The List of chronic diseases that are linked to the exposure to pesticides
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Increase in food production is the prime-most objective of all countries, as world population is expected to grow to nearly 10 billion by 2050. Based on evidence, world population is increasing by an estimated 97 million per year (Saravi and Shokrzadeh, 2011). The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has in-fact issued a sobering forecast that world food production needs to increase by 70%, in order to keep pace with the demand of growing population. However, increase in food production is faced with the ever-growing challenges especially the new area that can be increased for cultivation purposes is very limited (Saravi and Shokrzadeh, 2011). The increasing world population has therefore put a tremendous amount of pressure on the existing agricultural system so that food needs can be met from the same current resources like land, water etc. In the process of increasing crop production, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, nematicides, fertilizers and soil amendments are now being used in higher quantities than in the past. These chemicals have mainly come into the picture since the introduction of synthetic insecticides in 1940, when organochlorine (OCl) insecticides were first used for pest management. Before this introduction, most weeds, pests, insects and diseases were controlled using sustainable practices such as cultural, mechanical, and physical control strategies.
Pesticides have now become an integral part of our modern life and are used to protect agricultural land, stored grain, flower gardens as well as to eradicate the pests transmitting dangerous infectious diseases. It has been estimated that globally nearly $38 billion are spent on pesticides each year (Pan-Germany, 2012). Manufacturers and researchers are designing new formulations of pesticides to meet the global demand. Ideally, the applied pesticides should only be toxic to the target organisms, should be biodegradable and eco-friendly to some extent (Rosell et al., 2008). Unfortunately, this is rarely the case as most of the pesticides are non-specific and may kill the organisms that are harmless or useful to the ecosystem. In general, it has been estimated that only about 0.1% of the pesticides reach the target organisms and the remaining bulk contaminates the surrounding environment (Carriger et al., 2006). The repeated use of persistent and non-biodegradable pesticides has polluted various components of water, air and soil ecosystem. Pesticides have also entered into the food chain and have bioaccumulated in the higher tropic level. More recently, several human acute and chronic illnesses have been associated with pesticides exposure (Mostafalou and Abdollahi, 2012). Below, we have detailed the effect of pesticides on target and non-target organisms including earthworms, predators, pollinators, humans, fishes, amphibians, and birds. Additionally, impact of pesticides on soil, water and air ecosystems is also discussed. Furthermore, an eco-friendly practice (Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach) has been detailed as a strategy that could minimize the use of pesticides.
Over the past era there has been an increase in the development of pesticides to target a broad spectrum of pests. The increased quantity and frequency of pesticide applications have posed a major challenge to the targeted pests causing them to either disperse to new environment and/or adapt to the novel conditions (Meyers and Bull, 2002; Cothran et al., 2013). The adaptation of the pest to the new environment could be attributed to the several mechanisms such as gene mutation, change in population growth rates, and increase in number of generations etc. This has ultimately resulted in increased incidence of pest resurgence and appearance of pest species that are resistant to pesticides.
“Resistance may be defined as a heritable change in the sensitivity of a pest population that is reflected in the repeated failure of a product to achieve the expected level of control when used according to the label recommendation for that pest species” (IRAC, 2013). Resistant individuals tend to be rare in a normal population, but indiscriminate use of chemicals can eliminate normal susceptible populations and thereby providing the resistant individuals a selective advantage in the presence of a pesticide. Resistant individuals continue to multiply in the absence of competition and eventually become the dominant portion of the population over generations. As majority of the individuals of a population are resistant, the insecticide is no longer effective thus causing the appearance or development of insecticide resistance.
Resistance is the most serious bottleneck in the successful use of pesticides these days. The intensive use of pesticides has led to the development of resistance in many targeted pest species around the globe (Tabashnik et al., 2009). Number of resistant insects and mite species had risen to 600 by the end of 1990, and increased to over 700 by the end of 2001. This trend is likely to be continued in 21st century as well. Resistance has been found in different insecticides groups e.g., 291 species have developed cyclodiene resistance, followed by DDT (263 species), organophosphates (260 species), carbamates (85 species), pyrethroids (48 species), fumigants (12 species), and other (40 species) (Dhaliwal et al., 2006). Important crop pests, parasites of livestock, common urban pests and disease vectors in some cases have developed resistance to such an extent that their control has become exceedingly challenging (Van Leeuwen et al., 2010; Gondhalekar et al., 2011). However, many factors such as genetics, biology/ecology and control operations influence the development of pesticide resistance (Georghiou and Taylor, 1977).
Insecticide bioassays using whole insects continue to be one of the most widely used approaches for detecting resistance (Brown and Brogdon, 1987; Gondhalekar et al., 2013) despite some associated drawbacks. In the past two decades, however, several new methods employing advanced biochemical and molecular techniques, and combination of insecticide bioassays have been developed for detecting insecticide resistance (Symondson and Hemingway, 1997; Scharf et al., 1999; Zhou et al., 2002). Some examples of these techniques are enzyme electrophoresis, enzyme assays, immuno-assays, allele-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) etc.
Pest resurgence is defined as the rapid reappearance of a pest population in injurious numbers following pesticide application. Use of persistent and broad spectrum pesticides that kills the beneficial natural enemies is thought to be the leading cause of pest resurgence. However, resurgence is known to occur due to several reasons, for example, increase in feeding and reproductive rates of insect pests, due to application of sub-lethal doses of pesticides, and sometimes elimination of a primary pest provides favorable conditions for the secondary pests to become primary/key pests (Dhaliwal et al., 2006). There are many pesticide-induced pest outbreaks reported in walnut (
The effect of pesticides on non-target organisms has been a source of worldwide attention and concern for decades. Adverse effects of applied pesticides on non-target arthropods have been widely reported (Ware, 1980). Unfortunately, natural insect enemies e.g., parasitoids and predators are most susceptible to insecticides and are severely affected (Aveling, 1977; Vickerman, 1988). The destruction of natural enemies can exacerbate pest problems as they play an important role in regulating pest population levels. Usually, if natural enemies are absent, additional insecticide sprays are required to control the target pest. In some cases, natural enemies that normally keep minor pests under check are also affected and this can result in secondary pest outbreaks. Along with natural enemies, population of soil arthropods is also drastically disturbed because of indiscriminate pesticide application in agricultural systems. Soil invertebrates including nematodes, springtails, mites, micro-arthropods, earthworms, spiders, insects and other small organisms make up the soil food web and enable decomposition of organic compounds such as leaves, manure, plant residues etc. They are essential for the maintenance of soil structure, transformation and mineralization of organic matter. Pesticide effects on above mentioned soil arthropods therefore negatively impact several links in the food web. The following are the examples of non-target organisms that are adversely impacted by pesticides.
Earthworms represent the greatest proportion of terrestrial invertebrates (>80%) (Yasmin and D’Souza, 2010) and play a significant role in improving soil fertility by decomposing the organic matter into humus. Earthworms also play a major role in improving and maintaining soil structure, by creating channels in soil that enable the process of soil aeration and drainage. However, their diversity, density and biomass are strongly influenced by soil management. They are considered as an important indicator of soil quality in agricultural ecosystems (Paoletti, 1999). Earthworms are affected by various agricultural practices and indiscriminate use of pesticides is one of the leading practices affecting them (Pelosi et al., 2013).
Pesticide applications can cause decline in earthworm populations. For example, carbamate insecticides are very toxic to earthworms and some organophosphates have been shown to reduce earthworm populations (Edwards, 1987). Similarly, a field study conducted in South Africa has also reported that earthworms were influenced detrimentally due to chronic and intermittent exposures to chlorpyrifos and azinphos methyl, respectively (Reinecke and Reinecke, 2007). Various scientific studies reported that pesticides influence earthworm growth, reproduction (cocoon production, number of hatchlings per cocoon, and incubation period) in a dose-dependent manner (Yasmin and D’Souza, 2010). Earthworms exposed to different kind of pesticides showed rupturing of cuticle, oozing out of coelomic fluid, swelling, and paling of body that led to softening of body tissues (Solaimalai et al., 2004). Similarly a study carried out in France showed that the combination of insecticides and fungicides at different concentrations caused neurotoxic effects in earthworms (Schreck et al., 2008). Increased exposure period and higher dose of insecticides can also cause physiological damage (cellular dysfunction and protein catabolism) to earthworms (Schreck et al., 2008).
Predators are organisms that live by preying on other organisms and they play a very crucial role in keeping pest populations under control. Predators (beneficial organisms) are also an important part of the “biological control” approach which is one component of the integrated pest management strategy discussed later. In some of the examples cited below, pesticides were the main cause for decline in predator population:
In brinjal (
Species diversity, richness and evenness of collembola, and numbers of spiders were found to be lower in chlorpyrifos treated plots compared with control, in grassland pastures in UK (Fountain et al., 2007).
Studies were carried out to investigate the effects of chemicals on soil arthropods in agricultural area near Everglades National Park, USA. It was found that higher number of arthropods (including predators such as coccinelids and spiders) were present in non-sprayed fields compared to fields sprayed with insecticides and herbicides (Amalin et al., 2009).
In foliar application, all the systemic neonicotinoids such as imidacloprid, clothianidin, admire, thiamethoxam and acetamiprid were found highly toxic to natural enemies in comparison with spirotetramat, buprofezin and fipronil (Kumar et al., 2012).
