\r\n\t \r\n\tThe authors are cordially invited to express their knowledge and awareness in this domain, to share their unpublished clinical trials pertaining to any type of STT, to analyse any new data emerged from their studies and to display their information in a methodical way, so that we may present an original book with novel and useful medical material.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e145d7ad23d41269a7aa8aeb0029ea25",bookSignature:"Prof. Hamid Elia Daaboul",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9793.jpg",keywords:"Classification, STT in Children, Biomarkers, Symptoms, Risk Factors, Diagnosis, Surgery, Radiation Therapy, Chemotherapy, Immuno-therapy, Clinical Trials",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 30th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 23rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 10th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"214249",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamid",middleName:"Elia",surname:"Daaboul",slug:"hamid-daaboul",fullName:"Hamid Daaboul",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/214249/images/system/214249.jpeg",biography:"Hamid Elia Daaboul, MD, PhD is an ASCO active member and researcher in the mode of action of new potential anticancer molecules in the Lebanese American University, Lebanon. He is a practicing Oncologist and also a former head of department of Oncology in Haroun Hospital, Lebanon. He earned his PhD in Oncology from Surrey University, London. He studied the mode of action of β-2-himachalen-6-ol, a new anticancer molecule, and succeeded in identifying its apoptotic effect via the inhibition of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK/ERK) and the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K/AKT) cellular signalling pathways. He is also engaged in clinical trials of other potentially active anticancer molecules.",institutionString:"Surrey University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Lebanese American University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lebanon"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"194666",firstName:"Nina",lastName:"Kalinic Babic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194666/images/4750_n.jpg",email:"nina@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8211",title:"Squamous Cell Carcinoma",subtitle:"Hallmark and Treatment Modalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e63d63ba8635c79e016991a3047f77d1",slug:"squamous-cell-carcinoma-hallmark-and-treatment-modalities",bookSignature:"Hamid Elia Daaboul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8211.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214249",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamid",surname:"Daaboul",slug:"hamid-daaboul",fullName:"Hamid Daaboul"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"11387",title:"Nonlocal-Closure Schemes for Use in Air Quality and Environmental Models",doi:"10.5772/9759",slug:"survey-of-nonlocal-atmospheric-boundary-layer-schemes-for-use-in-air-quality-and-environmental-model",body:'\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
The description of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) processes, understanding of complex boundary layer interactions, and their proper parameterization are important for air quality as well as many other environmental models. In that sense single-column vertical mixing models are comprehensive enough to describe processes in ABL. Therefore, they can be employed to illustrate the basic concepts on boundary layer processes and represent serviceable tools in boundary layer investigation. When coupled to 3D models, single-column models can provide detailed and accurate simulations of the ABL structure as well as mixing processes.
\n\t\t\t
Description of the ABL during convective conditions has long been a major source of uncertainty in the air quality models and chemical transport models. There exist two approaches, local and nonlocal, for solving the turbulence closure problem. While the local closure assumes that turbulence is analogous to molecular diffusion in the nonlocal-closure, the unknown quantity at one point is parameterized by values of known quantities at many points in space. The simplest, most popular local closure method in Eulerian air quality and chemical transport models is the K-Scheme used both in the boundary layer and the free troposphere. Since it uses local gradients in one point of model grid, K-Scheme can be used only when the scale of turbulent motion is much smaller than the scale of mean flow (Stull, 1988), such as in the case of stable and neutral conditions in the atmosphere in which this scheme is consistent. However, it can not: (a) describe the effects of large scale eddies that are dominant in the convective boundary layer (CBL) and (b) simulate counter-gradient flows where a turbulent flux flows up to the gradient. Thus, K-Scheme is not recommended in the CBL (Stull, 1988). Recently, in order to avoid the K-scheme drawbacks, Alapaty (Alapaty, 2003; Alapaty & Alapaty, 2001) suggested a “nonlocal” turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) scheme based on the K-Scheme that was intensively tested using the EMEP chemical transport model (Mihailovic & Jonson, 2005; Mihailovic & Alapaty, 2007). In order to quantify the transport of a passive tracer field in three-dimensional simulations of turbulent convection, the nonlocal and non-diffusive behavior can be described by a transilient matrix whose elements contain the fractional tracer concentrations moving from one subvolume to another as a function of time. The approach was originally developed for and applied to geophysical flows known as turbulent transilient theory (T3) (Stull, 1988; Stull & Driedonks, 1987; Alapaty et al., 1997), but this formalism was extended and applied in an astrophysical context to three-dimensional simulations of turbulent compressible convection with overshoot into convectively stable bounding regions (Miesch et al., 2000). The most frequently used nonlocal-closure method is the asymmetric convective model (ACM) suggested by Pleim & Chang (1992). The design of this model is based on the Blackadar’s scheme (Blackadar, 1976), but takes into account the important fact that, in the CBL, the vertical transport is asymmetrical (Wyngaard & Brost, 1984). Namely, the buoyant plumbs are rather fast and narrow, while downward streams are wide and slow. Accordingly, transport by upward streams should be simulated as nonlocal and transport by downward streams as local. The concept of this model is that buoyant plumbs rise from the surface layer and transfer air and its properties directly into all layers above. Downward mixing occurs only between adjacent layers in the form of a slow subsidence. The ACM can be used only during convective conditions in the ABL, while stable or neutral regimes for the K-Scheme are considered. Although this approach results in a more realistic simulation of vertical transport within the CBL, it has some drawbacks that can be elaborated in condensed form: (i) since this method mixes the same amount of mass to every vertical layer in the boundary layer, it has the potential to remove mass much too quickly out of the surface layer and (ii) this method fails to account for the upward mixing in layers higher than the surface layer (Tonnesen et al., 1998). Wang (Wang, 1998) has compared three different vertical transport methods: a semi-implicit K-Scheme (SIK) with local closure and the ACM and T3 schemes with nonlocal-closure. Of the three schemes, the ACM scheme moved mass more rapidly out of surface layer into other layers than the other two schemes in terms of the rate at which mass was mixed between different layers. Recently, this scheme was modified with varying upward mixing rates (VUR), where the upward mixing rate changes with the height, providing slower mixing (Mihailović et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\t
The aim of this chapter is to give a short overview of nonlocal-closure TKE and ABL mixing schemes developed to describe vertical mixing during convective conditions in the ABL. The overview is supported with simulations performed by the chemical EMEP Unified model (version UNI-ACID, rv2.0) where schemes were incorporated.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Description of nonlocal-closure schemes
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.1. Turbulent kinetic energy scheme (TKE)
\n\t\t\t\t
As we mentioned above the well-known issues regarding local-closure ABL schemes is their inability to produce well-mixed layers in the ABL during convective conditions. Holtslag & Boville (1993) using the NCAR Community Climate Model (CCM2) studied a classic example of artifacts resulting from the deficiencies in the first-order closure schemes. To alleviate problems associated with the general first-order eddy-diffusivity \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t-schemes, they proposed a nonlocal \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t-scheme. Hong & Pan (1996) presented an enhanced version of the Holtslag & Boville (1993) scheme. In this scheme the friction velocity scale (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∗\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t) is used as a closure in their formulation. However, for moderate to strong convective conditions, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∗\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis not a representative scale (Alapaty & Alapaty, 2001). Rather, the convective velocity (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tw\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∗\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t) scale is suitable as used by Hass et al. (1991) in simulation of a wet deposition case in Europe by the European Acid Deposition Model (EURAD). Depending on the magnitude of the scaling parameter \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis height of the ABL, and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is Monin-Obukhov length), either \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∗\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tor \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tw\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∗\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is used in many other formulations. Notice that this approach may not guarantee continuity between the alternate usage of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∗\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tw\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∗\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t in estimating \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t- eddy diffusivity. Also, in most of the local-closure schemes the coefficient of vertical eddy diffusivity for moisture is assumed to be equal to that for heat. Sometimes this assumption leads to vertical gradients in the simulated moisture fields, even during moderate to strong convective conditions in the ABL. Also, the nonlocal scheme considers the horizontal advection of turbulence that may be important over heterogeneous landscapes (Alapaty & Alapaty, 2001; Mihailovic et al. 2005).
