Comparison of USR practices between UCA and UPC.
\r\n\t
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In its role, university plays an essential role in the development of educational strategies, having a greater responsibility as a consequence. The term university social responsibility (USR) is explained as the capacity of higher education institutions (HEIs) to disseminate and implement a set of principles, general and specific values aimed at enhancing the educational and social challenges of the society through four key processes: management, teaching, research and extension [1].
\nMoreover, the role of universities is essential in the social development for the knowledge‐based economy [2], assuming a strategic role in the welfare of the nations. The HEIs are considered relevant for their capacity to affect a great kind of interest groups (students, communities and society in general). Hence, USR represents an opportunity to promote the social development from the heart of the university.
\nHowever, in order to take advantages from this opportunity, it is important that academic authorities and public institutions use strategic plans which include and allow to manage and meet all of the stakeholders’ requirements in the university work.
\nConsidering this background, the chapter proposes a conceptual model which analyzes the inclusion of USR in the university management. For this study, the business scope has been taken, considering different contributions in the field of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and the way in which it has been extrapolated to the education sector. The stakeholder theory is considered as an important theory in the chapter. The stakeholders can be defined as all groups that influence or are influenced by the objectives, actions, political decisions and goals of a given organization with legitimate interests entitled to intervene [3–7].
\nThus, it is assumed that decision‐making affects in general a whole social system composed by different parties [8], lying in this the importance of the USR, for its high degree of impact on society. Other efforts to integrate CSR into decision‐making were made by Porter and Kramer in their study “Creating Sharing Value.” They stated that organizations should seek to coordinate their business with social needs and challenges, creating value not only in the company, but also in its environment [9], which demonstrates once again the effort to meet social requirements.
\nFrom a strategic point of view, USR represents an opportunity for social development, and in general in all their roles of action and in their multiple scope of impact such as organizational, educational, knowledge and social fields [10, 11]. Thus, due to the wide area of influence, in the development of USR, it is critical to formulate strategies designed to meet the needs of its various stakeholders, orienting the mission, objectives and specific actions to USR. In this chapter, it is suggested that USR actions are strategic whether they meet five specific conditions: (1) they are coordinated with the institution’s mission and objectives; (2) they produce a differentiating position for the university; (3) they anticipate the needs of the stakeholders; (4) they are not been imposed by external norms and (5) when those actions are easily visible by stakeholders [12].
\nMoreover, a content analysis between two Spanish universities is made in order to provide evidence of the strategic inclusion of USR in university strategic plans. The content analysis reports as a main conclusion the existence of specific USR lines as well as a wide number of stakeholders identified in the development of these actions. The result is emphasized in the relevance of stakeholder theory for USR. Specifically, the model highlights the introduction of USR into strategic plan as a management tool, creating a dynamic that benefits all stakeholders.
\nFinally, the development of the chapter is distributed as follows. Firstly, an analysis of the transition from the CSR concept to the USR is made. In Section 3, we examine the USR inclusion in the university strategic management. In Section 4, the USR is explained based on the foundations of stakeholder theory. Section 5 presents the methods used in the content analysis. Section 6 reports the conceptual proposal. Finally, the conclusions and future research lines are discussed at the end of the chapter.
\nThe understanding of USR concept needs a review of the previous concept CSR. Therefore, it is essential to know the evolution of the CSR in order to contextualize the field of USR for HEIs.
\nThe contributions of Howard Bowen, considered the father of the CSR [13], stated that businessmen’s decision‐making affects the society. With this statement, he established the basis of CSR, defining it as the obligations of businessmen to carry out desirable actions for society [14]. It can be seen that, from its beginnings, the
In the 1960s, the CSR is evolving, conceiving business actions beyond economic interests in a managerial context [15]. In the educational context, in its first conceptualization, the USR concept has arisen in the university management to attract students and economic profits as a consequence. However, universities as public institutions have social obligations beyond legal and economic duties in areas like the political and educational aimed at achieving the welfare of society [16]. In this sense, compliance with the CSR is achieved by considering the needs of all stakeholders affected by the activity of the company, since institutional decision‐making affects the entire social system [8].
\nThe evolution of CSR leads to its relationship with voluntarism [17], disappearing any chance of seeing it as an attraction of economic benefits, as Davis [15] pointed out. In this context, universities have a social role and service to the community, so it is necessary to discuss the voluntary nature of the USR and its transition to compulsory. Regarding CSR definition, some works report that the compliance with the CSR is achieved meeting the social goals of citizens, as well as explain that the responsibility of the company depends on their size, having large companies more responsibility than small ones [18]. It is understandable for the university sector that responsibilities are also bigger regarding the size of the institution, since it has a greater impact on the environment and it affects the daily work in a greater number of people.
\nIn the 1980s, the CSR concept was conceived as a process being defined as a “decision making procedure which constitute a CSR behaviour” (p. 66) [19]. Thus, as the CSR has evolved over time, it has been adapted to different types of organization, with diverse activity in different periods of time [20]. An important contribution is made by Porter and Kramer [9], establishing that a way to rethink the relationship between society and corporate performance is through “the creation of shared value.” In this line, the authors reinforced the idea that organizations must create a greater understanding of social needs, remodeling capitalism with social relationships [9]. This goes beyond the philanthropy and specific CSR actions.
\nThe development of the USR has been smaller than the development of CSR in private companies [21]. However, the USR studies are gaining attention and value for the necessary promotion and development of civil values and responsibilities [22]. Particularly, this attention is focused on the university capability to influence on the education of citizens in a globalized world [23], and on the university goal of building a fairer society [24]. According to these facts, social responsibility justifies its application within universities.
\nUnlike the CSR, the USR arises from the concern of the educational sector to contribute to social development and the impacts of HEIs. This process must be taken into account through a participatory dialogue with society in order to promote sustainable development [25]. USR should be planned as a policy of continuous improvement of the university toward the effective fulfilment of its social mission through its different management areas: (1) the organizational scope, as an entity with its own structure that consumes, has staff employed and generates waste; (2) the educational scope as an entity that is responsible for the students training; (3) the knowledge scope, as an entity that researches, producing know‐how and transmitting it; and (4) the social scope as an entity which interacts with others agents, communities and social subsystems [10, 11].
\nThus, the importance of the university has been increasing, since these institutions have been pressured to act in a socially responsible way due to the important educational role that they play in the society. This process has been reflected in the third mission of the university based on the transfer of knowledge to society, meeting also its social demands [26].
\nFrom a theoretical perspective, the approaches which analyze the USR are diverse. According to Gaete, we identified three main approaches [27]:
\nManagerial approach, which analyzes the impact of university work, strengthens the relations between universities and stakeholders [28, 29].
Transformational approach, which links the HEIs with the contribution to the debate and reflection through research and training [30].
Normative approach, which fosters and promotes the university values to society through national and international networks.
Furthermore, another interesting framework is developed in the corporate citizenship theory, which concerns about the duties of the company as part of society and the integrative theories that explain that the company works to satisfy the social demands of stakeholders [31]. In this case, universities as organizations operate within society and influence different stakeholders also have rights and obligations and must be managed, taking into consideration the needs of different university stakeholders.
\nThe inclusion of USR into university strategic management is reviewed as follows.
\nIn order to study the USR field within HEIs, it is necessary to understand how the work of the university and the inclusion of USR in strategic management are.
\nFirst, we determine how the university strategic management performs its functions. It has been suggested that in many educational institutions strategic planning is only a short‐term planning that seeks to solve specific problems and not necessarily seek the development of strategic projects [32]. Strategic planning allows HEIs to benefit from the opportunities, using resources strategically and also helping to future plans [33].