Additionally, pesticides can also affect predator behavior and their life-history parameters including growth rate, development time and other reproductive functions. For example, in the eastern USA, glyphosate-based herbicides affected behavior and survival of spiders and ground beetles, apart from affecting arthropod community dynamics that can also influence biological control in an agroecosystem (Evans et al., 2010). Similarly, dimethoate was shown to significantly decrease the body size, haemocyte counts and reduction of morphometric parameters on carabid beetle (
Pollinators are biotic agents that play a very important role in pollination process. Some of the recognized pollinators are different species of bees, bumble bees (
Pesticide application also affects various activities of pollinators including foraging behaviour, colony mortality and pollen collecting efficiency. Most of our current knowledge about effects of pesticides on change in pollinator behaviour has come from various bee studies as they comprise 80% of the insect pollinator population. For instance, many laboratory studies have demonstrated the lethal and sub-lethal effects of neonicotinoid insecticides (imidacloprid, acetamiprid, clothianidin, thiamethoxam, thiacloprid, dinotefuran and nitenpyram) on foraging behavior, learning and memory abilities of bees (Blacquie`re et al., 2012). Worker bee (female bees that lack full reproductive capacity and play many other roles in bee colony) mortality, decreased pollen collecting efficiency and eventually colony collapse occur due to pesticides (neonicotinoid and pyrethroid) application (Gill et al., 2012). In addition to this, non-lethal exposure of honey bees to neonicotinoid insecticide (thiamethoxam) causes high mortality due to homing failure at a level that could put a risk of colony collapse (Henry et al., 2012). Sub-lethal doses of imidacloprid (the most commonly used pesticide worldwide) affected longevity and foraging in honey bees (
The deleterious effects of pesticides on human health have started to grow due to their toxicity and persistence in environment and ability to enter into the food chain. Pesticides can enter the human body by direct contact with chemicals, through food especially fruits and vegetables, contaminated water or polluted air. Both acute and chronic diseases can result from pesticide exposure and these are summarized below:
Acute illness generally appears a short time after contact or exposure to the pesticide. Pesticide drift from agricultural fields, exposure to pesticides during application and intentional or unintentional poisoning generally leads to the acute illness in humans (Dawson et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2011b). Several symptoms such as headaches, body aches, skin rashes, poor concentration, nausea, dizziness, impaired vision, cramps, panic attacks and in severe cases coma and death could occur due to pesticide poisoning (Pan-Germany, 2012). The severity of these risks is normally associated with toxicity and quantity of the agents used, mode of action, mode of application, length and frequency of contact with pesticides and person that is exposed during application (Richter, 2002). About 3 million cases are reported worldwide every year that occur due to acute pesticides poisoning. Out of these 3 million pesticide poisoning cases, 2 million are suicide attempts and the rest of these are occupational or accidental poisoning cases (Singh and Mandal, 2013). Suicide attempts due to acute pesticide poisoning are mainly the result of widespread availability of pesticides in rural areas (Richter, 2002; Dawson et al., 2010). Several strategies have been proposed to reduce the incidences that occur due to acute pesticide poisoning such as restricting the availability of pesticides, substituting the pesticide with a less toxic but with an equally effective alternative and by promoting use of personal protection equipment (Murray and Taylor, 2000; Konradsen et al., 2003). Strict laws regulating pesticide sales along with preventive health programs and community development efforts are needed to enforce such strategies.
Continued exposure to sub-lethal quantities of pesticides for a prolonged period of time (years to decades), results in chronic illness in humans (Pan-Germany, 2012). Symptoms are not immediately apparent and manifest at a later stage. Agricultural workers are at a higher risk to get affected, however general population is also affected especially due to contaminated food and water or pesticides drift from the fields (Pan-Germany, 2012). Incidences of chronic diseases have started to grow as pesticides have become an increasing part of our ecosystem. There is mounting evidence that establish a link between pesticides exposure and the incidences of human chronic diseases affecting nervous, reproductive, renal, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems (Mostafalou and Abdollahi, 2012). The list of chronic diseases that are linked to prolonged pesticide exposure by various studies is summarized in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Cancer (Childhood and adult brain cancer; Renal cell cancer; lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL); Prostate Cancer) | \n\t\t\tLee et al., 2005; Shim et al., 2009; Heck et al., 2010; Xu et al., 2010; Band et al., 2011; Cocco et al., 2013 | \n\t\t
Neuro degenerative diseases including Parkinson disease, Alzheimer disease | \n\t\t\tElbaz et al., 2009; Hayden et al., 2010;Tanner et al., 2011 | \n\t\t
Cardio-vascular disease including artery disease | \n\t\t\tAbdullah et al., 2011; Andersen et al., 2012 | \n\t\t
Diabetes (Type 2 Diabetes) | \n\t\t\tSon et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2011a | \n\t\t
Reproductive disorders | \n\t\t\tPetrelli and Mantovani, 2002; Greenlee et al., 2003 | \n\t\t
Birth defects | \n\t\t\tWinchester et al., 2009; Mesnage et al., 2010 | \n\t\t
Hormonal imbalances including infertility and breast pain | \n\t\t\tXavier et al., 2004 | \n\t\t
Respiratory diseases (Asthma, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)) | \n\t\t\tChakraborty et al., 2009; Hoppin et al., 2009 | \n\t\t
The List of chronic diseases that are linked to the exposure to pesticides
Several mechanisms have been illustrated that link development of chronic diseases with pesticide exposure. Direct interaction of pesticides with genetic material resulting in DNA damages and chromosomal aberration is considered to be one of the primary mechanisms that lead to the chronic diseases such as cancer etc (Mostafalou and Abdollahi, 2012). In this context, several studies report an increase in frequency of chromosomal aberration, sister chromatid exchange, and breakage in DNA strand in pesticide applicators who worked in agricultural fields (Grover et al., 2003; Santovito et al., 2012). Similar to this, pesticides are also known to induce epigenetic changes (heritable changes without any alteration in DNA sequences) through DNA methylation, histone modifications and expression of non-coding RNAs. For example, neurotoxic pesticide paraquat has been implicated to induce the Parkinson\'s disease (PD) through epigenetic changes by promoting histone acetylation (Song et al., 2010). Pesticides may also induce oxidative stress by increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) through altering levels of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione reductase and catalase (Agrawal and Sharma, 2010). Several health problems such as Parkinson disease, disruption of glucose homeostasis have been linked with pesticides induced oxidative stress (Mostafalou and Abdollahi, 2012).
A major fraction of the pesticides that are used for agriculture and other purposes accumulates in the soil. The indiscriminate and repeated use of pesticides further aggravates this soil accumulation problem. Several factors such as soil properties and soil micro-flora determine the fate of applied pesticides, owing to which it undergoes a variety of degradation, transport, and adsorption/desorption processes (Weber et al., 2004; Laabs et al., 2007; Hussain et al., 2009). The degraded pesticides interact with the soil and with its indigenous microorganisms, thus altering its microbial diversity, biochemical reactions and enzymatic activity (Hussain et al., 2009; Munoz-Leoz et al., 2011). A summary of the effects of pesticides on its various components are given below:
Pesticides that reach the soil can alter the soil microbial diversity and microbial biomass. Any alteration in the activities of soil microorganisms due to applied pesticides eventually leads to the disturbance in soil ecosystem and loss of soil fertility (Handa et al., 1999). Numerous studies have been undertaken which highlight these adverse impacts of pesticides on soil microorganisms and soil respiration (Dutta et al., 2010; Sofo et al., 2012). In addition to this, exogenous applications of pesticides could also influence the function of beneficial root-colonizing microbes such as bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM), fungi and algae in soil by influencing their growth, colonization and metabolic activities etc (Debenest et al., 2010; Menendez et al., 2010; Tien and Chen, 2012).
The pesticides that reach the soil can interact with soil microflora in several ways:
It can adversely affect the growth, microbial diversity or microbial biomass of the soil microflora. For example, sulfonylurea herbicides- metsulfuron methyl, chlorsulfuron and thifensulfuron methyl were reported to reduce the growth of the fluorescent bacteria
Pesticide application may also inhibit or kill certain group of microorganisms and outnumber other groups by releasing them from the competition (Hussain et al., 2009). For example, increase in bacterial biomass by 76% was reported in response to endosulfan application and that reduced the fungal biomass by 47% (Xie et al., 2011).
Applied pesticide may also act as a source of energy to some of the microbial group which may lead to increase in their growth and disturbances in the soil ecosystem. For example, bacterial isolates collected from wastewater irrigated agricultural soil showed the capability to utilize chlorpyriphos as a carbon source for their growth (Bhagobaty and Malik, 2010).
Pesticides can alter and/or reduce the functional structure and functional diversity of microorganisms, but increase the microbial biomass (Lupwayi et al., 2009). In contrast, application of pesticides can also reduce the microbial biomass while increasing the functional diversity of microbial community. For example, methamidophos and urea decreased the microbial biomass and increased the functional diversity of soil as determined by microbial biomass and community level physiological profiles (Wang et al., 2006).
Pesticides may also adversely affect the soils vital biochemical reactions including nitrogen fixation, nitrification, and ammonification by activating/deactivating specific soil microorganisms and/or enzymes (Hussain et al., 2009; Munoz-Leoz et al., 2011). The synergistic and additive interactions between pesticides, micro-organisms and soil properties ultimately govern increase or decrease in rate of soil biochemical reactions. For example, populations of the
Pesticides have also been reported to influence mineralization of soil organic matter, which is a key soil property that determines the soil quality and productivity. For example, a significant reduction in soil organic matter was found after the application of four herbicides (atrazine, primeextra, paraquat, and glyphosate) (Sebiomo et al., 2011). However, soil organic matter then increased after continuous application from the second to the sixth week of herbicide treatment.