\n\t\t\t\t
The starting point of approach is to consider the general form of the vertical eddy diffusivity equation. For momentum, this equation can be written as
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is the vertical eddy diffusivity, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t¯\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∗\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the mean turbulent velocity scale within the ABL to be determined (closure problem), \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the von Karman constant (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.41\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t), \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the vertical coordinate, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the profile shape exponent coming from the similarity theory (Troen & Mahrt, 1986; usually taken as 2), and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tФ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is the nondimensional function of momentum. According to Zhang et al. (1996), we use the square root of the vertically averaged turbulent kinetic energy in the ABL as a velocity scale, in place of the mean wind speed, the closure to Eq. (1). Instead of using a prognostic approach to determine TKE, we make use of a diagnostic method. It is then logical to consider the diagnostic TKE to be a function of both \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∗\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tw\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∗\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. Thus, the square root of diagnosed TKE near the surface serves as a closure to this problem (Alapaty & Alapaty, 2001). However, it is more suitable to estimate \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t¯\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∗\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t from the profile of the TKE through the whole ABL.
\n\t\t\t\t
According to Moeng & Sullivan (1994), a linear combination of the turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rates associated with shear and buoyancy can adequately approximate the vertical distribution of the turbulent kinetic energy, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, in a variety of boundary layers ranging from near neutral to free convection conditions. Following Zhang et al. (1996) the TKE profile can be expressed as
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t characterizes the integral length scale of the dissipation rate. Here, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tФ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t15\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis an empirical function for the unstable atmospheric surface layer (Businger et al., 1971), which is applied to both the surface and mixed layer. We used \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\twhich is in the range\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.5\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t suggested by Moeng & Sullivan (1994). For the stable atmospheric boundary layer we modeled the TKE profile using an empirical function proposed by Lenschow et al. (1988), based on aircraft observations
Following LES (Large Eddy Simulation) works of Zhang et al. (1996) and Moeng & Sullivan (1994), Alapaty (2003) suggested how to estimate the vertically integrated mean turbulent velocity scale \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t¯\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t∗\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tthat within the ABL can be written as
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΨ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the vertical profile function for turbulent kinetic energy as obtained by Zhang et al. (1996) based on LES studies, later modified by Alapaty (personal communication), and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis layer thickness.
\n\t\t\t\t
The formulation of eddy-diffusivity by Eq. (1) depends on\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. We follow Troen & Mahrt (1986) for determination of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tusing
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is a critical bulk Richardson number for the ABL, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tand \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t are the horizontal velocity components at\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tg\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, is the buoyancy parameter, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the appropriate virtual potential temperature, and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is the virtual potential temperature of air near the surface at\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, respectively. For unstable conditions \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is given by (Troen & Mahrt (1986))
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8.5\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t (Holtslag et al., 1990),\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tw\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is the velocity while\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tw\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t¯\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is the kinematics surface heat flux. The velocity \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tw\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis parameterized as
Using\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. In Eq. (6), \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the virtual temperature at the first model level. The second term on the right-hand side of Eq. (6) represents a temperature excess, which is a measure in the lower part of the ABL. For stable conditions we use \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\twith \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tm. On the basis of Eq. (5) the height of the ABL can be calculated by iteration for all stability conditions, when the surface fluxes and profiles of\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tand \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t are known. The computation starts with calculating the bulk Richardson number \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t between the level \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tand subsequent higher levels of the model. Once \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\texceeds the critical value, the value of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is derived with linear interpolation between the level with \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and the level underneath. We use a minimum of 100 m for\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. In Eq. (5), \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the value of the critical bulk Richardson number used to be 0.25 in this study.
\n\t\t\t\t
In the free atmosphere, turbulent mixing is parameterized using the formulation suggested by Blackadar (1979) in which vertical eddy diffusivities are functions of the Richardson number and wind shear in the vertical. This formulation can be written as
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is the background value (1 m2 s-1), \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the vertical wind shear, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tl\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the characteristic turbulent length scale (100 m), \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the critical Richardson number, and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is the Richardson number defined as
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΔ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is the layer thickness (Zhang & Anthes, 1982).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.2. Nonlocal vertical mixing schemes
\n\t\t\t\t
The nonlocal vertical mixing schemes were designed to describe the effects of large scale eddies, that are dominant in the CBL and to simulate counter-gradient flows where a turbulent flux flows up to the gradient. During convective conditions in the atmosphere, both small-scale subgrid and large-scale super grid eddies are important for vertical transport. In this section, we will consider three different nonlocal mixing schemes: the Blackadar’s scheme (Blackadar, 1976), the asymmetrical convective model (Pleim & Chang, 1992) and the scheme with varying upward mixing rates (Mihailovic et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\t\t
Transilient turbulence theory (Stull, 1988) (the Latin word transilient means to jump over) is a general representation of the turbulent flux exchange processes. In transilient mixing schemes, elements of flux exchange are defined in an \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t×\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t transilient matrix, where N is the number of vertical layers and mixing occurs not only between adjacent model layers, but also between layers not adjacent to each other. That means that all of the matrix elements are nonzero and that the turbulent mixing in the convective boundary layer can be written as
where c is the concentration of passive tracer, the elements in the mixing matrix M represent mass mixing rates, and i and j refer to two different grid cells in a column of atmosphere. Some models specify mixing concepts with the idea of reducing the number of nonzero elements because of the cost of computational time during integration.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Blackadar’s scheme (Blackadar, 1976) is a simple nonlocal-closure scheme, that is designed to describe convective vertical transport by eddies of varying sizes. The effect of convective plumes is simulated by mixing material directly from the surface layer with every other layer in the convective layer. The schematic representation of vertical mixing simulated by the Blackadar’s scheme is given in Figure 1. The mixing algorithm can be written for the surface and every other layer as
respectively, where Mu represents the mixing rate, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tξ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the vertical coordinate, and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΔ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tξ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t denotes the layer thickness. The mixing matrix which controls this model is nonzero only for the top row, the left most column, and the diagonal.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 1.