\nAt this point, it should be wondered to know whether universities have benefited from the opportunities offered by strategic planning and whether they have taken into account their management of resources. Likewise, strategic planning also provides a sense of autonomy, facilitating decision‐making process and improving the communication [34]. Moreover, several studies that support the strategic management in HEIs are becoming more numerous and diverse, mainly because of a greater demand in economic efficiency, as well as the search for a higher quality of teaching and research [35–38].
\nAlthough strategic planning is a common process implemented among HEIs, it is difficult to find a method that indicates the degree of success [39]. In addition, the literature does not identify a standardized methodology that determines the effectiveness of strategic planning or institutional learning strategies [40], and unfortunately when the strategic plan is already established, many HEIs fail to execute it [41]. Hence, the degree to which strategic planning is used is important for institutional success [42]. However, to achieve this success, the support of academic departments is necessary [43]. Also, each HEI needs different strategies due to the fact that every university has different needs and resources of each particular environment, because each institution has diverse fields of action and multiple stakeholders.
\nNow, we should understand how the university work is. First, we have to state their public nature, assuming responsibilities toward society [44], as well as social, environmental and economic concerns [45]. The formulation of university strategies must take into account these needs [45], including them in the mission, goals, objectives, lines of action and other components that form the strategic plan [46]. In other words, university uses a strategic management process, being particularly important the definition of the strategy, as well as its design, implementation, evaluation and control. This process is shown in Figure 1.
\nSocial responsibility into the strategic management process based on Refs. [
Thus, the strategic plan, as a management tool [64], helps HEIs to establish a university mission, to identify their goals and objectives and to seek actions that help achieve what is established. Such actions must be oriented toward social responsibility, due to their nature.
\nThe place of the USR within this strategic management is reflected when the development of the mission, objectives and specific strategic actions are taking place. Academic authorities take into account and considerate the impacts of the university work to the stakeholders, as well as to evaluate and control such management. Consequently, the USR is inherent in the entire process of strategic management.
\nIn private companies, social responsibility actions are considered strategic if they carry on a benefit to the company, are closely related to the business activities and accomplish its mission [12]. In the university case, the actions that involve the USR are also strategic when they support their social legitimacy. Burke and Logsdon [12] identified five characteristics of strategic activities oriented to social responsibility strategic actions:
\nCentrality, which refers to the proximity between CSR’s activities with the mission and objectives.
Specificity, which is the capacity of CSR activities to benefit the organization, giving a differential position.
Proactivity, which provides the capacity of CSR activities to anticipate the expectations and needs of stakeholders.
Voluntarism, which is achieved when CSR activities have not been imposed by external standards.
Visibility, capacity of CSR activities to be easily located by their stakeholders.
In the same way, USR activities can be strategic or not. The analysis of the previous authors has value for this chapter, because linking the university strategy with the USR leads to the formalization of the USR into the strategic management.
\nThe reason for existence of the USR is based on the fulfilment of the needs and expectations of the stakeholders, so it is crucial to study this theory and understand who are those groups and their influence on the university work. Stakeholder theory explains that there are groups that influence or are influenced by the objectives, actions, political decisions and goals of a given organization. Also, there are groups with legitimate interests that are allowed to interfere [3–7].
\nAccording to Reavill [49] in the case of universities, the main stakeholders are as follows:
\nStudents and families
University administrative staff and faculty
Suppliers of goods and services
Educational sector
Other universities
Commerce and industry
The nation
The government
Local and national taxpayers
Authorities and professional bodies
In order to correctly implement USR in HEIs, it is necessary to consider all university stakeholders in the management of different areas, being useful the basis of stakeholder theory to understand this phenomenon [50]. On the other hand, it is important to understand the influence of these groups on the university.
\nDifferent authors have classified this influence in different terms:
\nTheory of stakeholder salience [51], distinguishing those stakeholders according to the urgency for immediate actions, the influence or power of the stakeholders in the development of concrete actions [51, 52], and the legitimacy with the activities that they perform in the institution.
Some authors claim that all stakeholders are equal, and none has priority over another [3, 53, 54].
Others studies suggest that organizations must recognize what are the critical resources affected by these groups, making it necessary to develop different strategies for meeting these primary interests [55–57].
As a result, the previous authors conclude that some groups are more important than others due to their influence of critical resources:
\nOther classifications are based on whether these groups belong to the internal or external membership of the organization [58, 59], and finally
Classifies stakeholders considering their participation into an organization [60] as internal actors (participation in internal management), as stake‐watchers (generate influence/pressure in the development of activities), and as stake‐keepers (impose external control).
As it was mentioned before, the USR value is due to the benefits it brings to the stakeholders’ community. In this perception, students and their legitimacy in university tasks deserve special attention, above all because they represent a significant consumer when obtaining the necessary training to perform professionally, benefiting from a better and responsible system of HEIs. Other stakeholders are benefited too, like academics and administrative staff by improving their training and management work. In the case of society, the achievement of graduates ready for facing the ethical challenges and values needed in the market is important, among others.
\nOnce we have analyzed these groups, it is important to examine how HEIs can manage these relationships with their stakeholders, carrying out pro‐action strategies which include social responsibility [56, 61]. The third university mission in the knowledge‐based economy [2] involves reconsidering relationships with different stakeholders and then establishing working relationships with each group [59]. Based on the previous background, the strategic management and planning of USR must propose an efficient management as a result of a strategic fit between corporate strategy and social responsibility, able to meet the social and wide demands of society.
\nThus, when a university seeks to be competitive, it needs to rethink whether its activities meet the needs of its stakeholders and perhaps need to build stronger strategic relationships with its stakeholders to respond to changes in the education sector [62].
\nBased on the fact that the university has different stakeholders, a deeper study about their environment deserves more attention. This can be understood as areas of university impact, organizational, educative, social and cognitive scope [10, 11], explained as follows:
\nOrganizational scope, related to the responsibilities that HEIs have toward teaching, research, administrative and services staff; in this sense, the university has an important responsibility role of administration.
Educational scope, related to the responsible education of students and building the profile of graduates.
Social scope, referred to the participation of universities into society activities to boost plenty welfare into its community.
Cognitive scope, related to the generation of knowledge that contributes to solve social challenges, linked with theoretical approaches, lines of research, processes of production and dissemination of knowledge.
Thus, when universities evaluate their impacts, it can be considered that university implements a cycle of continuous improvements toward the effective fulfilment of its social mission through four processes: (1) ethical and environmental management of the institution; (2) formation of responsible and supportive citizens; (3) production and dissemination of socially relevant knowledge and (4) social participation in promoting a more humane and sustainable development model [10]. Therefore, we must also emphasize that the importance of the USR comes from the commitment to society where HEIs must generate a dynamic of change toward a more fair society [63].
\nThis chapter in order to provide evidences of the USR practices and their integration in university strategic programs made a content analysis of the web pages of the authors of the contribution. A content analysis of the University of Cadiz—UCA—and Polytechnic University of Catalonia—UPC—allows the identification of several USR practices (Table 1).
\nUniversity of Cadiz (Cadiz) | \nPolytechnic University of Catalonia (Barcelona) | \n
---|---|
\n
| \n\n
| \n
Comparison of USR practices between UCA and UPC.
Source: USR practices extracted from the web pages of the universities, UCA: http://www.uca.es/vrsocial/funciones and UPC: https://www.upc.edu/rsu/es/eliminar/las‐acciones‐que‐hacemos‐en‐la‐upc
\nIn both universities, we identified several cultural, environmental and educational activities related to the integration of social responsibility in university activities. Most of these activities are focusing in two of the most important stakeholder groups for the universities: the employee’s staff and the students. In the specific case of the UPC, the web page classified these activities in four specific groups, aimed at satisfying and introducing socially responsible orientation in: research, teaching, organization and reflection. This classification allows us to identify what are the key strategic areas in the implementation of socially responsible practices in universities.