Pesticides that reach the soil may also disturb local metabolism or can alter the soil enzymatic activity (Gonod et al., 2006; Floch et al., 2011). Soil in general contains an enzymatic pool which comprises of free enzymes, immobilized extracellular enzymes and enzymes excreted by (or within) microorganisms that are indicator of biological equilibrium including soil fertility and quality (Mayanglambam et al., 2005; Hussain et al., 2009). Degradation of both pesticides and natural substances in soil is catalyzed by this enzymatic pool (Floch et al., 2011; Kizilkaya et al., 2012). Due to this, measuring the change in enzymatic activity has now been classified as a biological indicator to identify the impact of chemical substances including pesticides on soil biological functions (Garcia et al., 1997; Romero et al., 2010). In fact, it has generally been assumed that measuring the change in enzyme activity is an earlier indicator of soil degradation as compared to the chemical or physical parameters (Dick et al., 1994). Several studies have already been undertaken which indicate both increase and decrease in activities of soil enzymes such as hydrolases, oxidoreductases, and dehydrogenase (Ismail et al., 1998; Megharaj et al., 1999). A description of pesticides interactions with soil enzymes has been summarized in Table 2.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Nitrogenase (An enzyme used by organisms to fix atmospheric nitrogen gas). | \n\t\t\tCarbendazim, Imazetapir, Thiram, Captan, 2,4-D, Quinalphos, Monocrotophos, Endosulfan, | \n\t\t\tPesticide reduced or inhibited the nitrogenase activity in laboratory or field conditions (Chalam et al., 1996; Martinez-Toledo et al., 1998; Niewiadomska, 2004; Niewiadomska and Klama, 2005; Prasad et al., 2011)/Pesticides stimulated the nitrogenase activity (Patnaik et al., 1995) | \n\t\t
Phosphatase (hydrolyzes organic P compounds to inorganic P) | \n\t\t\t2,4-D, Nitrapyrin, Monocrotophos, Chlorpyrifos, Mancozeb and Carbendazim | \n\t\t\tInhibited (Tu, 1981); Activity increased, but higher concentration or increasing incubation period has inhibitory effects (Madhuri and Rangaswamy, 2002; Srinivasulu et al., 2012b) | \n\t\t
Urease (catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea into CO2 and NH3 and is a key component in the nitrogen cycle in soils) | \n\t\t\tIsoproturon, Benomyl, Captan, Diazinon, Profenofos | \n\t\t\tIncrease in urease activity (Chen et al., 2001a; Nowak et al., 2004), Pesticide reduced/inhibited urease activity (Abdel-Mallek et al., 1994; Ingram et al., 2005) | \n\t\t
Dehydrogenase (DHA): (an oxidoreductase enzyme that catalyzes the removal of hydrogen) | \n\t\t\tAzadirachtin, Acetamiprid, Quinalphos,Glyphosate | \n\t\t\tPositive/stimulatory influence on the DHA (Singh and Kumar, 2008; Kizilkaya et al., 2012)/Initially inhibited but later on activity was restored (Andrea et al., 2000; Mayanglambam et al., 2005) | \n\t\t
Invertase (hydrolyzes sucrose to fructose and glucose) | \n\t\t\tAtrazine, Carbaryl, Paraquat | \n\t\t\tInhibited invertase activity (Gianfreda et al., 1995; Sannino and Gianfreda, 2001) | \n\t\t
β-glucosidase (hydrolyzes disaccharides in soil to form β-glucose) | \n\t\t\tMetalaxyl, Ridomil gold plus copper | \n\t\t\tEnzyme activity increased and then decreased (Sukul, 2006) or inhibited (Demanou et al., 2004) | \n\t\t
Cellulase (hydrolyzes cellulose to D-glucose) | \n\t\t\tBenlate, Captan, Brominal | \n\t\t\tInhibited enzyme activity (Arinze and Yubedee, 2000; Omar and Abdel-Sater, 2001) | \n\t\t
Arylsulphatase (an enzyme that hydrolyzes aryl sulfates) | \n\t\t\tCinosulfuron, Prosulfuron, Thifensulfuron methyl, Triasulfuron | \n\t\t\tDecreased enzyme activity (Sofo et al., 2012) | \n\t\t
A summary of the effects of pesticides on different soil enzymes
Several environmental factors control the bioavailability, degradation and effect of pesticides on soil microorganisms in addition to the persistence, concentration and toxicity of the applied pesticides. These include soil texture, presence of organic matter, vegetation and cultural practices (Murage et al., 2007). For instance, a mixture of compost and straw was found to have the capability of bio-degrading different mixtures of fungicides that are usually applied in vineyards when tested under laboratory conditions (Coppola et al., 2011). Similarly, persistence of the herbicide imazapyr was reported to be different in three Argentinean soils (Tandil, Anguil, and Cerro Azul sites) and its half-life was negatively associated with soil pH, iron and aluminum content, and positively related with clay content (Gianelli et al., 2013). Additionally, level of soil moisture is also one of the most important factors that regulates pesticide bioavailability and degradation, as water acts as solvent for pesticide movement and diffusion, and is essential for microbial functioning (Pal and Tah, 2012). For example, degradation of herbicide saflufenacil was found to be faster at field capacity for Nada, Crowley and Gilbert soils as compared to the saturated soil conditions (Camargo et al., 2013).
It is important to monitor the response of soil microbial communities and various enzymatic activities to pesticide exposure in order to reduce their deleterious effects. A combination of both cultivation-dependent (e.g., community-level physiological profiling (CLPP), measuring overall rates of microbial activity) and cultivation-independent (e.g., DNA sequence information, proteomics of environmental samples) methods can be applied to measure and interpret the effects of pesticide exposure (Imfeld and Vuilleumier, 2012). With the advent of efficient new sequencing techniques and metagenomics, the scope of deploying cultivation independent methods for measuring bacterial diversity and function in soil ecosystem has been further increased. Metagenomics approach has been applied already to measure microbial diversity for a range of soil systems including contaminated sites (Ono et al., 2007) and land managed with different cultural practices (Souza et al., 2013). Such high-tech approaches hold the key for future methods to measure the mode of adaptation ecosystem to different pesticides and in development of new methods to better manage pesticide applications.
A careful screening of pesticide effects on soil microflora should be done in laboratory before their field applications. This is because pesticides tend to accumulate in soil due to repeated applications over time and can pose adverse effects on soil microflora even though they are applied at recommended doses (Ahemad et al., 2009). For instance, Ahemad and Khan (2011) reported the highest toxicity to plant growth promoting characteristics of the
Pesticide residues in water are a major concern as they pose a serious threat to biological communities including humans. There are different ways by which pesticides can get into water such as accidental spillage, industrial effluent, surface run off and transport from pesticide treated soils, washing of spray equipments after spray operation, drift into ponds, lakes, streams and river water, aerial spray to control water-inhibiting pests (Carter and Heather, 1995; Singh and Mandal, 2013). Pesticides generally move from fields to various water reservoirs by runoff or in drainage induced by rain or irrigation (Larson et al., 2010). Similarly, the presence of pesticides in air can be caused by number of factors including spray drift, volatilization from the treated surfaces, and aerial application of pesticides. Extent of drift depends on: droplet size and wind speed. The rate of volatilization is dependent on time after pesticide treatment, the surface on which the pesticide settles, the ambient temperature, humidity and wind speed and the vapor pressure of the ingredients (Kips, 1985). The volatility or semi-volatility nature of the pesticide compounds similarly constitutes an important risk of atmospheric pollution of large cities (Trajkovska et al., 2009). For instance, organophosphorus (OP) pesticides were identified from environmental samples of air and surface following agricultural spray applications in California and Washington (USA) (Armstrong et al., 2013). In Italian forests, indiscriminate use of pesticides and its active metabolites has led to the contamination of water bodies and ambient air, possibly affecting the health of aquatic biota fishes, amphibians and birds (Trevisan et al., 1993). The following section describes the effect of pesticides on fishes, amphibians and birds.
Fishes are an important part of marine ecosystem as they interact closely with physical, biological and chemical environment. Fishes provide food source for other animals such as sea birds and marine mammals and thus fishes form an integral part of the marine food web. A lot of research has been carried out to examine the impact of pesticides on decline in fish population (Scholz et al., 2012). Pesticides have been directly linked to causing fish mortality worldwide. For example, 27 freshwater fish species are found to be affected by “plant protection products” (PPP) in Europe (Ibrahim et al., 2013). Another pesticide pentachlorophenol (NaPCP) is reported to cause large numbers of fish mortality in the rice fields of Surinam (Vermeer et al., 1970). Pesticides not only impact the fish but also food webs related to them. The persistent pesticides (organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls) have already been found in the major Arctic Ocean food webs (Hargrave et al., 1992). A survey was conducted to examine the influence of pesticides on aquatic community in West Bengal, India. Many body tissues of the fish such as gills, alimentary canal, liver and brain of carp and catfish were found drastically damaged by pesticides. It was reported that such level of pesticides in fish could harm the fish consumers as well (Konar, 2011).
Several examples are available where pesticides impacted the vital fish organs and behavior. Organophosphate pesticide “Abate” has the potential to alter the vitellogenesis (the process whereby yolky eggs are produced) of catfish (
The impact of pesticides within an aquatic environment is influenced by their water solubility and uptake ability within an organism (Pereira et al., 2013). For example, Clomazone, a popular herbicide, is particularly water soluble; a property that increases its likelihood of contaminating surface and groundwater. The hydrophilic (water-loving) or lipophobic (fat-hating) nature of this pesticide makes it less available in the fatty tissues of an organism (Pereira et al., 2013). Further to this, the toxicity of chemical (e.g., endosulfan in this case) in juvenile rainbow trout (
Pesticides in natural water within the acceptable concentration range can still pose harmful effects. Kock-Schulmeyer et al. (2012) found that even if the pesticide levels found in Llobregat River basin of Spain were within the European Union Environmental Quality Standards, they still accounted for a low to high ecotoxicological risk for aquatic organisms, especially algae and macro-invertebrates. Proper measures should be taken while disposing of expired pesticides, so that their discharge into the water bodies does not danger the aquatic life. This is because the alteration in water pH by expired insecticides can lead to acute toxicity of different fish (Satyavani et al., 2011).