A schematic representation of vertical mixing in a one dimensional column as simulated by the Blackadar’s scheme.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe asymmetrical convective model (Pleim & Chang, 1992) is a nonlocal vertical mixing scheme based on the assumption of the vertical asymmetry of buoyancy-driven turbulence. The concept of this model is that buoyant plumes, according to the Blackadar’s scheme, rise from the surface layer to all levels in the convective boundary layer, but downward mixing occurs between adjacent levels only in a cascading manner. The schematic representation of vertical mixing simulated by the ACM is presented in Fig. 2a. The mixing algorithm is driven by equations
The mixing matrix controlling this model is non-zero only for the leftmost column, the diagonal and superdiagonal.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe scheme with varying upward mixing rates (VUR sheme), sugested by Mihailović et al. (2008) is a modified version of the ACM, where the upward mixing rate changes with the height, providing slower mixing. The schematic representation of vertical mixing simulated by this scheme is shown in Fig. 2b. The upward mixing rates are scaled with the amount of turbulent kinetic energy in the layer as
where Mu1\n\t\t\t\t\t is the upward mixing rate from surface layer to layer above and ek\n\t\t\t\t\t denotes the turbulent kinetic energy in the considered layer. The upward mixing rate from surface
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 2.
Schematic representation of vertical mixing in a one-dimensional column as simulated by the (a) ACM and (b) VUR scheme.
where\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tρ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is the air density while \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\trepresents the sensible heat flux. Using the VUR scheme, the mixing algorithm for the lowest layer can be written in the form
The algorithm for the other layers is very similar to the ACM algorithm [Eqs. (16) and (17)], with the upward mixing rate Mu substituted with varying upward mixing rates Muk\n\t\t\t\t\t.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Numerical simulations with nonlocal-closure schemes in the Unified EMEP chemical model
\n\t\t\t
In the EMEP Unified model the diffusion scheme remarkably improved the vertical mixing in the ABL, particularly under stable conditions and conditions approaching free convection, compared with the scheme previously used in the EMEP Unified model. The improvement was particularly pronounced for NO2 (Fagerli & Eliassen, 2002). However, with reducing the horizontal grid size and increasing the heterogeneity of the underlying surface in the EMEP Unified model, there is a need for eddy-diffusivity scheme having a higher level of sophistication in the simulation of turbulence in the ABL. It seems that the nonlocal eddy-diffusivity schemes have good performance for that. Zhang et al. (2001) demonstrated some advantages of nonlocal over local eddy-diffusivity schemes. The vertical sub grid turbulent transport in the EMEP Unified model is modeled as a diffusivity effect. The local eddy-diffusivity scheme is designed following O’Brien (1970). (In further text this scheme will be referred to the OLD one). In the unstable case, \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tis determined as
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t is the height of the surface boundary layer. In the model calculation \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t is set to 4% of height of the ABL.
\n\t\t\t
To compare performances of the proposed nonlocal-closure schemes TKE scheme (Eqs.(1)-(4)) and local OLD scheme (Eq. (22)), both based on the vertical eddy diffusivity formulation, in reproducing the vertical transport of pollutants in the ABL, a test was performed with the Unified EMEP chemical model (UNIT-ACID, rv2_0_9).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.1. Short model description and experimental set up
\n\t\t\t\t
The basic physical formulation of the EMEP model is unchanged from that of Berge & Jacobsen (1998). A polar-stereographic projection, true at 60ºN and with the grid size of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t50\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t×\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t50\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tkm2 was used. The model domain used in simulation had (101, 91) points covering the area of whole Europe and North Africa. The \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tσ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t terrain-following coordinate was used with 20 levels in the vertical- from the surface to 100 hPa and with the lowest level located nearly at 92 m. The horizontal grid of the model is the Arakawa C grid. All other details can be found in Simpson et al. (2003). The Unified EMEP model uses 3-hourly resolution meteorological data from the dedicated version of the HIRLAM (HIgh Resolution Limited Area Model) numerical weather prediction model with a parallel architecture (Bjorge & Skalin, 1995). The horizontal and vertical wind components are given on a staggered grid. All other variables are given in the centre of the grid. Linear interpolation between the 3-hourly values is used to calculate values of the meteorological input data at each advection step. The time step used in the simulation was 600 s.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.2. Comparison with the observations
\n\t\t\t\t
The comparison of the TKE and VUR schemes with OLD eddy diffusion scheme has been performed, using simulated and measured concentrations of the pollutant NO2 since it is one of the most affected ones by the processes in the ABL layer. The simulations were done for the years (i) 1999, 2001 and 2002 (TKE scheme) and (ii) 2002 (for VUR scheme) in the months when the convective processes are dominant in the ABL (April-September). The station recording NO2 in air (µg(N) m-3) concentration was considered for comparison when measurements were available for at least 75% of days in a year [1999 (80 stations), 2001 (78) and 2002 (82)]. We have calculated the bias on the monthly basis as (M-O)/O*100% where M and O denote the modeled and observed values, respectively. The comparison of the modeled and observed NO2 in air (µg(N) m-3) concentrations and corresponding biases for both schemes (TKE and OLD) are shown in Figure 3. The values used in calculations were averaged over the whole domain of integration. It can be seen that both schemes underestimate the observations. However, for all considered months, NO2 concentrations calculated with the TKE scheme are in general higher and closer to the observations than those obtained by the OLD scheme (of the order of 10%). Correspondingly, the bias of the TKE scheme is lower than the OLD scheme. The comparison of the modeled and observed NO2 in air (µg(N) m-3) concentrations between VUR and OLD schemes is shown in Figure 4. The values used in the calculations were also averaged over the whole domain of integration. It can be seen that both schemes underestimate the observations. However, for all considered months, NO2 concentrations calculated with the VUR scheme are in general higher and closer to the observations than those obtained using the eddy diffusion scheme (of the order of 15-20%). Accordingly, the bias of the VUR scheme is lower than the OLD eddy diffusion scheme.