\nMost of these USR practices also meet the conditions of Burke and Logsdon [12], because they take part from the central aim of the universities, can give a differential position to them, provide the capacity to anticipate future stakeholder expectations and are voluntary and visible in the university web pages.
\nDespite the fact that the content analysis is limited to two universities, it represents the first step in the identification of USR activities as well as their integration into strategic programs and plans of universities. Hence, we proposed the use of USR management tool for those universities, which are interested in integrating responsible initiatives.
\nIn order to develop USR in a proper and formal way within HEIs, social responsibility should be introduced in the strategic planning of the university [64]. In this line, the HEIs are managed by the university strategic management, which is composed by the technical and human team in charge of managing activities related to the university work and tasks. This process is implemented in cyclical steps through three important sections: planning, execution and evaluation at different levels (institutional, sectorial, unit and individual) [65].
\nMoreover, university strategic management must include in its strategic plan the mission, vision and definition of objectives and actions, ensuring an appropriate use of resources to serve to its social mission and the development of internal and external diagnostics. The conceptual proposal is presented as follows (Figure 2).
\nRole of the USR into the universities.
Therefore, it is necessary to identify how this perception could be included in the strategic plan, which includes mainly the integration of USR as philosophy of planning strategic actions (Figure 2). University strategic management should be oriented to evaluate the fulfilment of the needs and expectations of the stakeholders tracing the course of the university, which must be based on the USR.
\nThus, university strategic management will succeed if managers are able to respond to stakeholder’s needs and create welfare and if they are capable of gaining trust and generating cooperation between all university stakeholders.
\nThe aim of this chapter is the formal inclusion of the university social responsibility into strategic management, presenting an innovative conception of formulating strategies based on stakeholder’s needs.
\nUniversity potential comes from the perception of its labor on educating future professionals, but higher education institutions have much more impact beyond that. This study highlights the potential of universities throw USR, by giving more attention to the academic authorities that make strategic decisions within the university.
\nTheir strategic decisions affect to multiple stakeholders into organizational, educative, social and cognitive scopes, and the importance of this issue also comes from the perception that universities are a good opportunity to generate society welfare; on the basis that university strategic management is constantly in a decision‐making process. One important suggestion of this chapter is to include the university social responsibility as an inherent part of this decision‐making, considering every impact that university could cause from its strategic decision.
\nSeveral contributions from corporate responsibility have been taken to explain the implementation of social responsibility into universities, such as “the creation of shared value” [9], where companies look forward the integration of social needs into daily work, creating value for organizations and for society.
\nAlso as special contribution of this chapter we based on strategic management process: design, implementation, evaluation and control [47, 48]. In this process, it is proposed to establish an orientation of the mission, objectives and specific strategic aimed at achieving university goals and evaluate if the social mission of university is fulfilled.
\nIn the same line, USR in the content analysis we made meets the conditions of Burke and Logsdon [12]: centrality, specificity, proactivity, voluntarism and visibility, suggesting that there is not too much difference between the CSR implementation and USR implementation in the practice. The work of Burke and Logsdon plays a relevant role in the identification of strategic USR practices. Moreover, the content analysis shed light on the identification of four strategic sections for implementing socially responsible actions: teaching, researching organization and reflection concerns.
\nThus, the only way for USR to increase the university values is to be integrated into the strategic management of universities as a formal process. The university decision makers must establish a mission, objectives and specific strategic actions to respond to stakeholder’s needs and expectations and coordinate all process by using the strategic plan as management tool. Once they create this plan, they should execute it and evaluate if university work truly accomplishes the stakeholder requirements. Consequently, university social responsibility should be placed as a philosophy to develop the strategic plan, and authorities should implement strategies anticipating stakeholder’s expectation.
\nTherefore, the complexity of this issue deserves more analysis in its different aspects, such as current demands of university stakeholders and how universities meet the expectations; what is the situation of USR into the university strategic management in other Spanish and European universities; and knowing from university decision makers whether they are really interested in implementing USR initiatives and monitoring these activities. These issues have to be considered by all people interested in university performance and development in future research lines.
\nNowadays, LED lights are becoming more and more used in various fields of applications such as domestic and industrial lighting, open space offices or supermarkets lighting, streets lighting, large spaces for sporting or entertainment events, and in transport for lighting and signaling, both on land or sea or air [1, 2]. The power density featured is very variable and depends on the type of application and ranges from a few Watts to thousands of Watts. Furthermore, the power source can be different from direct current (DC source) to alternating current (AC source), presenting different needs for interfacing with Solid-State Lighting (SSL) [3]. In the lighting scenario, a LED light system (light bulb, street-light, floodlight and so on) can be considered as a combination of LED semiconductor materials and a driver circuit.
LED light system is acknowledged as the actual generation of the sustainability light source. It has many benefits compared with incandescent lamp and the fluorescent lamp [4, 5, 6, 7]. It features high efficiency, long life, safe and environmental protection, small size, high reliability and fast response speed. In the last generation of the LED light bulbs, the equivalent lighting effect is achieved with power consumption about 1/10 of incandescent lamp and 1/2 of the fluorescent lamp [8].
The design of the LED driver circuit plays a key role to achieve a performant light system. The light brightness is function to the supplied forward current. Therefore, LED is a current-driven device. The driver circuit must provide the correct level of current for the required brightness as well as comply with other characteristics such as:
high reliability, necessary in cases of operation in difficult conditions (for example in transport at very low temperatures or generally, for continuity of service needs),
high efficiency to reduce losses and improve performance and autonomy in the case of portable lighting systems with batteries as a source,
small volumes of the power converters for arranging the drive circuits to meet the demands of having LED bulbs, light fixtures, and modern lighting systems as compact as possible,
flexibility and precision in control to adjust the brightness to avoid phenomena such as flicker with the fault-tolerant capability,
surge protection necessary due to the vulnerability of light emitter diodes to over voltages and low resistance to reverse voltages (for example, high voltage spikes from the power grid can occur in LED streetlights),
additional protection functions such as input under-voltage, temperature or short circuit of converter power switches,
high power factor (PF), in the case of AC power supply with a satisfactory power quality waveform and consequently with low Electromagnetic interferences (EMI) contents.
Specifically, in AC connected LED driver a high PF leads a displacement power factor next to one and an input current with quite low total harmonic distortion (THD) [9, 10]. Furthermore, the LED light system must comply with the national and international standards and regulations concerning harmonic currents, such as the standard IEEE-Std-519 and the IEC 61000–3-2.
Other characteristics of the driver circuits concern the circuit structure. The circuits solutions can be passive or active topologies. Active circuits can be classified as linear or switching type. Furthermore, the driver circuits can be non-isolated if the output current is limited and a low voltage source is involved or can be isolated when the safe operative conditions are prevalent and a higher output current is requested [11]. Additionally, the information and communication technologies (ICT) are making the driving of solid-state lamps smarter and smarter, allowing to vary the brightness level (dimming) and the colors through remote and controlled communication systems by means of user interfaces developed according to the needs of the user [12].
This chapter is organized as follows.
In the Section 2, the basics of the LED driver are addressed. Furthermore, the main passive, and active circuit for the solid-state lighting driving are described and classified.
In the Section 3, the main topologies of the DC-DC switching driving circuits are presented and analyzed.
In the Section 4, the switching-type driving circuits and their interfacing with the network AC and DC source are investigated.