Amphibians are ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates of class Amphibia. They inhabit a wide variety of habitats, with most species living within fossorial, arboreal, terrestrial, and freshwater aquatic ecosystems. The global decline in the amphibian population has become an environmental concern worldwide. Many amphibian species are on the brink of extinction with 7.4% listed as critically endangered, and at least 43.2% experiencing some sort of population decrease (Stuart et al., 2004). There could be multitude of reasons for decline in amphibian species diversity, but pesticides appear to be playing an important role. Global warming and climate change are leading to more variable and warmer temperatures which may have increased the impact of pesticides on amphibian populations (Relyea, 2003; Johnson et al., 2013).
Many studies showed that amphibians are susceptible to environmental contaminants due to their permeable skin, dual aquatic-terrestrial cycle and relatively rudimentary immune system (Kerby et al., 2010). Several studies showing the impact of pesticides on amphibians are being mentioned here. It has been reported that the world’s most commonly used herbicide (Roundup (Glyphosate)) may have far reaching effects on non-target amphibians (Relyea, 2012). Roundup, a globally used herbicide caused high mortality of larval tadpoles (3 different species in North America) and juvenile frogs under natural conditions in an outdoor pond mesocosm (Relyea, 2005a). Most of the evidence supported the toxic effects of pesticides on juvenile European common frogs (
Further to this, pesticides indirectly affect amphibian populations by influencing growth of aquatic communities such as fungi, zooplankton, and phytoplankton as they are one of their prime energy resources. Malathion is the most commonly used broad-spectrum insecticide in United States. It is legal to spray malathion over aquatic habitats to control mosquitoes (Family: Culicidae), that vector malaria and West Nile Virus. A study found that even low concentration of malathion caused direct and indirect effects on aquatic communities (Relyea, 2012). For example, indirect effect of malathion led to decrease in zooplankton diversity, that led to increase in phytoplankton, a decrease in periphyton, and finally decrease in growth of frog tadpoles (Relyea and Hoverman, 2008). Moreover, it was found that repeated applications of low doses had largest impacts than single high dose application of malathion on an aquatic system (Relyea and Diecks, 2008). A comprehensive study was conducted to examine the effect of globally used pesticides including insecticides (carbaryl, malathion, and herbicides (glyphosate, 2, 4-D)) on aquatic communities (algae, 25 animal species). Species richness reduced differentially, 15% with carbaryl, 30% with malathion, and 22% with roundup, whereas 0% with 2, 4-D. It was found that Roundup completely eliminated two species of tadpoles and led to 70% decline in tadpole species (Relyea, 2005b). Another study demonstrated that frogs (
Birds are a diverse group, and apart from their distinct songs and calls, showy displays and bright colors adding enjoyment to lives of humans, they play a very critical role in food chains and webs in our ecosystems. Birds are also called “aerial acrobats” consuming different kinds of insects such as mosquitoes, European corn borer moth (
Pesticides have a potential to alter behavior and reproduction of birds. Some of the examples cited here, using different synthetic chemicals including carbamates, organochlorines, and organophosphates can cause a decline in the populations of raptorial birds by altering their feeding behavior and reproduction (Mitra et al., 2011). A large area in the world is under rice and therefore cultivation and volume of pesticides applied in rice field is quite significant. Many different kinds of organochlorines, cholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides including carbofuran, monocrotophos, phorate, diazinon, fenthion, phosphamidon, methyl parathion and azinphos-methyl along with fungicides, herbicides and molluscicides are being used in rice fields. Some of these chemicals are highly toxic to birds causing mortality and some chemicals even have the potential to affect their reproductive systems (Parsons et al., 2010). Indirect effects of pesticides, through food chain have been proposed as a possible factor in decline of farmland bird species. Insecticides applied in breeding season can affect breeding performance of corn bunting (
Pesticides, especially insecticides such as carbamates and organophosphates have the potential to cause bird mortality due to their high toxicity (Hunter, 1995). Further to this, insecticides and fungicides pose a most prominent threat to ground-nesting farmland birds as compared to other agricultural practices. The decline of US grassland birds is attributed to acute pesticide toxicity and not agricultural intensification as previously thought (Mineau and Whiteside, 2013). An estimate suggests that 672 million birds are directly exposed to pesticides every year on farmlands, and 10% of these birds die due to acute toxic effects of pesticides (Williams, 1997). A study was conducted in rice fields of Surinam to examine the effects of pesticides, pentachlorophenol (NaPCP) on birds. NaPCP was sprayed for the purpose of killing
The increase in concentration of pesticides due to its persistent and non-biodegradable nature in the tissues of organisms at each successive level of food chain is known as biomagnification. Due to this phenomenon, organisms at the higher levels of food chain experience greater harm as compared to those at lower levels. Several studies have been undertaken that demonstrate enhanced amount of toxic compounds with increase in trophic levels. For example, out of 36 species collected from three lakes of northeastern Louisiana (USA) that were found to contain residues of 13 organochlorines, tertiary consumers such as green-backed heron (
There are a relatively few pesticide resistance management tactics that have been proposed risk-free and have a reasonable chance of success under a variety of different circumstances. Headmost among these are: monitoring of pest population in field before any pesticide application, alteration of pesticides with different modes of action, restricting number of applications over time and space, creating or exploiting refugia, avoiding unnecessary persistence, targeting pesticide applications against the most vulnerable stages of pest life cycle, using synergists which can enhance the toxicity of given pesticides by inhibiting the detoxification mechanisms. The most difficult challenge in managing resistance is not the unavailability of appropriate methods but ensuring their adoption by growers and pest control operators (Denholm et al., 1998; Dhaliwal et al., 2006).
Pest resurgence is a dose-dependent process and there are ways to tackle this problem using correct dosage of effective and recommended pesticides. Resurgence problem occurs due to a number of reasons. One of them is due to farmers’ tendency to apply low-dose insecticides due to economic constraints that lead to inadequate and ineffective control of pests. Pest resurgence also occurs due to reduced biological control (most common with insects), reduced competition (most common with weeds; monocots vs. dicots), direct stimulation of pest (due to sub-lethal dose), and improved crop growth.
In the current scenario, optimized use of pesticides is important to reduce environmental contamination while increasing their effectiveness against target pest. This way we can reduce pesticide resistance as well as pest resurgence problems. This has led to the consideration of rational use of pesticides, and the physiological and ecological selectivity of pesticides. Physiological selectivity is characterized by differential toxicity between taxa for a given insecticide. However, ecological selectivity refers to the modification of operational procedure in order to reduce unnecessary destruction to non-target organisms (Dent, 2000). Farmers should focus to use insecticides that are more toxic to target species than their natural enemies which could help to reduce resurgence to some extent (Dhaliwal et al., 2006).
One should consider adopting an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach for controlling pests, as these practices are designed to have minimal environment disturbance. The aim of IPM is not only to reduce indiscriminate pesticide use but also to substitute hazardous chemicals with safe chemistries. IPM is a process of achieving long-term, environmentally safe pest control using wide variety of technology and other potential pest management practices. According to National Academy of Science, “IPM refers to an ecological approach in pest management in which all available necessary techniques are consolidated in a unified program so that populations can be managed in such a manner that economic damage is avoided and adverse side effects are minimized” (NAS, 1969). In European arable systems, applied multi-disciplinary research and farmer incentives to encourage the adoption of innovative IPM strategies are essential for development of sustainable maize-based cropping systems. These IPM strategies can contribute immensely to address the European strategic commitment to the environmentally sustainable use of pesticides (Vasileiadis et al., 2011). The added cost and time to do an IPM approach is sometimes a difficult task for growers, but government and extension services can help in convincing and encouraging growers to go for IPM strategy for eco-friendly and long term pest control. We have already discussed earlier that continuous use of pesticides leads to pesticide resistance and pest resurgence problem. To avoid these issues we can always go for other potential management options that include cultural and physical control, host plant resistance, biocontrol, and the use of biopesticides etc.
Historically, cultural control methods were the farmer’s most important tool of preventing crop losses. Cultural control for pest management has been adopted by growers throughout the world for a long time due to its environmentally friendly nature and minimal costs (Gill et al., 2013). Cultural control practices are regular farm operations, which are used to destroy the pests or to prevent them from causing plant damage. Several methods of cultural control have been practiced, such as crop rotation, sanitation, soil solarization, timed planting and harvest, use of resistant varieties, certified seeds, allelopathy, intercropping or “companion planting”, use of farmyard manure, and living and organic mulches (Altieri et al., 1978; Dent, 2000; Dhaliwal et al., 2006). Soil solarization (McSorley and Gill, 2010; Gill and McSorley, 2011b) and organic mulches (Gill and McSorley, 2011a) alone and their integration (Gill and McSorley, 2010) were reported as economical and eco-friendly technique for controlling soil-surface arthropods (various insects, and nematodes) (Gill et al., 2010; Gill et al., 2011) and weeds (Gill et al., 2009; Gill and McSorley, 2011b). More effective cultural control can be achieved by synchronizing existing practices with life cycles of pests. This way the weakest link in their life cycle is subjected to adverse climatic conditions.