\n\t\t\t\t
To quantify the simulated values of the both schemes we have performed an error analysis of the NO2 concentration outputs NO2 based on a method discussed in Pielke (2002). Following that study, we computed several statistical quantities as follows
Here, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the variable of interest (aforementioned variables in this study) while \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is the total number of data. An overbar indicates the arithmetic average, while a caret refers to an observation. The absence of a caret indicates a simulated value; \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tν\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the rmse, while \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tν\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is rmse after a bias is removed. Root-mean-square errors (rmse) give a good overview of a dataset, with large errors weighted more than many small errors. The standard deviations in the simulations and the observations are given by \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. A rmse that is less than the standard deviation of the observed value indicates skill in the simulation. Moreover, the values of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t should be close if the prediction is to be considered realistic.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 3.
The eddy diffusion (OLD) versus TKE scheme. Comparison of: the modeled and observed NO2 in air (µg(N) m-3) concentrations (left panels) and their biases (right panels) in the period April-September for the years 1999, 2001 and 2002. M and O denotes modeled and observed value, respectively.
\n\t\t\t\t
The statistics gave the following values: (1) TKE (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tν\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.548\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tν\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.293\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.211\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.147\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t) and OLD (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tν\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.802\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tν\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.433\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.303\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t ,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.147\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t) and (2) VUR (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tν\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.571\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tµg(N) m-3, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tν\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.056\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tµg(N) m-3, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.219\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tµg(N) m-3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.211\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tµg(N) m-3) and OLD (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tν\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.802\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tν\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.159\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t=0.303, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t=0.211). A comparison of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tη\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, for (1) and (2), shows that difference between them, is evidently smaller with the TKE and VUR scheme schemes versus the OLD one.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 4.
The eddy diffusion (OLD) versus the VUR scheme. Comparison of: (a) the modelled and observed NO2 in air (µg(N) m-3) concentrations and (b) their biases in the period April-September for the year 2002. M and O denotes modelled and observed value, respectively.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4. Conclusions
\n\t\t\t
In the ABL during convective conditions, when much of the vertical mixing is driven by buoyant plumes, we cannot properly describe mixing processes using local approach and eddy diffusion schemes. Nonlocal-closure schemes simulate much better vertical mixing than local ones. In this chapter, two nonlocal schemes (the TKE scheme and the VUR scheme) for applications in air quality and environmental models are described. The comparison of the TKE scheme and the VUR one with an eddy diffusion scheme (OLD) commonly used in chemical transport models was done. These comparisons were performed with the EMEP Unified chemical model using simulated and measured concentrations of the pollutant NO2 since it is one of the most affected ones by the processes in the ABL layer. Nonlocal shemes gave better results than local one.
\n\t\t
\n\t
Acknowledgments
\n\t\t\t
The research work described here has been funded by the Serbian Ministry of Science and Technology under the project “Study of climate change impact on environment: Monitoring of impact, adaptation and moderation”, for 2011-2014.
\n\t\t
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/11387.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/11387.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11387",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11387",totalDownloads:1834,totalViews:200,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 18th 2010",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/11387",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/11387",book:{slug:"air-quality"},signatures:"Dragutin Mihailovic and Ana Firanj",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Description of nonlocal-closure schemes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Turbulent kinetic energy scheme (TKE)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Nonlocal vertical mixing schemes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Numerical simulations with nonlocal-closure schemes in the Unified EMEP chemical model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Short model description and experimental set up ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Comparison with the observations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAlapaty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPleim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRaman\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNiyogi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tByun\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\tSimulation of atmospheric boundary layer processes using local- and nonlocal-closure schemes, Journal of Applied Meteorology, 36\n\t\t\t\t\t214\n\t\t\t\t\t233\n\t\t\t\t\t0894-8763\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAlapaty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAlapaty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 Development of a diagnostic TKE schemes for applications in regional and climate models using MM5. Research Note, MCNC-North Carolina Supercomputing Center, Research Triangle Park, NC, 5\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAlapaty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003 Development of two CBL schemes using the turbulence velocity scale. 4th WRF Users’ workshop, Boulder, Colorado, June 25\n\t\t\t\t\t27 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B4",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBlackadar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1976 Modeling the noctural bondary layer. Proceedings of 4th Symposium of Atmospheric Turbulence, Diffusion and Air Quality, 46\n\t\t\t\t\t49 , Boston, American Meteorological Society\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B5",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBlackadar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1979 Modeling pollutant transfer during daytime convection. 