In an LED device the emitted light follows the increment of the current. It is almost proportional to the supplied current. However, the relationship between voltage and light output is highly nonlinear. The direct voltage VF drop and the current IF are linked by an exponential function typical of the silicon diode. In Figure 1a the voltage–current characteristic is depicted for a white LED. The curve has been obtained by a variable voltage source with series resistance to control the diode direct current. In Figure 1b the circuit schematic of the LED characterization is shown. From the Figure 1a, the diode features rated voltage of 3.5 V and a rated current of 700 mA, while the threshold voltage Vth is 2 V. From Figure 1b the resistance RS to obtain the requested current is
(a) I-V curve characteristic for a white LED, (b) schematic of characterization circuit.
The circuit schematic of Figure 1b is also the basic linear LED brightness control. Referring to Figure 1a two control approaches can be performed. In the first methodology, the LED V-I curve is used to set the voltage needs to generate the requested forward current. In the second driving approach, the LED device is controlled with a constant-current source to drive the LED eliminating the high current changing due to little variations in forward voltage control. Indeed, the high slope of the voltage–current curve leads that a small change of voltage that can carry on a significant change of current through the diode consequently, a considerable change of the emitted light appears. To avoid any flickering, LEDs need a constant current source [13]. Furthermore, constant current control circuits are robustness for the load short-circuit but suffer the load fully open conditions.
The LEDs can be driven by different kind of passive or active circuits. Furthermore, the active driver circuits can be classified in linear or switching topologies.
The quantities of current and voltage to be supplied to the LED to achieve the required brightness can be provided with different circuits. Passive LED drivers feature the exclusive use of passive components (e.g., resistors, capacitors, magnetic components) and silicon diodes. The simplest and most reliable circuits are passive ones. This simple and cost-effective circuits do not exhibit performance like linear or switching driver circuits and operate without precise control of the output current. They generally provide a DC current with AC current ripple but are still used in those cases where reliability and continuity of service are prevailing parameters comparing to dynamic performance and efficiency. Examples of applications are outdoor street-lights that operating in difficult environmental conditions where complex circuits can be more vulnerable. Use of an impedance between the ac line and the LED light bulb load to fix and limit the current is mandatory. The main drawbacks of these passive topologies are the low PF and THD featured, sometimes not enough to comply with the standards [14]. Passive LED drivers can be arranged in two main categories, lossy and lossless (ideal) passive circuits [15].
The lossy passive driver is usually composed of a transformer that lowers the mains voltage to one compatible with the number of LEDs to be driven (The load is generally composed of LED arrays), a bridge rectifier circuit which rectifies the alternating voltage, an electrolytic capacitor which reduces the AC ripple and finally a resistor in series with the LEDs. The current limitation is achieved by means of a simple resistor. In some LED driver applications, a linear circuit replaces the resistor [16]. The traditional passive circuit described is represented in Figure 2a. The step-down transformer reduces the voltage drop on the resistor RS leading to an increase in the overall system efficiency. Furthermore, the transformer guarantees galvanic isolation. A large electrolytic capacitor CS is used to reduce the ripple appropriately in order to avoid flickering. The large value of CS necessary lead to pulsating input currents which high harmonics contents. Generally, the PF of such circuits is low and hardly is comply with the Class D limit [17].
Passive LED driver circuit. (a) Lossy passive circuit, (b) lossless passive circuit.
In this type of passive driver, the main cause of the efficiency reduction is the conduction losses of the RS resistor.
The “lossless” drivers use to limit the current of the LEDs ideally a lossless impedance (such as inductors and capacitors). An inductor positioned on the AC side can be used to limit the current as shown in Figure 2b. The inductor Lin produces an impedance that withstands the voltage difference between the input voltage VAC and the output voltage V0 required across the LEDs. The Lin impedance does not require the step-down transformer of the previous circuit solution. Furthermore, Lin acts as an input filter. As consequence on the DC side, after the rectifier bridge, it is possible to use a capacitor CS with a smaller capacity and therefore not electrolytic. The use of non-electrolytic capacitors allows a long life of the entire system. The LS on the DC side is used to convert the rectifier output voltage into a direct current source I0 to drive the LED load. The input capacitor Cin is useful for further improvement of the input power factor. The use of a power factor correction capacitor Cin is a standard method used in the magnetic ballast in the case of fluorescent lamps [18].
A passive driver circuit using the Valley-fill topology is depicted in Figure 3a. The Valley-fill circuit has been widely used in ballast systems for powering gaseous discharge lamps. It allowed having a power factor of 95% without the need for additional control [19]. In the case of LED diode drivers, Valley-fill enhances the improvement of the ripple of the output voltage, maintaining an adequate quality of the current waveform at the input thanks also to the presence of the Lin. Also in the Valley-fill circuit the capacitors used are not electrolytic. The idealized waveforms of the main input and output voltages together with the power P0 are shown in Figure 3b. The analysis of the presented waveforms is reported in detail in [20].
(a) Passive driver circuit with valley-fill circuit. (b) Idealized waveforms of circuit operation.
In low power applications, linear regulators are used extensively. As power increases due to losses, these regulators are replaced by current regulated switching converters. In many applications, the LED diodes in single or in string configuration are used as indicators (smart home devices, LED displays, rear lights, directional lights in the automotive sector, animated LED circuits, etc.) with linear regulators using dedicated integrated circuit (IC) devices.
The principle of operation of a linear regulator is shown in Figure 4a. the necessary constant current is established by means of feedback through a sensing resistor and a comparator circuit which compares a reference voltage with the actual voltage on the sensing resistor. The necessary LED current is established by the relation (2).
(a) Operation principle of a linear regulator LED driver. (b) Schematic of actual IC (NUD4001) for a string LED driver applications.
This type of regulator is usually realized in an integrated way. The integrated solution is more attractive because reduces board space and component count, simplifying circuit and system designs [21]. In Figure 4b the application circuit of an integrated regulator (IC) with battery source (NUD4001 - On-Semiconductor) for driving up to 500 mA of a LED strings is shown [22].
The ever increasing demand for LED systems with high brightness and improved energy efficiency, especially for portable power applications, has led to the introduction of more and more advanced switching LED current control drivers with various features and better current matching/regulation. The use of power devices in switching operation allows to overcome the limits of linear regulators regarding efficiency [23]. Furthermore, the increasing switching frequency of the last generation power devices allows using inductor and high-frequency (HF) transformer with reduced core size featuring compact volume [24]. Several converter topologies are available depending on the power range and other characteristics such as galvanic isolation need, size and cost-effectiveness, easy dimming capability, modular approach availability and efficiency target. In switching converters, the current and voltage control is achieved by pulse width modulation (PWM) strategy. In a battery source, the switching LED driver is effective in the management of multiple LED strings and array in several kinds of application such as in automotive or in portable electronics devices [25]. The main design features of switching driver circuit with pros and cons compared with linear and passive solutions are reported in Table 1.
Driver topology | Current control method | Advantage | Disadvantage |
---|---|---|---|
Passive | Resistor |
|
|
Active Linear | Linear control loop |
|
|
Active switching | PWM current control |
|
|
Design constraint comparison for passive and active driver circuits.
In the AC source the switching LED drivers are used specially in indoor application. For the topologies attached to the electricity grid, the power factor plays a crucial role. Two solutions are pursued. In the first solution, the PFC can be composed within a single stage together with the actual driving circuit. In this case, it is referred to as a single-stage driver (SS). The SS driver block schematic plus the filter capacitor CS are reported in Figure 5a. In the SS driver circuit, the filter capacitor is usually connected after the DC-DC converter, which is on the high-frequency side to obtain a high PF [26, 27]. In the second approach, the driver topologies have a two stage (TS). The first stage is a front-end PFC converter and the second stage is a DC-DC converter which controls the requested current in a string of LED [28]. In Figure 5b the block schematic of a TS driver is depicted. In TS driver the filter capacitor is placed between the two semi-staged downstream from the PFC DC-DC converter to obtain high PF. SS drivers arrangement can significantly increase efficiency by dramatically reducing component cost and volume at the expense of more complex control. In the case of light bulbs of reduced power and small dimensions, single-stage topologies are certainly to be preferred. The TS solution provides accurate and flexible control also with dimming feature of the DC-DC converter separated by the PFC control design at the expense of additional circuitry and cost. Furthermore, with the second stage DC-DC converter, is possible the use of a not electrolytic capacitor. The second stage compensates the low-frequency ripple on the output voltage to achieve an AC-DC LED driver with a lifetime comparable to that of the LED devices. In the range of medium power, SS or TS topologies choice depending on the trade-off of the design constraints. Generally, TS approach is suitable in higher power applications.