Large insect populations are killed automatically by farmers when they expose them to adverse climatic conditions through agricultural practices like weeding, ploughing, and hoeing. Ploughing of agricultural field allows turnover of the upper layer of soil while burying the weeds and residues from last year. For example, in South Africa, about 70% of overwintering populations of spotted stalk borer (
Managing pest populations using devices which affect them physically or alter their physical environment is called physical control. Exposure to sun rays, steaming, moisture management especially for stored grain pests, and light traps for attracting various kinds of moths, beetles and other pests are different methods used in physical control. For example steaming woolen winter clothes help in eliminating population of the woolly bear moth,
Mechanical control refers to suppression of pest population by manual devices. It includes various practices such as hand picking, trapping and suction devices, clipping, pruning and crushing of infested shoots and floral parts, and exclusion by screens and barriers to keep away house flies (
Host plant resistance (HPR) is the genetic ability of the plant to improve its survival and reproduction by a range of adaptations as compared to the other cultivars when exposed to the same level of pest infestation. HPR offers the most effective, economical and eco-friendly method of pest control (Sharma and Ortiz, 2002), and is considered to be a key element of the IPM strategy. Due to this, identifying and developing HPR has always been a major thrust area of plant breeding, and a number of breeding programs aiming to develop pest resistant crops have been deployed in almost all the cultivated crop species. For example, identification and/or development of resistant varieties in maize against European corn borer (
The advent of new biotechnological and molecular approaches has opened the way to develop resistant genotype that could not only reduce the pesticides application, but it also has a potential to be a part of IPM. Development of resistant genotypes in classical breeding is met with several challenges such as it is time consuming, desired traits are linked with the undesirable traits (linkage drag) and most importantly lack of resistant genotypes in the gene pool. On the other hand, use of biotechnology in crop improvement ensures the development of pest-resistant genotypes in a comparatively short period of time and minimizes the effects of linkage drag. One of the classic examples where biotechnology was successfully deployed to develop resistant genotype is by the synthesis of transgenic plants which involves modifying plant traits by inserting foreign DNA from a different species (De la Pena et al., 1987). A number of different crops including cotton, rice, mustard, and maize have been modified up to now to engineer the genotypes against various biotic stresses (Ahmad et al., 2012). One of the most successful examples of synthesis of transgenic genotype against pest resistance is in cotton where the gene coding for Bt toxin from the bacterium
Another strategy where biotechnology and molecular approaches have been deployed to combat biotic stresses involves the use of RNA interference (RNAi) technique. This technique primarily uses transgenic plants expressing double stranded RNA (dsRNA) and that reduces the messenger RNA (mRNA) levels (with a high specificity and fidelity) of a crucial gene in the target pest upon feeding (Price and Gatehouse, 2008; Kos et al., 2009). This ultimately interferes with the development and survival of the target pest. RNAi has emerged as a powerful functional genomics approach and it has been used to engineer several crops against number of insect-pests. For example, RNAi technique was used in tobacco genotype that targeted the gene “integrase splicing factor” in root knot nematode,
The process of using natural enemies of particular pests to reduce their populations to such a level where economic losses are either eliminated or suppressed is called biological control. Traditionally the most important biocontrol agents are parasitoids, predators and pathogens. Biological control involves three major techniques,
Biological control of weeds has been very successful worldwide. There are about 41 species of weeds which have been successfully controlled using insects and pathogens as biocontrol agents. Also, 3 weed species have been controlled using native fungi as mycoherbicides (Mcfadyen, 2000). A total of 12 insects were released in Australia against prickly pear (
Examples of biological control are available for other organisms like helminthes, nematodes, fungi, bacteria etc. A nematophagous fungus (
Biorational pesticides/ biopesticides are considered as third-generation pesticides that are rapidly gaining popularity. The word biorational is derived from two words, “biological” and “rational”, which means pesticides of natural origin that have limited or no adverse effects on the environment or beneficial organisms. Biopesticides encompass a broad array of microbial pesticides, plant pesticides and biochemical pesticides which are derived from micro-organisms and other natural sources, and processes involving the genetic incorporation of DNA into agricultural commodities. The most commonly used biopesticides include biofungicides (e.g.,
Applications of microbial insecticide,
The allelopathic properties of plants can be exploited successfully as a tool for weed and pathogen reduction. In a rice field, application of allelopathic plant material @ 1-2 tonne/ha reduced weed diversity by 70% and increased yield by 20%. Numerous growth inhibitors identified from these allelopathic plants are responsible for their allelopathic properties and may be a useful source for the future development of bio-herbicides and pesticides (Xuan et al., 2005). A combination of coleopteran-active toxin,
Sometimes cultural and other agro-technical practices are not sufficient to keep pest population below economic injury level (lowest pest population density that will cause economic crop damage). Therefore, the chemical control agents are resorted to both as preventive and curative measures to minimize the insect pest damage. A good pesticide should be potent against pests, should not endanger the health of humans and non-target organisms, and should ultimately break down into harmless compounds so that it does not persist in environment. Both relative and specific toxicities of the pesticide need to be estimated in order to determine its potency.
It is very important to know spray droplet size and density chemical dosage, application timing, which can provide adequate pest control. There is also a need for research into the development of suitable packaging and disposal procedures, as well as refining of the application equipment. All of these shall rationalize the use of pesticides, so that they can be used in an acceptable way.
Very strict laws should be enacted to protect wildlife and other non-target organisms. Following directions on the pesticide label can prevent injury to non-target organisms. However, when these directions are not followed, benefits from pesticides can be outweighed by the harm and risk associated with pesticides (Fishel, 2011). During pesticide application, things that need to be considered are timing of insecticide application, dosage and persistence, and selective placement of insecticides as discussed below.
The timing of pesticide application is an important factor to consider before doing any pesticide application. Appropriate application time can ensure not only maximum impact on the target organisms but also least impact on beneficial organisms. Pesticide application timing mainly depends on availability of weather window, time at which pests can be best controlled, and when least damage will be caused to non-target organisms and environment. Flowering period in crops and middle of the day are the times when bees are more prone to insecticides. Hence, insecticide application should not happen at those times to avoid decline in bee populations. Time of insecticide application should coincide with the most vulnerable stage of insect life cycle. Monitoring of insects in the field is thus extremely important for knowing the stage of insect pest in the field. Monitoring systems are available for most of the insect pests, but spray regime or experiments need to be carried out to determine the most appropriate time for insecticide application for insects for which monitoring systems are not available (Hull and Starner, 1983; Richter and Fuxa, 1984).
Time of the day and season of the year are also important to consider when making pesticide applications. The early morning and evening hours are often the best times for pesticide application because windy conditions are more likely to occur around midday when the temperature warms near the ground level. This causes hot air to rise quickly and mix rapidly with the cooler air above it, favoring drift. During stable conditions, a layer of warm air can stay overhead and not promote mixing with colder air that stays below and closer to the ground. Inversions tend to dissipate during the middle of the day when wind currents mix the air layers. It is very important that applicators recognize thermal inversions and do not spray under those conditions. A temperature or thermal inversion is a condition that occurs naturally and exists when the air at ground level is cooler than the temperature of the air above it. Wind speed is the most important weather factor influencing drift. High wind speeds will move droplets downwind and deposit them off the target. On the other hand, dead calm conditions are never recommended due to likelihood of temperature inversions (Fishel and Ferrell, 2013). Drifting of pesticides increases the possibility of injury to pollinators, humans, domestic animals and wildlife. It is recommended not to spray in wind speed above 2.5 miles/second which otherwise can cause excessive drift and eventually contamination of adjacent areas (Matthews, 1981). Pesticide application should not be made just before rain because pesticides can be washed off by the rain without any impact on the target pest.
Pesticide dose should be sufficient but no greater than the level required for best results. The pesticide manufacturer sets the dose to ensure an acceptable level of control, producing acceptable residue levels, and maximizing returns per unit of formulated insecticide. Persistent pesticides have their benefit of longer persistence on the target and therefore requires less frequent spraying compared to non- persistent pesticides. But care should be taken while using persistent pesticides since these might diminish benefits from natural enemies even at lower doses. If an insecticide is persistent in nature, chances of insecticide residues being harmful to natural enemies are greatly increased (Dent, 2000).
Distribution of pesticides in the field should be such that maximum target cover is achieved. Usually only about 1% of the applied pesticides is able to reach its target, while a large amount of it is wasted. Understanding the pest biology and behavior is critical as it can provide information on pest’s habitat, fecundity, feeding etc., which can be important considerations before applying pesticides. Most of the pesticides are applied in liquid form and thus the droplet size is very important in determining their effectiveness. Small droplets provide better coverage and greater likelihood of coming in contact with the target compared to larger droplets that can bounce off the plant surface very easily. The disadvantage with smaller and bigger droplets is the increased chance of drift and therefore a balance has to be considered between smaller droplets to obtain the maximum effectiveness and reduced drift.
In situations where crops are grown on beds covered with plastic mulch, pesticides should be injected into soil at the time the plastic is laid or injected afterward through drip irrigation system to achieve maximum pesticide effectiveness. For termite (Order: Isoptera) treatments, sometimes perimeter application of insecticides is required around structures/buildings. Additionally, liquids that form foams following injections can be injected into small spaces that are or might be inhabited by termites or other small creatures.
Although, pesticides were used initially to benefit human life through increase in agricultural productivity and by controlling infectious disease, their adverse effects have overweighed the benefits associated with their use. The above discussion clearly highlights the severe consequences of indiscriminate pesticide use on different environmental components. Some of the adverse effects associated with pesticide application have emerged in the form of increase in resistant pest population, decline in on beneficial organisms such as predators, pollinators and earthworms, change in soil microbial diversity, and contamination of water and air ecosystem. The persistent nature of pesticides has impacted our ecosystem to such an extent that pesticides have entered into various food chains and into the higher trophic levels such as that of humans and other large mammals. Some of the acute and chronic human illnesses have now emerged as a consequence of intake of polluted water, air or food.
This is the time that necessitates the proper use of pesticides to protect our environment and eventually health hazards associated with it. Alternative pest control strategies such as IPM that deploys a combination of different control measures such as cultural control, use of resistant genotype, physical and mechanical control, and rational use of pesticide could reduce the number and amount of pesticide applications. Further, advanced approaches such as biotechnology and nanotechnology could facilitate in developing resistant genotype or pesticides with fewer adverse effects. Community development and various extension programs that could educate and encourage farmers to adopt the innovative IPM strategies hold the key to reduce the deleterious impact of pesticides on our environment.