4th Symposium on Atmospheric Turbulence Diffusion and Air Quality, Reno, NV, American Meteorological Society, 443\n\t\t\t\t\t447 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B6",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBerge\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJacobsen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998 A regional scale multi-layer model for the calculation of long-term transport and deposition of air-pollution in Europe. Tellus. Series B, Chemical and physical meteorology,\n\t\t\t\t\t50\n\t\t\t\t\t205\n\t\t\t\t\t223 , 0280-6509\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B7",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBjorge\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSkalin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1995 PARLAM- the parallel HIRLAM version of DNMI. Research Report No. 27, Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo, Norway, 0332-9879\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B8",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBusinger\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIzumi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBradley\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1971 Flux profile relationships in the atmospheric surface layer. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 28\n\t\t\t\t\t181\n\t\t\t\t\t189 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B9",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFagerli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEliassen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 Modified parameterization of the vertical diffusion. In: Transboundary acidification, eutrophication and ground level ozone in Europe. EMEP Summary Status Report, Research Report\n\t\t\t\t\t141 Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo, Norway, 74\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B10",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHass\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJacobs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMemmesheimer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEbel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1991 Simulation a wet deposition case in Europe using European Acid Deposition Model (EURAD). In: Air Pollution modeling and its Applications VIII, 205\n\t\t\t\t\t213 , Plenum Press, New York\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B11",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHoltslag\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. A. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tde Bruin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. I. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.-L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1990\n\t\t\t\t\tA high resolution air mass transformation model for short-range weather forecasting. Monthly Weather Review, 118\n\t\t\t\t\t1561\n\t\t\t\t\t1575 , 0027-0644\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B12",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHoltslag\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. A. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBoville\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1993\n\t\t\t\t\tLocal versus nonlocal boundary layer diffusion in a global climate model. Journal of Climate, 6\n\t\t\t\t\t1825\n\t\t\t\t\t1842 , 0894-8755\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B13",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHong\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tNonlocal boundary layer vertical diffusion in a medium-range forecast model. Monthly Weather Review, 124\n\t\t\t\t\t2322\n\t\t\t\t\t2339 , 0027-0644\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B14",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLenschow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1988 Stably stratified boundary layer over the Great Plains. Part I: Mean and turbulent structure. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 42\n\t\t\t\t\t95\n\t\t\t\t\t121 , 0006-8314\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B15",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMiesch\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBrandenburg\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZweibel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZweibel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. G.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tNonlocal transport of passive scalars in turbulent penetrative convection. Physical Review E, 61\n\t\t\t\t\t457\n\t\t\t\t\t467 , 1539-3755\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B16",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMihailovic\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJonson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Implementation of a TKE scheme in the Unified EMEP model. Air Pollution report 5/2005, Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo, 1503-8025.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B17",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMihailovic\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRao\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAlapaty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tArsenic\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLalic\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tA study of the effects of subgrid-scale representation of land use on the boundary layer evolution using 1-D model.\n\t\t\t\t\tEnvironmental Modelling and Software, 20\n\t\t\t\t\t705\n\t\t\t\t\t714 , 1364-8152\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B18",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMihailovic\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAlapaty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tIntercomparison of two K-schemes: Local versus non-local in calculating concentrations of pollutants in chemical and air-quality models. Environmental Modelling and Software, 22\n\t\t\t\t\t1685\n\t\t\t\t\t1689 , 1364-8152\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B19",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMihailović\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAlapaty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSakradžija\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Development of a nonlocal convective mixing scheme with varying upward mixing rates for use in air quality and chemical transport models Environmental Software and Pollution Research, 15\n\t\t\t\t\t296\n\t\t\t\t\t302 , 0944-1344\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B20",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMoeng\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.-H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSullivan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1994\n\t\t\t\t\tA comparison of shear and buoyancy driven planetary-boundary-layer flows.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 51\n\t\t\t\t\t999\n\t\t\t\t\t1022 , 0022-4928\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B21",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO’Brien\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1970\n\t\t\t\t\tA note on the vertical structure of the eddy exchange coefficient in the planetary boundary layer. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 27\n\t\t\t\t\t1213\n\t\t\t\t\t1215 , 0022-4928\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B22",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPielke\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSr.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tMesoscale Meteorological Modeling. 2nd ed. Academic Press, 676 pp. San Diego, CA.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B23",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPleim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1992\n\t\t\t\t\tA non-local closure model for vertical mixing in the convective boundary layer. Atmospheric Environment, A26\n\t\t\t\t\t965\n\t\t\t\t\t981 , 1352-2310\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B24",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSimpson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFagerli\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJonson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTsyro\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWind\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTuovinen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.