(a) SS switching driver block schematic. (b) TS switching driver block schematic.
In case of industrial environment and higher power request for high-brightness Light-Emitting Diodes (HB-LEDs), three-phase AC source can be supplied. In these applications three phase rectifier can be used to power the DC-DC converter. In three-phase AC source also a multi-cell converter solution may be used. In this topology approach, three single-phase converters in a star or delta connection to the three-phase power grid are arranged and linked in parallel connection at the output [29]. Finally, in Figure 6a block diagram classification of ac-dc LED drivers for both single-phase and three-phase AC source are summarized.
Block diagram of AC-DC LED driver circuits classification.
The LED driver circuits topologies selection depending on three basic needs. The kind of energy sources (DC or AC), the power requirement and the galvanic isolation features. In the following, as the first study case, the converters for DC sources are investigated.
LED drivers often require step-up/step-down regulation DC/DC converters. The power converters supply constant current at a voltage from a not constant input voltage (actual battery source). The battery source voltage can be higher or lower than the load request. The converter output voltage can be regulated by the power switch duty ratio modulation strategy (PWM), taking into account a feedback adjustment by the output current [30]. Considering a single switch converter, a simple buck converter is a basic topology for the voltage and current control of the LED string (Figure 7a). It enables simple, efficient and cost-effective solutions for driving regular and high-brightness LEDs. In steady-state the duty cycle regulates the output voltage by the duty cycle (d) duration (3).
Non isolated converter for LED driver circuits. (a) Buck converter (b) boost converter, (c) Buck- boost converter, (d) Ćuk converter, (d) SEPIC converter.
Multiple LEDs solution need an adequate voltage amount. Step-up (boost) LED drivers acting with a current control achieving a higher load voltage of the DC source available (Figure 7b). In this step-up converter, in steady-state conditions, the output voltage is higher than the input voltage as described by
In case of a wide input voltage range, a buck-boost topology is preferable.
In the buck-boost converter, the output voltage is regulated by
In this converter the output voltage has an opposite polarity than the input voltage (Figure 7c). Furthermore, the diode DS and C0 in the output stage can provide an LED short circuit protection feature. This circuit property, for example, is very crucial in automotive applications.
An improving alternative is the Ćuk converter. It is composed of a boost converter followed by a buck converter. As the buck-boost, it is suitable in applications where an input voltage from a continuous source (e.g. battery) can be greater or less than the requested output voltage. It maintains the same regulation law at steady-state of the traditional buck-boost converter with inverted polarity in the output voltage. The Ćuk converter features some benefits compared with the buck-boost converter in the matching of the LED driver design constraint. The topology structure achieves low input and output current ripples [31]. The presence of an inductor in the input stage of the circuit allows a smoothed input current waveforms. Furthermore, the LC filter in the output stage facilitates a smooth current waveform (Figure 7d). Moreover, this converter has four energy storage devices (two inductors and two capacitors) which can provide higher output power compared to other converters such as buck, boost and buck-boost of the same electrical characteristics. The disadvantage of this topology is a higher number of passive components and more complex control. Another interesting topology is the SEPIC converter [32]. It has the advantages of low input current ripple achievement due the presence of the LC filter in the input stage (Figure 7e). Furthermore, the output voltage is not inverted polarity. The drawbacks are as a Ćuk converter the higher number of passive components and more complex control due to fourth order dc-dc converter transfer function. Moreover, SEPIC converter has a higher voltage stresses on the power switch.
To reduce the current ripple every converter described usually operated at constant current mode (CCM) and the power rate of these converter applications is up to about 150 W.
A basic control system to reach the requested LED brightness a peak current control (PCC) is widely used for drive based on Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost converter topologies. In the following, for simplicity, the Buck converter control strategy is investigated, but the considerations that will be made can be easily extended for the other topologies already described. In the Buck converter, the current sensing resistor can be connected to the source of MOSFET devices (Figure 8a). In this way, the current is only sensed during the on-state of the MOSFET switch compared to the sensing resistance located in load side, reducing power losses. Generally, the Buck converter topology can be rearranged in a different way to reduce the noise signal, positioning the sensing resistor with a pin to ground (Figure 8b). The capacitor C0 in some industrial application, in low side MOSFET solution, is removed as highlighted in Figure 8b (LUMILED HB-LED arrangement) [33]. The main switching current waveforms and the gate control voltage Vq in steady state conditions are reported in Figure 8c.
Buck converter with MOSFET with the sensing resistance layout arrangement in the traditional in (a) high-side location and in (b) low-side position. (c) Switching waveforms of command signal Vq and the main converter currents.
The operating principle of the PCC control is shown in Figure 9 in the condition with the low-side MOSFET and the sensing resistor between source and ground.
Peak current control technique (a) circuit schematic of the control method and Buck in low side MOSFET solution. (b) Main control signal and led current behavior.
The current control works as follows. The clock signal leads the control signal Vq high and the current in the inductor ramps up. When the transduced MOSFET current Ics reaches the reference Ipeak, the comparator resets the command signal and at the next clock signal, the control cycle is repeated [34]. The schematic of the PCC control is depicted in Figure 9a. The main control waveforms and the LED current are reported in Figure 9b. From Figure 9b the current ripple, ΔIL, is evaluated by:
The average LED current ILED,Ave can be calculated as
As demonstrated in (9) the LED current depends on Vin. A large variation of Vin affects the ILED,Ave losing control accuracy with respect to the Ipeak reference.
A more accurate control should contain compensation for the variation of the input voltage Vin in order to keep the LED current closer to the reference value Ipeak.
The CPM technique achieves the following advantages
Simply control circuit implementation and robust;
Constant switching frequency strategy, with constant switching losses.
Intrinsic short circuit protection. MOSFET failure for over current can be controlled by limiting the maximum reference current;
In converter application with isolating transformer, the saturation problems can be reduced;
Easy LED driver module application capability. The modules can be connected in parallel with equal current sharing providing equal current control for each module.
As disadvantages have
Susceptibility to noise;
Sensitive to the wide Vin variation.
Finally, the current regulation of LED to obtain a dimming effect combine the PCC strategy and an adjustable PWM signal. A conventional circuit structure is shown in Figure 10.
Schematic of driver circuit with PCC strategy combined and PWM control signal to act the dimming effect.
To avoid inaccuracy in the controlled current a hysteresis-current control (HCC) technique can be implemented. In HCC strategy is necessary to control the on and off current value. The controlled current is always included within a defined hysteresis band [33]. In this control solution, the sensing resistor can be positioned in series to the LED, thus the high-side MOSFET buck layout may be used, as shown in Figure 11a, to allocate the sensing resistor with a grounded pin [35]. The sensing current is compared with a reference current and the error is forward to a window detector with the band levels positive and negative requested. The controlled current behavior with a fixed hysteresis band in two different cases of the control signal Vq is reported in Figure 11b. The HCC technique is non-constant frequency control.
(a) HCC control scheme in high-side MOSFET Buck converter. (b) The controlled current behavior with a fixed hysteresis band in two different cases of the control signal Vq.
The advantages of this control strategy are
Fixed band hysteresis control does not present stability problems
low software requirements in digital form implementation,
high reliability, and less tracking error.