We would like to say special thanks to Drs. Gaurav Goyal (Territory Agronomist, Monsanto), Ameya D. Gondhalekar (Research Assistant Professor, Purdue University), Siddharth Tiwari (Entomologist, BASF), and Matthew R. Tarver (Research Entomologist, USDA) for their valuable suggestions and comments for improving this manuscript.
Gravity data interpretation has been widely used to appraise the different types of subsurface structures and their locations [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. Gravity methods have been widely applied to ore and mineral exploration [9, 10, 11, 12, 13], hydrocarbon exploration [14, 15, 16], cave detection [17, 18], hydrogeology [19, 20], geothermal and volcanic activity [21, 22, 23], locating of unexploded military ordnance [24], environmental and engineering application [25, 26] and archaeological investigations [27, 28].
The quantitative interpretation of gravity data using simple models (spheres and cylinders) is common in exploratory geophysics and continues to be of interest [29, 30, 31, 32, 33]. In geologic contexts with a single gravity anomaly, it can be quite appropriate [34]. A single isolated causal body can invert this recorded gravity anomaly to establish its distinctive inverted parameters and fit the recorded data.
The simple geometric models can be matched with the subsurface structures encountered during application of several approaches for inversion [35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. These methods include graphical and numerical characteristic points approaches [40, 41, 42], ratio technique [43], Fourier transform method [44], the neural network algorithms [45], Mellin transform technique [36], and Werner deconvolution technique [46]. However, the drawbacks of these methods based on tending to generate high number of invalid solution due to few numbers of points and data used, noise or window size incompatibility. As a result, these approaches are subjective, which can lead to significant inaccuracies in calculating the buried anomalous body’s characteristic inverse parameters [41, 47], which is to be expected. Gupta [48] and Essa [49] developed techniques depending on successive minimization approaches, which utilize the whole measured data to assess the depth parameter and then used some of characteristic points to continue in estimating the rest parameters such as amplitude coefficient. Shaw and Agarwal [37] used the Walsh transform scheme to determine the depth of buried bodies. Mehanee [47] used the regularized conjugate gradient method to construct an effective iterative method based on the use of logarithms of the model parameters for gravity inversion. The method inverts the residual gravity data acquired along profile for evaluating a depth and amplitude coefficient of buried bodies and suitable for subsurface imaging and mineral exploration.
Here, the study proposed an application of the robust R-parameter imaging method to interpret residual gravity data along a profile over idealized geometric bodies such as semi-infinite vertical cylinder, infinitely long horizontal cylinder, and sphere models. The goal is to establish the underlying approximative model by determining the body parameters, which include its origin, depth, amplitude coefficient, and shape. The R-parameter imaging method depends on the correlation coefficient amongst the analytic signal of the collected and calculated gravity data. The optimum solution occurs at the maximum R-parameter value.
The benefit behind the use of this method is fall in estimating the depth and body location with an acceptable value compared to the true ones and used the whole gravity data points of the profile, instead of just a few characteristic points. In addition to the method does not require priori information of the subsurface and directly interpret the anomaly from the given observed data. This chapter begins with a layout of the forward modeling, which contains a theoretical gravity formula, an R-parameter imaging approach description, numerical models test without and including noise, and a field data for slat dome investigation.
A closed-form solution for the gravity anomaly caused by simple geometric structures at a measured point (
Geometry and parameters of sphere (top), semi-infinite vertical cylinder (middle and infinitely long horizontal cylinder (bottom) (re-drawn from [
where
Case | |||
---|---|---|---|
Sphere | 1 | 3/2 | |
Horizontal cylinder | 2 | 1 | 1 |
Vertical cylinder | 0 | 1/2 |
Definitions of
The gravitational anomaly’s analytic signal is written as follows [52, 53]:
where
The amplitude of the analytic signal
By an adapting the horizontal and vertical derivatives to Eq. (1), and putting the obtained outcomes into Eq. (3), we get the following:
where
The analytic signal
To verify constancy in performance of the proposed method, numerical example without noise (noise-free) and with a 20% random noise (noisy) is tested. Another numerical example to evaluate the accuracy and stability in assessing the model parameters in case of interference/neighboring influence.
The R-parameter imaging method is applied to noise-free numerical gravity anomaly due to simple model consisting of a a horizontal cylinder model (
Model 1: Noise-free data. (a) Horizontal cylinder gravity anomaly, (b) Horizontal and vertical gradients of (a), (c) Analytic signal anomaly using the data of (b), and (d) 2-D mosaic of the R-parameter and the R-max value.
Table 2 shows a different shape values that employed in the interpretation process. The results (Figure 3 and Table 2) reveal that at
Shape factor | Maximum R-parameter |
---|---|
(q) | (R-max ) |
0.5 | 0.6696 |
0.6 | 0.7768 |
0.7 | 0.8897 |
0.8 | 0.9620 |
0.9 | 0.9930 |
1.1 | 0.9962 |
1.2 | 0.9883 |
1.3 | 0.9791 |
1.4 | 0.9700 |
1.5 | 0.9611 |
Model 1: Noise-free data. The R-parameter computed for the different shape factors.
Model 1: Noise-free data. The R-parameter, depth and shape factor relationship.
We applied the same procedures (by utilizing Eq. (4) as the forward modelling formula in this case) to the analytic signal data presented in Figure 2c to explore the recital of the current scheme when used to the analytic signal data themselves instead of the residual gravity data. Figure 4 shows the outcomes, which are match with those derived from the above-mentioned elucidation of gravity data (Table 3).
Model 1: Noise-free data. (a) Analytic signal anomaly (
Estimated model parameters | Analytic signal data | Gravity anomaly data |
---|---|---|
100 | 100 | |
5 | 5 | |
1 | 1 | |
51 | 51 |
Model 1: Noise-free data. Comparison between the model parameters estimated from the interpretation of using residual anomaly and analytic signal anomaly.
Given the lack of totally noise-free gravity field data, a 20% random noise (Figure 5a) has been introduced to the data in Figure 2a. The horizontal and vertical derivatives, besides the magnitude of the analytic signal of the measured gravity anomaly, are depicted in Figure 5b and c. The R-parameter values were evaluated utilizing Eq. (5) and created a 2-D mosaic surface (Figure 5d). The maximum R-parameter value is 0.94. The imaging-derived model parameters (
Model 1: noisy data. (a) Noisy gravity anomaly of
The amplitude coefficient (
Model 1: Noisy data. (a) Analytic signal anomaly (
Estimated model parameters | Analytic signal data | Gravity anomaly data |
---|---|---|
212.90 | 100 | |
7 | 5 | |
1 | 1 | |
51 | 51 |
Model 1: Noisy data. Comparison between the model parameters estimated from the interpretation of using residual anomaly and analytic signal anomaly.
The performance of the proposed inversion method with complicated field anomalies and the effect of interfering subsurface structures was investigated. To achieve this, we once again generate a synthetic model data from multiple source bodies as a horizontal cylinder model with
Model 2: Interference/neighboring effect. (a) Gravity anomaly generated by two different adjacent bodies, (b) Horizontal and vertical gradients of (a), (c) Analytic signal anomaly using the data of (b), and (d) 2-D mosaic of the R-parameter and the R-max values.
Figure 7b and c illustrate the horizontal and vertical gradients of the composite gravity anomaly, as well as the amplitude of the analytic signal. The R-parameter values were determined using Eq. (5) for each source location and a 2-D mosaic surface S of 101 × 11 m in the X- and Z-directions constructed and discretized into 1-m intervals in both directions. The 2-D mosaic (Figure 7d) indicates that the R-max value for each source is 0.8 and 0.62 at
To better understand the procedure, we tainted the composite anomaly (Figure 7a) with a 20% noise level (Figure 8a). The horizontal and vertical derivatives, as well as the corresponding amplitude of the analytic signal, are shown in Figure 8b and c. The retrieved R-parameter image is shown in Figure 8d, with R-max values of 0.79 and 0.61 for a horizontal cylinder and a sphere, respectively. The drop in maximum parameter values compared to (Figure 7d) is attributable to the noise introduced into the data as well as the effect of the nearby objects. The model parameters for the first and second bodies revealed by imaging are:
Model 2: Interference/neighboring effect with noise. (a) Noisy gravity anomaly of
Figure 9 depicts the results of the study of the noisy analytic signal data seen in Figure 8c. The amplitude coefficients and burial depths recovered from the elucidation are exaggerated (Figure 9a–d), as shown in Table 5, which coincides with and confirms the aforementioned results.
Model 2: Interference/neighboring effect with noise. (a) Analytic signal data (
Estimated model | Noisy contaminated interference/neighboring effect | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Analytic signal data | Gravity anomaly data | |||
Parameters | First anomaly | Second anomaly | First anomaly | Second anomaly |
A (mGal m2q−η) | 174.2 mGal m | 1554.3 mGal m2 | 126.9 mGal m | 556.3 mGal m2 |
zo (m) | 4.2 | 7.6 | 3.8 | 4.7 |
q | 1 | 1.5 | 1 | 1.5 |
xo (m) | 30 | 80 | 30 | 80 |
Model 2: Interference/neighboring effect with noise. Comparison between the model parameters estimated from the interpretation of using residual anomaly and analytic signal anomaly.
On the basis of the theoretical models presented above, it can be inferred that the technique described here is stable and robust.