-P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003 Transboundary acidification, eutrophication and ground level ozone in Europe. Part I: Unified EMEP Model Description. EMEP Status Report 2003, 74 The Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Norway\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B25",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStull\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDriedonks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. G. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1987\n\t\t\t\t\tApplications of the transilient turbulence parameterization to atmospheric boundary-layer simulations. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 40\n\t\t\t\t\t209\n\t\t\t\t\t239 , 0006-8314\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B26",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStull\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1988\n\t\t\t\t\tAn Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology, Dordrecht: Kluwer.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B27",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTonnesen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOlaguer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBergin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRussell\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHanna\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMakar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDerwent\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tAir quality models. Draft as of 11/26/98, 55\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B28",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTroen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMahrt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1986 A simple model of the atmospheric boundary layer; sensitivity to surface evaporation. Boundary-Layer Meteorology,\n\t\t\t\t\t37\n\t\t\t\t\t129\n\t\t\t\t\t148\n\t\t\t\t\t0006-8314\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B29",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998 Computing volatile organic compound reactivities with a 3 -D AQM Proceedings of the photochemical Reactivity Workshop, U.S. Environmental protection Agency, Durham, NC.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B30",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWyngaard\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBrost\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1984\n\t\t\t\t\tTop-down and bottom-up diffusion of a scalar in the convective boundary layer. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 41\n\t\t\t\t\t102\n\t\t\t\t\t112 , 0022-4928\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B31",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAnthes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1982 A high-resolution model of the planetary boundary-layer-sensitivity tests and comparisons with SESAME-79 data. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 21\n\t\t\t\t\t1594\n\t\t\t\t\t1609 , 0894-8763\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B32",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandall\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMoeng\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.-H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBranson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMoyer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tA surface parameterization based on vertically averaged turbulence kinetic energy.\n\t\t\t\t\tMonthly Weather Review, 124\n\t\t\t\t\t2521\n\t\t\t\t\t2536 , 0027-0644\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B33",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMao\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCiverolo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBerman\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.-Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRao\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDoddridge\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPhilbrick\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tClark\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tNumerical investigation of boundary layer evolution and nocturnal low-level jets: local versus non-local PBL schemes. Environmental Fluid Mechanic, 1\n\t\t\t\t\t171\n\t\t\t\t\t208 , 1567-7419\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Dragutin T. Mihailović",address:"",affiliation:'
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, SERBIA
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Dositeja Obradovića Sq. 8, 21000 Novi Sad, SERBIA
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"3669",title:"Air Quality",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Air Quality",slug:"air-quality",publishedDate:"August 18th 2010",bookSignature:"Ashok Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3669.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7718",title:"Professor",name:"Ashok",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"ashok-kumar",fullName:"Ashok Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"11378",title:"Anthropogenic Air Pollution Sources",slug:"anthropogenic-air-pollution-sources",totalDownloads:6626,totalCrossrefCites:9,signatures:"Francisc Popescu and Ioana Ionel",authors:[null]},{id:"11379",title:"Development and Application of a Methodology for Designing a Multi-Objective and Multi-Pollutant Air Quality Monitoring Network for Urban Areas",slug:"development-and-application-of-a-methodology-for-designing-a-multi-objective-and-multi-pollutant-air",totalDownloads:1764,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Nicolas Mazzeo and Laura Venegas",authors:[null]},{id:"11380",title:"Development of the Design of Air Quality Monitoring Networks and Its Applications to NO2 and O3 in Seville, Spain",slug:"development-of-a-method-to-design-air-quality-networks-in-compliance-with-the-european-directive-200",totalDownloads:3e3,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"José Usero, Antonio Lozano, Eva Vanderlinden, Juan Raez, Juan Contreras, Benito Navarrete and Hicham El Bakouri",authors:[null]},{id:"11381",title:"Monitoring Spatial and Temporal Variability of Air Quality Using Satellite Observation Data: a Case Study of MODIS-Observed Aerosols in Southern Ontario, Canada",slug:"monitoring-spatial-and-temporal-variability-of-air-quality-using-satellite-observation-data-a-case-s",totalDownloads:2719,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"DongMei Chen and Jie Tian",authors:[null]},{id:"11382",title:"Methods for Online Monitoring of Air Pollution Concentration",slug:"methods-for-online-monitoring-of-air-pollution-concentration",totalDownloads:6057,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Ioana Ionel and Francisc Popescu",authors:[null]},{id:"11383",title:"Trace Elements and Radionuclides in Urban Air Monitored by Moss and Tree Leaves",slug:"biomonitoring-of-trace-elements-and-radionuclides-in-urban-air",totalDownloads:3523,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Dragana Popovic, Dragana Todorovic, Mira Anicic, Milica Tomasevic, Jelena Nikolic and Jelena Ajtic",authors:[null]},{id:"11384",title:"Characteristics and Application of Receptor Models to the Atmospheric Aerosols Research",slug:"characteristics-and-application-of-receptor-models-to-the-atmospheric-aerosols-research",totalDownloads:2447,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Mirjana Tasic, Zoran Mijic, Slavica Rajsic, Andrijana Zekic, Mirjana Perisic, Andreja Stojic and Mirjana Tasic",authors:[null]},{id:"11385",title:"Estimation of Uncertainty in Predicting Ground Level Concentrations from Direct Source Releases in an Urban Area Using the USEPA’s AERMOD Model Equations",slug:"estimation-of-uncertainty-in-predicting-ground-level-concentrations-from-direct-source-releases-in-a",totalDownloads:2776,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Vamsidhar V. Poosarala, Ashok Kumar and Akhil Kadiyala",authors:[null]},{id:"11386",title:"Modeling of Ventilation Efficiency",slug:"modeling-of-ventilation-efficiency",totalDownloads:2747,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mahmoud Bady",authors:[null]},{id:"11387",title:"Nonlocal-Closure Schemes for Use in Air Quality and Environmental Models",slug:"survey-of-nonlocal-atmospheric-boundary-layer-schemes-for-use-in-air-quality-and-environmental-model",totalDownloads:1834,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Dragutin Mihailovic and Ana Firanj",authors:[null]},{id:"11388",title:"Air Quality Monitoring in the Mediterranean Tunisian Coasts",slug:"air-quality-monitoring-in-the-mediterranean-tunisian-coasts",totalDownloads:2166,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Karim