The main disadvantage is the non-constant frequency control. It means a switching losses variable and generally higher compared with the previous control method. But with the new generation of wide-bandgap devices such as GaN, the switching losses are strongly reduced and this control method is more attractive [36].
A further hardware arrangement to achieve switches losses reduction in buck converter is the use of a MOSFET (or GaN) devices to replace the diode DS working in a synchronous way with the high-side switch [36].
As the power required for driving LEDs increases, more complex topologies and galvanic isolation is required to isolate the DC source from the LED strings, increasing safety and protection against short circuits on the load side. In the field of medium power (up to about 100 W) the Flyback topology is usually the one most used for the reduced number of components, low cost, together with efficiency even above 90% (Figure 12). The increase in efficiency depends on the type of switch selected, whether pure silicon or wide-bandgap devices [37]. The presence of two inductances coupled to transfer energy between the primary side and the secondary side allows the galvanic isolation required in many applications. The Flyback converter is an isolated arrangement of the Buck-Boost converter. The output voltage depends on the ratio of the number of windings on the primary side and secondary side and maintains the Buck-Boost converter duty cycle dependence (10).
A qualitative estimation of the isolated application versus the power rate.
It works with a DC power supply and therefore falls within the classification outlined. Usually, the Flyback converter is used attached to the grid to create single-stage AC/DC drivers, thus it will be more fully discussed in the next session.
In the Flyback converter, the single switch use limits the power rate. Furthermore, a single switch does not make the best exploitation of the magnetic hysteresis loop, producing losses in the magnetic core [38]. In the field of higher powers, topologies based on Half-Bridge, Push-Pull and Full-Bridge converter are applied to supply high current. These converters all have high-frequency transformers that allow galvanic isolation. The high switching frequencies used (around hundreds of kHz with wide-bandgap devices) achieve a transformer volume reduction. An additional advantage of the transformer is the availability to feature several secondary windings. Therefore, several LED strings can be supplied at the same time also with different strings arrangement. The Half-Bridge converter (Figure 12) has the following transfer function
To avoid devices cross conduction, the duty cycle must be d < 0.5. It has the following pro and cons.
Pro: better transformer utilization, best application up to 500 W, single winding primary, switch voltage limited stress (equal to Vin).
Cons: hard switching operation, floating driver circuit need for the high side MOSFET, high primary current stress.
The Push-Pull converter operates in hard switching at d < 0.5. It has the same transfer function of the Half-Bridge converter multiplied by 2. In the Push-Pull converter the MOSFETs driver circuits are more simple because there are two switches in low side position (Figure 12). Push-Pull topology features lower input ripple than the Half-Bridge. On the other hand, at turn-off the switches have higher voltage stress are (2Vin). Furthermore, in the primary side the transformer is center tapped [39].
The Full-Bridge structure is composed of four switches (see Figure 12). It has a twice transfer voltage ratio as the Half-Bridge topology and operating with d < 0.5. It features twice the power rate than the Half-Bridge solution with equal MOSFETs voltage stress (equal to Vin), but it has a more complex structure.
To reduce power losses with increasing efficiency, in higher power driver converter topologies, solutions with soft switching operation have been increasingly used. In these circuit types, the LLC resonant converter in half-bridge and full-bridge topologies are the most studied and applied [40]. The LLC resonant converter operation will be better discussed in the next section.
In Figure 12 qualitative estimation of the isolated power converter topologies versus the output power rate are shown.
LED driver circuits connected to the grid must meet several requirements regarding the frequency and the quality of the waveforms that are linked to the grid. The power factor must be controlled by means of a dedicated PFC circuit. Furthermore, it is necessary to keep the levels of Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) contents introduced into the grid low. Also, the flicker limits for LEDs must be considered.
In the design of drivers connected to the electrical network, before finding the circuit solutions it is essential to know the regulations and recommendations that an LED driver must comply with. The following design rules and standards must be taken into consideration.
the ENERGY STAR® program recommendations, with specific regulations and requirements for LED lighting equipment [41],
the harmonic standard (i.e. IEC 61000–3-2),
flicker rules and metrics [14].
To observe the design constraints, the driver circuit is composed of several modular blocks. Each block meets certain requirements. In Figure 13, the schematic of the LED driver for an AC lighting system is reported. From the line to the load (LED strings), there are the EMI filter, the diode rectifier, the PFC and the DC-DC converter. This schematization has been referred to as a dual-stage driver. If the power factor correction is integrated into the control in the DC-DC converter, then it is referred to as a single-stage driver.
Blocks schematic of a AC source LEDs driver circuit.
The single-stage LED driver is very attractive. On the other hand, it has to combine the control both the PF and the current to be supplied to the LEDs. The topology widely used in these applications is the Flyback converter especially at power rates below 100 W. The structure of the Flyback converter has the least components compared with other isolated converters, and many studies have been conducted on the grid connection to obtain high PF and low THD [42, 43]. In the LED driver application, the operative conditions usually used is a critical conduction mode (CRM) or the discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) [44]. In DCM (or CRM) the switch turn-on can be driven when the transformer is completely demagnetized, thus transformer saturation is avoided. The efficiency of the Flyback converter can be increased using the soft-switching technique exploiting the parasitic components present in the structure of the converter and of the power switch (Figure 14a). The quasi-resonant (QR) mode is used in the Flyback application to reduce the switching losses despite the non-constant frequency operation. Moreover, the QR operation allows has an enhanced transient response in DCM operation and it features a smaller EMI filter [45].
(a) Schematic of Flyback converter with the stray inductance and capacitance reported on the primary side. (b) DCM operation at td constant. (c) DCM in QR operation with k = 1.
In addition, the QR Flyback LED driver has higher safety properties under output short circuit conditions. In the QR operation, the MOSFET is not turned on until the primary windings are fully demagnetized. On the other hand, a high ripple output current and high output diode and switch conduction losses in comparison to the fixed frequency driver. A further drawback well know is the high voltage stress on the switch given by
Where Vr is the output voltage reflected in the primary side and Vstray is the peak voltage of the ringing at turn-off transient due to the equivalent primary inductance Lps and the equivalent parasitic capacitance (Cps) composed by the output MOSFET capacitor and the equivalent primary side stray capacitor (Figure 14a and b). The resonant frequency
In a DCM traditional operation flyback converter, the gate driver acts with a constant switching frequency, while in a QR operation a variable frequency is featured [46]. To turn on the switch a demagnetization time tM is necessary. After tM, a natural oscillation typical of a second-order system appears. The resonant frequency
A simplified Flyback converter with the stray inductance and equivalent parasitic capacitor on the primary side linked to the AC source by a rectifier bridge is depicted in Figure 14 a. In DCM operation at a constant frequency, a constant delay time td is added to tM to compose the turn-off time. In QR operation a resonant valley detection achieved by the control circuit is provided to switching at lower power losses. Figure 14b depicts the drain-source voltage waveforms and the current both in the primary and secondary side in DCM with constant frequency operation and QR operation with the turn-off at the first valley (Figure 14c).
The switching period Tsw is
Where tosc is the complete ringing time for the VDS
As reduced load ton is reduced yet. At light load, the switching frequency is higher. Also, the ringing time tosc increase with the decrease of the load [47]. The quantitative k specifies the number of rings within tosc. Even, the number k is inversely proportional to the load. The control strategy acts considering the k to detect the better valley point to turn-off. At light load, the controller can be operated considering k different from 1 because the losses are still reduced. At high load, the k usually considered is equal to 1 to reduce drastically the losses.
The market requirements are based on standard IEC61000–3-2. It defines some input current THD targets (e.g., <10% at full power) that are very difficult to achieve, especially when working with lighting equipment over 25 W.