A published field example over a salt dome anomaly is examined in order to thoroughly test the applicability of the established methodology. For a variety of reasons, this case was chosen. First, the residual gravity profile was created by a simple body that may be truthfully inferred. Second, the drilling information helps in estimating the density contrast of the underlying body. Knowing the density contrast, the radius can be calculated and the depth to the top also can be inferred by using the definition of the amplitude coefficient (Table 1). Moreover, the depth of the vertical cylinder model is measured to the top but the depth of a horizontal cylinder and sphere model is measured to the center of the body (Figure 1). Third, the gravity data was taken from an area with recognized drilling information, allowing the results obtained from the technique proposed here to be cross-validated against those received via drilling.
Gravity map was acquired over the Humble Dome, Houston, Texas. At the earth’s surface, the measurements of this salt dome structure reveal a negative circular contoured Bouguer anomaly ([41], Figures 8–16). A Bouguer gravity profile is taken across the center of the Humble salt dome gravity map in Houston ([41], Figures 8–16). The Bouguer gravity profile was subject to a suitable separation method to remove the regional anomaly and obtain the residual gravity anomaly. The residual gravity anomaly profile of about 26 km long was digitized at an interval of 0.26 km (Figure 10a).
The Humble dome anomaly, USA. (a) Gravity anomaly profile (red dotted lines) and the optimum-fitting model (solid black line), (b) Horizontal and vertical gradients of (a), (c) Analytic signal anomaly using the data of (b), and (d) 2-D mosaic of the R-parameter and the R-max value.
The R-parameter method procedures were applied to the residual gravity anomaly profile for the available shape parameters (Table 6). Figure 10b–d express the horizontal and vertical derivative anomalies, the amplitude analytic signal, and the R-parameter 2-D mosaic. It is found that the R-max value is 0.99 corresponds to a spherical shape (
R-max | |
---|---|
0.5 | 0.999462 |
0.6 | 0.997341 |
0.7 | 0.996274 |
0.8 | 0.992509 |
0.9 | 0.986895 |
1 | 0.984110 |
1.1 | 0.987549 |
1.2 | 0.992912 |
1.3 | 0.996863 |
1.4 | 0.998792 |
The Humble dome gravity anomaly, USA. The R-parameter calculated from different shape factors.
The humble dome anomaly has been interpreted by several authors assuming a spherical source to decide the depth of the salt body. The obtained results agree well with those depths to the center that obtained by the published literatures of [36, 41, 47, 54, 55, 56] (Table 7).
Model parameters | Approaches and techniques of | Present study | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[28] | [33] | [39] | [46] | [47] | ||
— | — | −292.54 | — | −279.81 | − | |
4.96 | 4.97 | 4.62 | 4.81 | 4.58 | ||
1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | ||
— | — | — | — | — |
The Humble dome gravity anomaly, USA. The Estimated parameters.
By using a density contrast of −0.13 gm/cm3 of [41], then the depth to the top of the spherical body of the humble dome obtained from the proposed technique is 315 m, which in excellent covenant with the true depth (305 m) confirmed by drilling and seismic information [41]. Table 8 shows that several other researchers utilizing the same density contrast found some differences in the depths to the top of this spherical source. The use of simple geometrically bodies in the constrained class of spheres, horizontal cylinders, and vertical cylinders is thus suggested as a way to accurately apply the current methodology to extract depth information. As a result, if exact density contrasts are used, the related radii can be correctly computed as well.
A residual gravity map was acquired over a salt dome off the coast of Louisiana, USA ([41], Figures 8–20). The residual gravity anomaly profile [57] is redrawn across the center of the map, normal to the causal anomaly’s striking. The residual gravity anomaly profile of about 13,000 m long was digitized at sampling interval of 200 m (Figure 11a).
The Louisiana dome anomaly, USA. (a) Gravity anomaly profile (red dotted lines) and the optimum-fitting model (solid black line), (b) Horizontal and vertical gradients of (a), (c) Analytic signal anomaly using the data of (b), and (d) 2-D mosaic of the R-parameter and the R-max value.
By applying the R-parameter method procedures mentioned before to the residual gravity anomaly profile of Louisiana we get the available shape parameters corresponding to the maximum R-parameter (R-max) as shown in Table 9. Figure 11b–d shows the horizontal and vertical derivative anomalies, the amplitude analytic signal, and the R-parameter 2-D mosaic of the Louisiana anomaly. It is found that the R-max value is 0.96 corresponds to
R-max | |
---|---|
0.5 | 0.943033 |
0.6 | 0.934839 |
0.7 | 0.926284 |
0.8 | 0.957334 |
1 | 0.957410 |
1.1 | 0.942955 |
1.2 | 0.926284 |
1.3 | 0.909983 |
1.4 | 0.894917 |
0.881254 |
The Louisiana dome gravity anomaly, USA. The R-parameter calculated from different shape factors.
The Louisiana dome anomaly has been interpreted by different authors assuming a horizontal source to determine the depth to the center of the salt body. The obtained results have a good agreement with those depths to the center that obtained by the published literatures of [5, 41] (Table 10). In addition, the proposed method has the lowest misfit compared to the other method (Table 10).
The proposed method of R-parameter imaging technique was deployed to visualizes the salt dome anomalies from the gravity data measured across a 2D profile. The method fitting the anomaly of the measured gravity profile by a single geometric shape body (sphere & cylinder). Such as the spherical source (
The obtained results by the R-parameter method of the Humble dome anomaly was compared with other results in the published literature (Table 7) and confirmed with drilling to insure the depth to the top of the buried anomaly (Table 8). For the Louisiana dome anomaly, the obtained results by R-parameter approach was compared with the pervious published literature and weighted by the misfit error between the observed and calculated anomaly for the different techniques used (Table 10) to increase the efficiency of the proposed method.
In over all the obtained results using the R-parameter method to investigate the salt dome anomalies is good and acceptable in the two given field examples.
In this study, we have introduced and investigated the applicability and the performance of the R-parameter imaging method in elucidating distinctive physical parameters (
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However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"57717",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71923",title:"In Vitro Cytotoxicity and Cell Viability Assays: Principles, Advantages, and Disadvantages",slug:"in-vitro-cytotoxicity-and-cell-viability-assays-principles-advantages-and-disadvantages",totalDownloads:14810,totalCrossrefCites:77,totalDimensionsCites:156,abstract:"Cytotoxicity is one of the most important indicators for biological evaluation in vitro studies. In vitro, chemicals such as drugs and pesticides have different cytotoxicity mechanisms such as destruction of cell membranes, prevention of protein synthesis, irreversible binding to receptors etc. In order to determine the cell death caused by these damages, there is a need for cheap, reliable and reproducible short-term cytotoxicity and cell viability assays. Cytotoxicity and cell viability assays are based on various cell functions. A broad spectrum of cytotoxicity assays is currently used in the fields of toxicology and pharmacology. There are different classifications for these assays: (i) dye exclusion assays; (ii) colorimetric assays; (iii) fluorometric assays; and (iv) luminometric assays. Choosing the appropriate method among these assays is important for obtaining accurate and reliable results. When selecting the cytotoxicity and cell viability assays to be used in the study, different parameters have to be considered such as the availability in the laboratory where the study is to be performed, test compounds, detection mechanism, specificity, and sensitivity. In this chapter, information will be given about in vitro cytotoxicity and viability assays, these assays will be classified and their advantages and disadvantages will be emphasized. The aim of this chapter is to guide the researcher interested in this subject to select the appropriate assay for their study.",book:{id:"6310",slug:"genotoxicity-a-predictable-risk-to-our-actual-world",title:"Genotoxicity",fullTitle:"Genotoxicity - A Predictable Risk to Our Actual World"},signatures:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk",authors:[{id:"211212",title:"Dr.",name:"Özlem Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Aslantürk",slug:"ozlem-sultan-aslanturk",fullName:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk"}]},{id:"66259",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85270",title:"Antioxidant Compounds and Their Antioxidant Mechanism",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-and-their-antioxidant-mechanism",totalDownloads:7576,totalCrossrefCites:58,totalDimensionsCites:152,abstract:"An antioxidant is a substance that at low concentrations delays or prevents oxidation of a substrate. Antioxidant compounds act through several chemical mechanisms: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer (SET), and the ability to chelate transition metals. The importance of antioxidant mechanisms is to understand the biological meaning of antioxidants, their possible uses, their production by organic synthesis or biotechnological methods, or for the standardization of the determination of antioxidant activity. In general, antioxidant molecules can react either by multiple mechanisms or by a predominant mechanism. The chemical structure of the antioxidant substance allows understanding of the antioxidant reaction mechanism. This chapter reviews the in vitro antioxidant reaction mechanisms of organic compounds polyphenols, carotenoids, and vitamins C against free radicals (FR) and prooxidant compounds under diverse conditions, as well as the most commonly used methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of these compounds according to the mechanism involved in the reaction with free radicals and the methods of in vitro antioxidant evaluation that are used frequently depending on the reaction mechanism of the antioxidant.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"40253",doi:"10.5772/50486",title:"Lipid Nanoparticulate Drug Delivery Systems: A Revolution in Dosage Form Design and Development",slug:"lipid-nanoparticulate-drug-delivery-systems-a-revolution-in-dosage-form-design-and-development",totalDownloads:11291,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:105,abstract:null,book:{id:"2509",slug:"recent-advances-in-novel-drug-carrier-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems"},signatures:"Anthony A. 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Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. 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Antioxidant compounds act through several chemical mechanisms: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer (SET), and the ability to chelate transition metals. The importance of antioxidant mechanisms is to understand the biological meaning of antioxidants, their possible uses, their production by organic synthesis or biotechnological methods, or for the standardization of the determination of antioxidant activity. In general, antioxidant molecules can react either by multiple mechanisms or by a predominant mechanism. The chemical structure of the antioxidant substance allows understanding of the antioxidant reaction mechanism. This chapter reviews the in vitro antioxidant reaction mechanisms of organic compounds polyphenols, carotenoids, and vitamins C against free radicals (FR) and prooxidant compounds under diverse conditions, as well as the most commonly used methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of these compounds according to the mechanism involved in the reaction with free radicals and the methods of in vitro antioxidant evaluation that are used frequently depending on the reaction mechanism of the antioxidant.