Bouchlaghem, Blaise Nsom and Salem Elouragini",authors:[null]},{id:"11389",title:"Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation from the Oxidation of a Mixture of Organic Gases in a Chamber",slug:"secondary-organic-aerosols-experiments-in-an-outdoor-chamber-",totalDownloads:2273,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"M.G. Vivanco and Manuel Santiago",authors:[null]},{id:"11390",title:"Algorithm For Air Quality Mapping Using Satellite Images",slug:"algorithm-for-air-quality-mapping-using-satellite-images",totalDownloads:3631,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Hwee-San Lim, Mohd. Zubir Mat Jafri and Khiruddin Abdullah",authors:[null]},{id:"11391",title:"A Review of General and Local Thermal Comfort Models for Controlling Indoor Ambiences",slug:"a-review-of-general-and-local-thermal-comfort-models-for-controlling-indoor-ambiences-",totalDownloads:5058,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"José A. Orosa Jose",authors:[null]},{id:"11392",title:"A New HVAC Control System for Improving Perception of Indoor Ambiences",slug:"a-new-hvac-control-system-for-improving-perception-of-indoor-ambiences",totalDownloads:3070,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"José A. Orosa Jose",authors:[null]},{id:"11393",title:"Assessment of Indoor Air Quality and Heat Stress Exposure in an Automotive Assembly Plant",slug:"assessment-of-indoor-air-quality-and-heat-stress-exposure-in-an-automotive-assembly-plant",totalDownloads:4654,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Aziah Daud, Edimansyah Abdin, Azwan Aziz, Lin Naing and Rusli Nordin",authors:[null]},{id:"11394",title:"Fungal Air Quality in Medical Protected Environments",slug:"fungal-air-quality-in-medical-protected-environments",totalDownloads:3335,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Ricardo Araujo and João P. Cabral",authors:[null]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3200",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"97487143b896780afaf08cfd67cd1eec",slug:"nanofibers",bookSignature:"Ashok Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3200.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7718",title:"Professor",name:"Ashok",surname:"Kumar",slug:"ashok-kumar",fullName:"Ashok Kumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"8635",title:"Carbon Nanofibers as Macro-Structured Catalytic Support",slug:"carbon-nanofibers-as-macro-structured-catalytic-support",signatures:"Ricardo Vieira",authors:[{id:"7269",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Ricardo Vieira",slug:"ricardo-vieira"}]},{id:"8636",title:"Nanofiber Reinforced Composite Polymer Electrolyte Membranes",slug:"nanofiber-reinforced-composite-polymer-electrolyte-membranes",signatures:"A. Kumar and M. Deka",authors:[{id:"132367",title:"Dr.",name:"M",middleName:null,surname:"Deka",fullName:"M Deka",slug:"m-deka"}]},{id:"8637",title:"Nanoreinforced Adhesives",slug:"nanoreinforced-adhesives",signatures:"Silvia G. Prolongo, María R. Gude and Alejandro Ureña",authors:[{id:"7239",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvia G",middleName:null,surname:"Prolongo",fullName:"Silvia G Prolongo",slug:"silvia-g-prolongo"},{id:"132406",title:"Prof.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"Gude",fullName:"María Gude",slug:"maria-gude"},{id:"132408",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Ureña",fullName:"Alejandro Ureña",slug:"alejandro-urena"}]},{id:"8638",title:"Fabrication of Bio-Nanocomposite Nanofibers Mimicking the Mineralized Hard Tissues via Electrospinning Process",slug:"fabrication-of-bio-nanocomposite-nanofibers-mimicking-the-mineralized-hard-tissues-via-electrospinni",signatures:"Gyeong-Man Kim",authors:[{id:"8081",title:"Dr. rer.nat. habil.",name:"Gyeong-Man",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Gyeong-Man Kim",slug:"gyeong-man-kim"}]},{id:"8639",title:"Diversity of Nanofibers from Electrospinning: from Graphitic Carbons to Ternary Oxides.",slug:"diversity-of-nanofibers-from-electrospinning-from-graphitic-carbons-to-ternary-oxides-",signatures:"Yu Wang, Idalia Ramos and Jorge J. Santiago-Aviles",authors:[{id:"7179",title:"Associate Professor",name:"Jorge J.",middleName:null,surname:"Santiago-Aviles",fullName:"Jorge J. Santiago-Aviles",slug:"jorge-j.-santiago-aviles"},{id:"132373",title:"Prof.",name:"Idalia",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos",fullName:"Idalia Ramos",slug:"idalia-ramos"}]},{id:"8640",title:"Preparation of Functionalized Nanofibers and Their Applications",slug:"preparation-of-functionalized-nanofibers-and-their-applications",signatures:"Young-Seak Lee and Ji Sun Im",authors:[{id:"7212",title:"Prof.",name:"Young-Seak",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Young-Seak Lee",slug:"young-seak-lee"},{id:"132368",title:"Prof.",name:"Ji Sun",middleName:null,surname:"Im",fullName:"Ji Sun Im",slug:"ji-sun-im"}]},{id:"8641",title:"Keratin-based Nanofibres",slug:"keratin-based-nanofibres",signatures:"Claudio Tonin, Annalisa Aluigi, Alessio Varesano and Claudia Vineis",authors:[{id:"6856",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessio",middleName:null,surname:"Varesano",fullName:"Alessio Varesano",slug:"alessio-varesano"},{id:"7016",title:"Prof",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Tonin",fullName:"Claudio Tonin",slug:"claudio-tonin"},{id:"132326",title:"Prof.",name:"Annalisa",middleName:null,surname:"Aluigi",fullName:"Annalisa Aluigi",slug:"annalisa-aluigi"},{id:"132327",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Vineis",fullName:"Claudia Vineis",slug:"claudia-vineis"}]},{id:"8642",title:"In Situ Probing of Oxygen-Containing Groups on Acid-treated Carbon Nanofibers using Aromatic Molecules",slug:"in-situ-probing-of-oxygen-containing-groups-on-acid-treated-carbon-nanofibers-using-aromatic-molecul",signatures:"Hiromasa Nishikiori, Satoshi Kubota, Nobuaki Tanaka, Morinobu Endo, and Tsuneo Fujii",authors:[{id:"7183",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiromasa",middleName:null,surname:"Nishikiori",fullName:"Hiromasa Nishikiori",slug:"hiromasa-nishikiori"},{id:"132330",title:"Prof.",name:"Nobuaki",middleName:null,surname:"Tanaka",fullName:"Nobuaki Tanaka",slug:"nobuaki-tanaka"},{id:"132332",title:"Prof.",name:"Morinobu",middleName:null,surname:"Endo",fullName:"Morinobu Endo",slug:"morinobu-endo"},{id:"132334",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsuneo",middleName:null,surname:"Fujii",fullName:"Tsuneo Fujii",slug:"tsuneo-fujii"}]},{id:"8643",title:"Preparation of Cellulose-based Nanofibers Using Electrospinning",slug:"preparation-of-cellulose-based-nanofibers-using-electrospinning",signatures:"Youn-Mook Lim, Hui-Jeong Gwon, Joon Pyo Jeun, and Young-Chang Nho",authors:[{id:"6647",title:"Dr.",name:"Youn-Mook",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",fullName:"Youn-Mook Lim",slug:"youn-mook-lim"},{id:"132335",title:"Prof.",name:"Hui-Jeong",middleName:null,surname:"Gwon",fullName:"Hui-Jeong Gwon",slug:"hui-jeong-gwon"},{id:"132337",title:"Prof.",name:"Joon Pyo",middleName:null,surname:"Jeun",fullName:"Joon Pyo Jeun",slug:"joon-pyo-jeun"},{id:"132338",title:"Mr.",name:"Young-Chang",middleName:null,surname:"Nho",fullName:"Young-Chang Nho",slug:"young-chang-nho"}]},{id:"8644",title:"Nanofibrous Scaffolds of Bio-Polyesters: In Vitro and In Vivo Characterizations and Tissue Response",slug:"nanofibrous-scaffolds-of-bio-polyesters-in-vitro-and-in-vivo-characterizations-and-tissue-response",signatures:"Hui Ying Tang, Daisuke Ishii, Kumar Sudesh, Tetsuji Yamaoka and Tadahisa Iwata",authors:[{id:"6917",title:"Professor",name:"Tadahisa",middleName:null,surname:"Iwata",fullName:"Tadahisa Iwata",slug:"tadahisa-iwata"},{id:"9208",title:"Miss",name:"Hui Ying",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",fullName:"Hui Ying Tang",slug:"hui-ying-tang"},{id:"15344",title:"Dr.",name:"Daisuke",middleName:null,surname:"Ishii",fullName:"Daisuke Ishii",slug:"daisuke-ishii"},{id:"132317",title:"Dr.",name:"Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Sudesh",fullName:"Kumar Sudesh",slug:"kumar-sudesh"},{id:"132320",title:"PhD.",name:"Tetsuji",middleName:null,surname:"Yamaoka",fullName:"Tetsuji Yamaoka",slug:"tetsuji-yamaoka"}]},{id:"8645",title:"Photocatalyst Nanofibers Obtained by Calcination of Organic-Inorganic Hybrids",slug:"photocatalyst-nanofibers-obtained-by-calcination-of-organic-inorganic-hybrids",signatures:"Koji Nakane and Nobuo