As know, the distortion corresponding to the harmonics contents. The distortion power factor DPF in the hypothesis of a perfectly sinusoidal input voltage is
Where THDi is the input current total harmonic distortion. The current Iin1,rms is the baseband component of the current, while Iin,rms is the total input current. The true Power Factor (TPF) in non-linear grid load such as the power converter is related to the Distortion Power Factor and the Displacement Power Factor.
The Displacement Power Factor is due to the phase shift between voltage and current at the fundamental line frequency. It is defined as the ratio between the real power average Pave and the apparent power in perfect sinusoidal waveforms the displacement power factor is equal to cosφ. Thus, in case of pure sinusoidal system, Displacement Power factor and True Power factor are equivalent.
In switching operative condition displacement power factor is established as
Where Vin1,rms and Iin1,rms are the first harmonic of the AC voltage and current respectively. The Pavg is defined as
Neglecting the Harmonic beyond the first one is valid the approximation of Pavg1 related to the first harmonic quantities equal to Pavg, the true power factor can be established as the multiplication between the Distortion Power Factor and the Displacement Power Factor [48].
In switching converter, to obtain a high TPF two target can be pursued: low THDi and Displacement Power Factor very close to one. The control strategy target is to combine an input current quite close a sinusoidal waveform (high THD) with the same phase of the input voltage to reach high-PF. Furthermore, the common PFC control method is usually combined with a peak current control.
Indeed, several integrated control chips for Flyback converter are based on the peak current PFC control implementing also QR operation [49]. A basic function block diagram of the QR peak current mode IC is depicted in Figure 15a. In Figure 15a, Vinr is the rectified AC line voltage. Vfb is the signal feedback of the output voltage V0. Vref is the reference voltage. The output of the error amplifier 1 is a multiplier factor of a suitable reduced value of Vinr (kp.Vinr). The bandwidth of the error amplifier is quite low to have in a slow variation of the output error (low pass filter effect) with a low ripple. The output of the multiplier block is proportional to Vinr. The signal voltage VRs is related to the primary inductor peak current. If VRs reaches the output voltage of the multiplier VMu the pulse width modulation (PWM) signal is reset turning off the power switch Q. The turn-on is achieved by the valley detect circuit (VDC) obtaining the waveforms depicted in Figure 15b The VDC acts after the full demagnetization of the primary windings provided by an enable signal of a demagnetization detection circuit (DDC). The output signal of the VDC block set the delay time td. As shown in Figure 15b the current envelope both at the primary and secondary side is a half sinusoidal cycle. In particular, the inductor peak current will be a sine wave with the same phase as the input voltage, which can achieve a quite high-power factor. As above described, the control signal Vq has a non-constant frequency.
(a) PFC control circuit simplified schematic. (b) Primary and secondary side current behavior and driver signal Vq.
The controller can be used in the simple DCM operation without QR enhancement, replacing the VDC block with only the DDC and settling the delay time td at a constant value. In this last control approach, the driver signal Vq acts at constant frequency.
The control method investigation is based on the analysis detailed in [47, 50]. The control method quantities depending on the instantaneous line voltage. For simplicity of analysis in the following, the term θ = 2π
The input voltage Vin is fully sinusoidal.
The coupling between the inductors on the Flyback is ideal.
The power switch and the diodes have conduction and switching losses negligible).
The output voltage is constant in a line half-cycle.
The Flyback converter operates in DCM and QR with k = 1
Based on the first assumption the voltage downstream the rectifier bridge is a rectified sinusoidal waveform.
Where Vinr,peak is the max peak amplitude of the rectified Vinr.
The current peak Ip,pk at the primary side is enveloped by a rectified sinusoid as shown in Figure 15b. It is given by. It is given by
Where Ip,PK is the maximum peak amplitude of the enveloped current in the primary side. In the secondary side the Is,pk is proportional to the primary current.
Where n is the transform ratio, n = Np/Ns.
Considering the current Ip as a triangle form, as shown in Figure 14b and c, ton is expressed by
At turn-off, toff is
Considering the assumption of k = 1 and neglecting the td for simplicity (very close to the CRM operation). The switching time Tsw is given by
From (24) the minimum value of the stitching frequency
The duty cycle is given by
The control strategy described above in Figure 15b leads to the envelope current on the primary stage following the sinusoid described by (22) and better specified as
The rectified input current Iinr(θ) can be established as the average value of the primary current in each triangle over a switching cycle (Figure 15b).
The constraint design condition for achieve a displacement power factor equal to 1 is
The two-stage driver converter is more expensive in terms of components used but offering better immunity to line disturbances and greater flexibility because the power factor control is separated by the DC-DC current allowing more simple dimmable applications. Furthermore, the modular The wide solution for the PFC topology is a boost converter. In power converters such as the Boost (also the SEPIC and ĆuK converter, but with more numerous components than the Boost) the switch non directly disconnect the power source (see Figure 7). This causes a not complete interruption of the input current such as in the Buck or Buck-Boost topologies. Furthermore, the current ripple can be smoothly controlled from the converter, making the Boost topology very attractive for active PFC. To increase the power rate requested an interleaved solution can be adopted [51].
The second stage DC-DC converter topology depends on the power rate requested. Over the 100 W Half and Full Bridge topologies are implemented as described in Figure 12. Usually, an isolated resonant converter is considered to increase the efficiency and reduce the EMI contents. In the resonant topologies, the LLC converter is mainly adopted in LED driver applications because of its soft-switching characteristic. The LLC converter features zero-voltage switching turn-on of the switches on the primary side and zero-current turn-off for the rectifier diodes on the secondary side. The soft-switching transients allow both low noises and reduced stress during the switches transients. In addition, the LLC converter regulates the output voltage in a wide-output voltage. Moreover, the isolated high-frequency transformer allows a multi-output driver circuit for the string LEDs solution. In Figure 16 two stage LED driver composed by a Boost PFC converter and Half-Bridge LLC converter useful for load until 500 W is reported.
Two stage LED driver circuit composed by PFC boost converter and half-bridge LLC converter.
The Boost PFC converter has a simple topology. The switch driver circuit is referenced to the ground reducing the driver switching noises. Furthermore, it can guarantee a power factor close to one obtainable with several control techniques [52]. It allows an input current with low distortion and an output voltage with a very low ripple thanks to the presence of the capacitor Cs. On the other hand, the presence of the capacitor Cs produces high currents during converter switching on and has an intrinsic weakness in the short circuit as the output is connected directly to the input by means of the inductor Ls. At higher powers, it needs to run on CCM to ensure adequate power transfer. In this operation mode, the current in the inductor never reaches zero during the switching cycle. Usually, the most used controllers for these applications are based on the average current control that allows CCM operation. The Boost PFC scheme with the average current control is described in Figure 17.
(a) Simplified block scheme of the boost PFC with average current control. (b) Inductor average and ripple currents.
The control loop to obtain the average current mode maintains the current proportional to the input voltage. While the voltage control loop regulates the output voltage to the boost value requested.
The advantages of the average current control are the following
a constant switching frequency:
little sensitivity to switching noises;
the high quality of input current waveforms with reduced inductor current ripple
the maximum peak current in the switching device is reduced
The disadvantages concern
the need to sense the current in the inductor;
the need to insert a compensation network in the current amplifier which takes into account the characteristics of the converter used and the duty point during the line voltage cycle.
In Figure 17b the inductor average current behavior and the inductor current ripple are shown. The value of ΔILs is chosen during the design phase in the range from 20 to 25% of the peak of the input current Iin. The input peak current in the case of pure sinusoidal waveform is given by
Where Pin,max is the input power at the maximum output power requested. It is given by
With ηmin is the minimum converter efficiency.