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"66742",title:"Introductory Chapter: Alkaloids - Their Importance in Nature and for Human Life",slug:"introductory-chapter-alkaloids-their-importance-in-nature-and-for-human-life",totalDownloads:4130,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"6828",slug:"alkaloids-their-importance-in-nature-and-human-life",title:"Alkaloids",fullTitle:"Alkaloids - Their Importance in Nature and Human Life"},signatures:"Joanna Kurek",authors:[{id:"214632",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Kurek",slug:"joanna-kurek",fullName:"Joanna Kurek"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"19",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82962",title:"Pluralism Medical Treatment, Prevention, and Control of COVID-19 Infection and Its Long-Sufferings among the Older Adults in the Northeast of Thailand from 2019 to 2022",slug:"pluralism-medical-treatment-prevention-and-control-of-covid-19-infection-and-its-long-sufferings-amo",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106339",abstract:"COVID-19 in 2019 has brought both changes and challenges to the world. This global pandemic has an impact on people of all age levels, especially older adults. In Thailand, older persons are at high risk of COVID-19 infection. They are included in the so-called 608 groups. The objective of this review article was to synthesize and present medical pluralism, the development of drugs from herbs, and projects conducted to treat, prevent, and control the infection and long sufferings of COVID-19. The review covers 10 studies, three projects produced at Mahasarakham University, Chaiyaphum Rajabhat University, and Khon Kaen University that were reviewed, synthesized, and analyzed. The results of the synthesis indicate that modern and Thai traditional medicine can help reduce the severity of the infection and long sufferings of COVID-19. The medical pluralism between modern and Thai traditional medicine is needed to remedy COVID-19 cases among the older adults in the Northeast of Thailand.",book:{id:"11690",title:"COVID-19 Drug Development - Recent Advances, New Perspectives, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11690.jpg"},signatures:"Pissamai Homchampa, Khemika Napattaradechanon, Parichat Yatniyom, Thawalrat Ratanasiri, Piyaporn Sansila, Thanawan Sirisuk, Thawalwong Ratanasiri and Amornrat Ratanasiri"},{id:"82353",title:"Pharmacovigilance of Biological Drugs",slug:"pharmacovigilance-of-biological-drugs",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105520",abstract:"The use of biological drugs has significantly increased over the past decades and has allowed for the treatment of many life-threatening and chronic diseases. The patent expiration of biological innovative medicines enables copies of these drugs called biosimilars. The availability of biosimilars enhances competition, with the potential to improve patient access to biological medications and contribute to the financial sustainability of the healthcare systems. Unlike equivalent drugs, biosimilars are not identical but similar to their innovator products because of the differences in the manufacturing process, which is a biological process. However, they are considered comparable to their originators in safety, quality characteristics, biological activity, and efficacy. The regulatory procedures used for generic drugs cannot be applied for biosimilars, so they are subjected to rigorous characterization as well as comparative clinical studies. Since they are highly complex molecules produced from living cells, even small change in the production process can have major implications on their safety and effectiveness profile, causing a potential risk of immune-based adverse reactions. For all these reasons, for biological drugs, a robust long-term pharmacovigilance system is necessary. It is desirable that in the future, there are further guidance and resolution of the ongoing discussions on biosimilar labeling, naming, pharmacovigilance and interchangeability/substitution, to ensure the appropriate use of these drugs in clinical practice.",book:{id:"11679",title:"Pharmacovigilance and Regulations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11679.jpg"},signatures:"Simona Guerzoni, Flavia Lo Castro, Carlo Baraldi, Giuliana Colella and Luca Pani"},{id:"82868",title:"Recent Strategies for Ocular Drug Delivery: Promises and Challenges",slug:"recent-strategies-for-ocular-drug-delivery-promises-and-challenges",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106335",abstract:"Ocular diseases include various anterior and posterior segment diseases. Due to the unique anatomy and physiology of the eye, efficient ocular drug delivery is a great challenge to researchers. The emerging nanoscience is playing an important role in the development of novel strategies for ocular disease management. Various active molecules have been designed to associate with nanocarriers to overcome ocular barriers and interact with certain ocular tissues. In this chapter, highlights will be made on barrier to intraocular delivery, general pathways for ocular absorption, and factors affecting intraocular bioavailability. The recent attempts of nanotechnology for treating anterior and posterior ocular diseases will be explored. This will include nanomicelles, nanoparticles, nanosuspensions, vesicular systems, in situ gel, dendrimers, contact lenses, implants, microneedles, and cell-based delivery systems. In addition, gene-based ocular delivery systems will be discussed. In this chapter, we will also provide a comprehensive overview of drug-device combinations used for ocular diseases such as glaucoma, dry eye disease, infections, and inflammations. Furthermore, drug delivery devices for ocular surgeries are discussed. Finally, challenges and future prospective of ocular delivery systems will be explored.",book:{id:"11688",title:"Advances in Drug Delivery Methods",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11688.jpg"},signatures:"Amal H. El-Kamel and Asmaa A. Ashour"},{id:"82727",title:"Mesoporous Silica Based Cancer Theranostic: A Modern Approach in Upcoming Medicine",slug:"mesoporous-silica-based-cancer-theranostic-a-modern-approach-in-upcoming-medicine",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105447",abstract:"In case cancers are located deep inside the body and are very tough to diagnose, diagnostic tools like MRI/CT scans can be employed to detect these cancers. The major challenge in such cases is the delivery of MRI active agents or visualizing agents to the target site. In this context we will discuss different mesoporous nanoparticles that can be employed to target the tissue at a specific location, its functionalization to reach the target site (Folic acid), different simple dyes as well as specific dyes which offer theranostic functionality. The nanoparticles like mesoporous silica nanoparticles offer the possibility to load therapeutic and diagnostic agents. Its surface allow multiple functionalization and conjugations which offer target specific delivery of these agents. Moreover we will also overview different modern drug delivery inventions for offering theranostic application.",book:{id:"11688",title:"Advances in Drug Delivery Methods",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11688.jpg"},signatures:"Ajinkya Pote, Vikas Ahirrao and Vishal Pande"},{id:"82680",title:"Recent Pharmaceutical Developments in the Treatment of Cancer Using Nanosponges",slug:"recent-pharmaceutical-developments-in-the-treatment-of-cancer-using-nanosponges",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105817",abstract:"Nanosponges are a class of nanoparticles characterized by their sponge-like surface that ensures high loading capacity. Cancer causes high mortality and requires precise treatment without harming the body. Hence, nanoparticles are required to target medications to tumor. Nanosponges may be synthesized from various polymers and metals, giving them distinct properties. The majority of polymer synthesis entails crosslinking, while metal synthesis entails the isolation of metal nanoparticles accompanied by their assembly into sponges. Nanosponges must be functionalized to precisely attack tumors. There are several patents on nanosponges synthesis and their use. Future trends in the usage of nanosponges include simultaneous distribution of several molecules and expanding the spectrum of use from medicinal delivery to substance encapsulation for a multitude of applications. As their usage in the pharmaceutical industry grows, more emphasis should be put on toxicity-related aspects induced by the near association of cell membrane and nanosponge resulting in intracellular dissolution or reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, which in turn damages various cellular components. Many techniques have been created to reduce toxicity, including functionalization with various materials such as antioxidants, polymers and altering nanosponges composition. As the application of nanosponges increases in many industries, the phenomenon related to toxicity must be further explored through research.",book:{id:"11688",title:"Advances in Drug Delivery Methods",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11688.jpg"},signatures:"Kapil Gore, Sankha Bhattacharya and Bhupendra G. Prajapati"},{id:"82523",title:"Trypan Blue Exclusion Assay, Neutral Red, Acridine Orange and Propidium Lodide",slug:"trypan-blue-exclusion-assay-neutral-red-acridine-orange-and-propidium-lodide",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105699",abstract:"Cytotoxicity and cell viability assessments are very important parameters that are widely used in fundamental research and drug development to determine the safety profile of toxic compounds. These assays measure the degree to which a substance can cause toxic damage to cells or cell death. There are different assays that have been employed to determine the cytotoxicity of substances. These assays either determine enzymatic function, cell viability, mitochondrial activity, lipid metabolism, cell proliferation and/or cell death. These assays entail use of different kinds of dyes such as trypan blue exclusion dye, neutral red, acridine orange and propidium iodide to stain the cells. Trypan blue dye permeates compromised cell membrane to stain necrotic cells. However, this can lead to false positive and false negative results as it does not provide information on sub-lethal injury. As a result, neutral red and acridine orange can be used as counterstains for trypan blue to stain the lysosome of live cells. Acridine orange can also be used to stain nucleic acids in living cells and is usually co-stained with propidium iodide or ethidium bromide. This is because propidium iodide permeates only compromised plasma membrane thus co-staining cells with these dyes can provide vital information that can be used to differentiate between live and dead cells.",book:{id:"11678",title:"Cytotoxicity",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11678.jpg"},signatures:"Arinzechukwu Ude, Kaiyven Afi-Leslie, Kelechi Okeke and Emmanuel Ogbodo"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:55},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. Barderas",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"28",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",keywords:"Animal Reproduction, Artificial Insemination, Embryos, Cryopreservation, Conservation, Breeding, Epigenetics",scope:"The advances of knowledge on animal reproductive biology and technologies revolutionized livestock production. Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. Gene editing is also emerging as an innovative tool. This topic will discuss the potential use of these techniques, novel strategies, and lines of research in progress in the fields mentioned above.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. 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