanism against biotic stressors [80].
View of the midrib and petiole cross section in Guazuma ulmifolia and Sapium glandulosum. A-B: G. ulmifolia, midrib (A) and petiole (B); C-D: S. glandulosum, midrib (C) and petiole (D). sc: secretory cavity.
The specific leaf area (SLA, cm2 g−1) is related to the photosynthetic capacity, nitrogen content, longevity of the leaf and foliar architecture [81]. It is usually lower in species growing in arid environments [82] and higher in wetland habitats [83], as it can promote gas exchange in plants whose leaves must withstand waterlogging conditions. However, in trees from a igapó of the Venezuelan Amazon, a decrease in SLA with flooding has been observed in both emerged and submerged leaves [70]. This seems to be associated with an acclimation process that can promote an increase in CO2 conductance in the foliar mesophyll under waterlogging conditions [20].
In riparian ecosystems from Europe, the black poplar (Populus nigra) is one of the most studied species due to disturbances caused by the degradation of its natural habitat. A morphometric analysis on leaves across 17 native populations of P. nigra from the banks of six rivers in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina including the hairy type (P. nigra subsp. caudina) of sub-Mediterranean climate, and the typical poplar type of continental riparian forests showed that that the best features to differentiate these two types of populations were the distance between the broadest portion and the base of the blade together with the length of the petiole [84].
In genotypes of poplar species P. deltoides, P. balsamifera, P. angustifolia and hybrids between them it has been found that all of them have a high density of small stomata [85]. This can be associated with a high stomatal conductance and a lower water use efficiency [86] consistent with their behavior as ecological pioneers that grow rapidly in low fertility areas after floods or other disturbances [87]. Likewise, all species had abundant cuticular wax which would reduce transpiration in poplars growing in dry riparian regions [88]. In native populations of P. nigra of the Serbian alluvial zone, no differences were found in stomatal characteristics which could indicate that each of them has a similar combination of genotypes [89].
Invasive exotic plants have a negative impact on native riparian species, mainly because they affect the flow of energy and the cycling of matter, as well as by their excessive use of resources. A study on Echinocystis lobata and Parthenocissus quinquefolia (invasive climbing species) growing on Salix caprea and S. fragilis, respectively, showed that in both willow species the leaf cuticle became thinner relative to that of plants that grew without these vines [90]. This is a disadvantage since the cuticle contributes to the mitigation of the adverse impact caused by both biotic and abiotic stressors.
The dispersal of plants in riparian environments is affected by the hydrogeomorphic characteristics of each place. Riparian species can be dispersed by various vectors, including wind (anemochoria), animals (zoocoria), and water (hydrochoria). However, the proportion in which these mechanisms occur is not quantified [17]. Hydrochoria is highlighted as a dominant dispersal vector in riparian habitats [17, 91, 92]. Both vegetative and generative propagules can be dispersed by water [92]. In these environments, the formation of a seed bank is not feasible [19].
Ichthyocoria is very common in tropical riparian environments. Diaspores dispersed by fish are highly variable in shape, texture, color and taste [92]. The intact seeds excreted by fish are small with high nutrient content in the pericarp of the fruits, as occurs in Pouteria glomerata [92]. Frugivorous fish can be effective dispersers of large, non-floating seeds, thus contributing to dispersal over long distances as well as upstream [93].
In several species hydrochoria is a secondary dispersal mechanism, as propagules often fall to the ground before being carried away by the water current. Other species drop them directly into the stream (Disa uniflora). Diaspores that lack buoyancy can be transported by water by adhering to floating objects such as logs, branches and litter [92].
In riparian plants hydrochoria offers several advantages: 1. Floating hydrochorous can disperse long distances compared to other dispersal vectors. 2. The dispersal distance of floating hydrochorous is largely independent of their mass consequently, they tend to be heavier than those dispersed by wind and heavier seeds produce taller seedlings (with the advantages that this implies). 3. Immersion in water prevents desiccation, thereby increasing the longevity of vegetative propagules. 4. It increases the odds that propagules will be deposited in suitable sites for germination and growth [17].
Small seeds can occupy a greater number of available microsites, while large ones allow a higher rate of seedling development since they have more endosperm or cotyledons with more accumulated substances that favor embryo development [91].
Floating propagules have cork or some spongy tissue and epidermis with waxes or thick cuticle which prevents the imbibition and collapse of them. The seeds of riparian species such as Annona montana and Hevea spruceana have aeriferous tissue in variable proportions [91]. Manicaria saccifera and Crudia acuminata have a hollow endosperm, while Carapa guianensis and Pachira aquatica have sparse endosperms which allow them to float [94]. E. tenuifolia has corky tissue and develops spongy tissue in the seed coat. Tabebuia species have their coat seed suberous and hydrophobic [95]. Many of these diaspores go through a long period of floating without losing their viability [91].
The presence of spikes, hooks, and other appendages on the surface of diaspores can reduce water surface tension. These structures allow them to attach to leaves, branches, and other surfaces [92]. They also catch air bubbles and, consequently, increase buoyancy [95]. The diaspores can have a hard cover, which gives them greater tolerance to anoxic conditions, resistance to abrasion and tolerance to burial allowing the seed to be transported with sediment and garbage, thus increasing its longevity in the soil [17].
In the Amazon, after fruits ripen which generally occurs when there are high levels of water [95] seeds fall into the water and can float and/or submerge for several weeks without losing their viability (quiescence). Seed germination begins only when the flood recedes, although in some species the radicle may protrude or even the entire seedling may be produced, while floating, as occurs in Carapa guianensis [96].
Vegetative fragments can detach and disperse during disturbance events, improving recolonization capacity. These fragments usually float and help the dispersion. Furthermore, they can remain viable for weeks after separation. They can begin to produce roots shortly after detachment, which facilitates their establishment by being immobilized somewhere [97]. Salix martiana shows intense vegetative propagation through parts of broken stems. In the case of Eugenia inundata, colonizing species of igapó areas in Brazil, lower branches take root [98] so vegetative fragments contribute to the fast and effective establishment in periods when soil lacks water.
Riparian areas have been substantially degraded mainly due to anthropogenic factors which have caused erosion of the riparian vegetation. This situation will become more serious in coming years due to events associated with climate change. In this chapter, we have discussed the main morphoanatomical adaptations of the vegetative organs and dispersal propagules of riparian species which determine their ability to survive in such variable and dynamic habitats. In species that face prolonged flooding periods, these adaptations help overcome the anoxia imposed by waterlogging. However, in arboreal species typical features of xeromorphism may be present especially in leaves, which not only allows them to face the water deficit caused by the decrease in absorption of water by roots due to waterlogging, but also drought conditions during the non-waterlogging period. In riparian species from drier areas, both mesomorphic and xeromorphic adaptations may occur. From an ecological point of view, more plastic morphoanatomical adaptations can reduce the risk of extinction of riparian species since this allows them to explore different habitats and thus, expand their geographic distribution. Understanding the scientific principles that support the adaptation of species to riparian habitats is crucial for the decision making process by landscapers and government entities that are responsible to promote the protection and conservation of these ecosystems. In order for this to be achieved, the contribution of different disciplines is required, since interdisciplinary teams are the ones that have the greatest possibility to successfully handle this challenge.
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