The peak inductor current is
Where
Where KΔI is the inductor ripple factor (supposing 20% of the ΔIL maximum, KΔI = 0.20). To design the Boost inductance, the duty cycle at the peak of the minimum sinusoidal input voltage is considered. The value of the rectified voltage is obtained from
The duty cycle at the minimum input voltage and considering the required output voltage (approximately it is a constant voltage) is calculated by
then, the inductance Ls is given by
The purpose of the output capacitor Cin in Figure 17a is to filter the high-frequency current component of the inductance.
The HF capacitor acts as an EMI filter minimizing the HF harmonic component (this HF current component are shorted by Cin) [53].
The HF capacitor design is a trade-off to minimize the noise injected into the line grid and the value that avoid zero-crossing line current distortion. Cin is given by
Where KΔI = 0.20 and
The output capacitor selection C0 is related to the output voltage maximum ripple required (ΔV0). C0 is calculated by
As the required power increases (≥500 W), the PFC converter performances can be optimized by adopting an interleaved solution. The interleaved Boost topology is obtained connecting two or more single Boost legs as shown in Figure 18, controlling the switching of every MOSFET with a proper control strategy.
Three channel boost PFC simplified electrical scheme.
The command signals of the switches are supplied in out of phase mode according to
where Nc is the number of legs in the interleaved boost circuit. Despite the increase in the number of components and a more complex control technique, in the interleaved topologies several advantages are shown.
Reduced overall input current ripple.
Reduced electromagnetic contents and consequently EMI filter.
Reduction of the magnetics components size.
RMS current rating decrease in the output capacitance.
Use of the power semiconductor devices with a less current rate.
Reduction of conduction diode and MOSFET losses thanks to the parallel structure.
In the interleaved topology the reduced current ripple allows to avoid the capacitor Cin. A complete design of 3 kW PFC based on an interleaved PFC Boost converter is reported in [54]. The control technique is based on Microcontroller Units (MCUs) or specialized Integrated Circuits (ICs). An example of the high-performance IC controller of common use is the FAN9673 (On-Semiconductor) [55]. It is an interleaved three−channel CCM PFC controller, implementing a channel management function. It enables a single cell at light load (less than one-third of the rated load) or two or three cells depending on power − level request. The interleaved cells management optimizes PFC efficiency. Three legs interleaved Boost PFC schematic linked to the line grid by a diode rectifier bridge and EMI filter is shown in Figure 18.
LLC resonant converter in its half-bridge implementation is more popular in LED driver circuit for the low switching noise and the capability to achieve a high-power density. An HF transformer is used to attain galvanic isolation. A compact volume is obtained by integrating part of the resonant tank into the HF transformer sizing. In this design approach, the transformer arrangement leads to satisfying the requirements on LM and LR, thus avoiding adding additional external components. Thus, the transformer inductive parameters and a series-connected capacitor CR are used to make a resonant tank. The LLC solution allows Buck and Boost transfer characteristics in the soft-switching operative region. The switching devices Q1 and Q2 operate at a duty cycle of just under 50% to avoid cross conduction. The output voltage is regulated through a variation of the converter switching frequency. The converter features two resonant frequencies. The resonant frequency depends of the resonant tank components and the load conditions. The higher resonant frequency
A lower resonant frequency
From (42) and (43) appears that
(a) LLC converter schematic. (b) Main converter waveforms at fr2 > fsw > fr1, fsw = fr1 and, fsw > fr1. (c) Simplified current mode controller with VCO.
At resonant frequency operation, at
At the
In the switching frequency between the two resonant frequencies (
In the LED driver application, the output current must be controlled. In LLC the current mode controller is arranged with a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) that change the current control signal in variable switching frequency to drive the primary-side MOSFETs [60]. A simplified schematic of the current control with the VCO block is depicted in Figure 19c. The drawback of the LLC converter results from the difficulty in achieving consistent dynamic performance over wide-operating conditions. To reduce the switching losses on the secondary-side a synchronous rectifier solution may be arranged. In this case the diodes are replaced by low voltage MOSFETs driven in synchronous mode by a suitable control technique [61].
Multi-channel LED structure is popularly implemented in some lighting systems such as indoor lighting and street lighting. Also, in display backlighting, advanced color-mixing and dimming LED systems the multi-channel LED driver solutions are used [62]. The multi-channel LED topologies connected to the line grid are usually composed of traditional five stages: the EMI filter, the bridge rectifier PFC stage, front-end DC/DC stage and multi-channel post-current-regulator stage. In multiple outputs LED driver independent output current control can be necessary. The post-current regulator can be performed in a linear mode current regulator or switch-mode converter.
A simplified block schematic of the multi-channel constant current LED driver is reported in Figure 20a.
Multi-channel LED driver circuits (a) block scheme of general AC LED driver system for multi-channel LED string. (b) Flyback converter solution with linear regulator on the secondary side. (c) Flyback converter solution with switching type synchronous Buck current regulator.
In the isolated LED driver solutions, the Flyback converter is widely used in multiple-output Flyback LED driver to integrate DC-DC converter with PFC circuit. The constant current source of multiple channel LED can be supplied in linear mode as shown in Figure 20b or with switch-mode converter as depicted in Figure 20c [63]. In Figure 20c the current source for the LED string is achieved by a synchronous Buck current regulator to reduce the power losses.
In multi-channel applications there are also non-isolated LED driver circuits application. In this kind of LED driver, the single-inductor multiple-output (SIMO) structure is more attractive [64]. It is based on several Buck converters arrangement. In the SIMO solution LED strings current are regulated by switching Buck-type power converters. Furthermore, a main Buck converter is used to interface the rectified voltage performing the PFC functions [65]. The inductor of the main Buck converter is shared with the multi-channel Buck regulators. The simplified schematic of the SIMO structure is shown in Figure 21. The noticeable advantage of the SIMO technologies is their compact size the low cost and high-power efficiency especially at the increasing of LED strings.
Multi-channel LED driver circuits with single-inductor multiple-output solution.
For high current LED string the LLC converter with multiple-output secondary of the HF transformer can be considered [66]. In the secondary side as described in Figure 20b and Figure 20c a switching or linear type current regulator is added to drive the LED strings.
The LED driver circuits in several applications needs are investigated. The passive and active circuits are critically evaluated in terms of power request, topology simplicity, efficiency, reliability, and cost. The LED driver circuits are evaluated based on the different supply sources and power request. The DC-DC converters connected directly to a DC source such as battery are classified and pro and cons are discussed. The main current control strategies are described, and the dimming features are also considered. Furthermore, the power converters connected to the AC line are explored considering the one-stage and two-stage converter solutions. In the one-stage LED driver a Flyback converter description is focused. The design issues and the control method to meet the output current regulation and the high-power factor request are explored. Afterwards, the two-stage driver converters for higher power applications are investigated. The first stage Boost converter PFC circuit design and control issues are exanimated, and the interleaved solution is introduced. The second stage LLC for a higher current LED driver is also considered providing basic information on the operation and the applications. Finally, multi-channel LED driver circuits in non-isolated and isolated conditions are presented and discussed.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:43,paginationItems:[{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82212",title:"Protein Prenylation and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104700",signatures:"Khemchand R. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"dinh-hoa-nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",slug:"hongbin-ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",slug:"yasushi-kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"82124",title:"Assessment of Diversity, Growth Characteristics and Aboveground Biomass of Tree Species in Selected Urban Green Areas of Osogbo, Osun State",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104982",signatures:"Omolara Aremu, Olusola O. Adetoro and Olusegun Awotoye",slug:"assessment-of-diversity-growth-characteristics-and-aboveground-biomass-of-tree-species-in-selected-u",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg",subseries:{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental 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living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine"},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation"},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Biomedical Engineering",id:"7"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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