Ogata",authors:[{id:"6934",title:"Dr.",name:"Koji",middleName:null,surname:"Nakane",fullName:"Koji Nakane",slug:"koji-nakane"},{id:"132311",title:"Prof.",name:"Nobuo",middleName:null,surname:"Ogata",fullName:"Nobuo Ogata",slug:"nobuo-ogata"}]},{id:"8646",title:"Electrochemical and Adsorption Properties of Catalytically Formed Carbon Nanofibers",slug:"electrochemical-and-adsorption-properties-of-catalytically-formed-carbon-nanofibers",signatures:"Liliana Olenic, Stela Pruneanu, Valer Almasan and Alexandru R. Biris",authors:[{id:"6965",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliana",middleName:null,surname:"Olenic",fullName:"Liliana Olenic",slug:"liliana-olenic"},{id:"132321",title:"Prof.",name:"Stela",middleName:null,surname:"Pruneanu",fullName:"Stela Pruneanu",slug:"stela-pruneanu"},{id:"132323",title:"Prof.",name:"Valer",middleName:null,surname:"Almasan",fullName:"Valer Almasan",slug:"valer-almasan"},{id:"132324",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandru",middleName:null,surname:"Biris",fullName:"Alexandru Biris",slug:"alexandru-biris"}]},{id:"8647",title:"Synthesis of Carbon Nanofibers by a Glow-Arc Discharge",slug:"synthesis-of-carbon-nanofibers-by-a-glow-arc-discharge",signatures:"Marquidia Pacheco, Joel Pacheco and Ricardo Valdivia",authors:[{id:"7028",title:"PhDr",name:"Joel",middleName:null,surname:"Pacheco-Sotelo",fullName:"Joel Pacheco-Sotelo",slug:"joel-pacheco-sotelo"},{id:"7031",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Valdivia-Barrientos",fullName:"Ricardo Valdivia-Barrientos",slug:"ricardo-valdivia-barrientos"},{id:"9490",title:"Dr.",name:"Marquidia",middleName:null,surname:"Pacheco",fullName:"Marquidia Pacheco",slug:"marquidia-pacheco"}]},{id:"8648",title:"Morphology and Dispersion of Pristine and Modified Carbon Nanofibers in Water",slug:"morphology-and-dispersion-of-pristine-and-modified-carbon-nanofibers-in-water",signatures:"Jian Zhao",authors:[{id:"7084",title:"Dr.",name:"Jian",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",fullName:"Jian Zhao",slug:"jian-zhao"}]},{id:"8649",title:"Non-Catalytic, Low-Temperature Synthesis of Carbon Nanofibers by Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition",slug:"non-catalytic-low-temperature-synthesis-of-carbon-nanofibers-by-plasma-enhanced-chemical-vapor-depos",signatures:"Shinsuke Mori and Masaaki Suzuki",authors:[{id:"7185",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinsuke",middleName:null,surname:"Mori",fullName:"Shinsuke Mori",slug:"shinsuke-mori"},{id:"88650",title:"Prof.",name:"Masaaki",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",fullName:"Masaaki Suzuki",slug:"masaaki-suzuki"}]},{id:"8650",title:"Carbon Nanotubes Reinforced Electrospun Polymer Nanofibres",slug:"carbon-nanotubes-reinforced-electrospun-polymer-nanofibres",signatures:"Minoo Naebe, Tong Lin and Xungai Wang",authors:[{id:"49937",title:"Dr.",name:"Tong",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",fullName:"Tong Lin",slug:"tong-lin"},{id:"61007",title:"Prof.",name:"Xungai",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Xungai Wang",slug:"xungai-wang"},{id:"132306",title:"Dr.",name:"Minoo",middleName:null,surname:"Naebe",fullName:"Minoo Naebe",slug:"minoo-naebe"}]},{id:"8651",title:"On the Electron Transport in Conducting Polymer Nanofibers",slug:"on-the-electron-transport-in-conducting-polymer-nanofibers",signatures:"Natalya A. Zimbovskaya",authors:[{id:"7138",title:"Professor",name:"Natalya",middleName:null,surname:"Zimbovskaya",fullName:"Natalya Zimbovskaya",slug:"natalya-zimbovskaya"}]},{id:"8652",title:"Spectroscopy of Polyaniline Nanofibers",slug:"spectroscopy-of-polyaniline-nanofibers",signatures:"Gustavo M. Do Nascimento",authors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento"}]},{id:"8653",title:"Fabrication of Ceramic Nanofibers Using Atrane Precursor",slug:"fabrication-of-ceramic-nanofibers-using-atrane-precursor",signatures:"Bussarin Ksapabutr and Manop Panapoy",authors:[{id:"7168",title:"Assistant Professor",name:"Bussarin",middleName:null,surname:"Ksapabutr",fullName:"Bussarin Ksapabutr",slug:"bussarin-ksapabutr"},{id:"132343",title:"Prof.",name:"Manop",middleName:null,surname:"Panapoy",fullName:"Manop Panapoy",slug:"manop-panapoy"}]},{id:"8654",title:"Organic Fluorescent Nanofibers and Sub-Micrometer Rods",slug:"organic-fluorescent-nanofibers-and-sub-micrometer-rods",signatures:"Suzanne Fery-Forgues and Clara Fournier-Noël",authors:[{id:"7425",title:"Dr.",name:"Suzanne",middleName:null,surname:"Fery-Forgues",fullName:"Suzanne Fery-Forgues",slug:"suzanne-fery-forgues"},{id:"132341",title:"Prof.",name:"Clara",middleName:null,surname:"Fournier-Noël",fullName:"Clara Fournier-Noël",slug:"clara-fournier-noel"}]},{id:"8655",title:"Synthesis of Alumina Nanofibers and Composites",slug:"synthesis-of-alumina-nanofibers-and-composites",signatures:"Mohamad Ridzuan Noordin and Kong Yong Liew",authors:[{id:"7439",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Ridzuan",middleName:null,surname:"Nordin",fullName:"Mohd Ridzuan Nordin",slug:"mohd-ridzuan-nordin"},{id:"7663",title:"Dr.",name:"Ky",middleName:null,surname:"Liew",fullName:"Ky Liew",slug:"ky-liew"}]},{id:"8656",title:"Core-Shell Nanofibers: Nano Channel and Capsule by Coaxial Electrospinning",slug:"core-shell-nanofibers-nano-channel-and-capsule-by-coaxial-electrospinning",signatures:"Fengyu Li, Yong Zhao and Yanlin Song",authors:[{id:"7224",title:"Dr.",name:"Fengyu",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Fengyu Li",slug:"fengyu-li"},{id:"153318",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanlin",middleName:null,surname:"Song",fullName:"Yanlin Song",slug:"yanlin-song"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73528",title:"Characteristics and Assessment of Groundwater",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93800",slug:"characteristics-and-assessment-of-groundwater",body:'
1. Introduction
Groundwater (GW) belongs to all subsurface water, including saturated and unsaturated zones. More than 1.5 billion inhabitants around the globe depend on the groundwater for agriculture usage and industrialization consumption. However, pollutions were identified as one of the major challenges in hampering GW withdrawal (Figure 1) [1]. The exchange of the chemical and physical characteristics in water will affect the quality of groundwater resources, hence leading to the availability of humans in terms of quantity [2].
Figure 1.
The figure is showing unconfined aquifer and confined aquifer.
Groundwater is deposited between the pore spaces of rock/soils, cracks, joints, and fractures and various geological formations. The movement of groundwater in soils and rocks depends on the hydraulic characteristics of the shape and size of void spaces. Water can flow easily through certain rocks through the soil into the underground aquifer system, but water typically penetrates through fractures, cracks, and some other geological formations. Generally, there are three distinct types of geological formations of groundwater that determine the availability of groundwater resource, namely, aquifers, aquitard, and aquiclude.
An aquifer is a highly permeable or porous saturated formation (conglomerate, sandstone, limestone, unconsolidated sand, gravels, fractured limestone, fractured basalt, etc.) that not only stores water but also provides adequate amounts of water and thus is considered as significant groundwater resources. The aquitard is a partially saturated formation (shale or clay) that allows water through it but does not provide enough available water than the aquifer. An aquiclude is an impermeable layer (clay) produces a considerable volume of water because of its high porosity but does not provide significant amount of water.
Groundwater passes from recharge zones to discharge zones along flow routes of variable lengths and comes in contact with surface water (SW) essentially at low elevated areas [3]. Surface water resources mostly depend on regional precipitation/rainfall and it may be lost by infiltration through the streambed, layer of soil-moisture, and cracks or fractures to interacts with the groundwater system and the area of mixing of both known as the hyporheic zone [4]. The interaction of surface water and groundwater takes several forms in which if surface water moves toward the groundwater system, it is referred to as a losing stream whiles the other way round is called gaining stream [5].
The surface water (SW)-groundwater (GW) interactions in the hyporheic zone take place within the close-streambed sediments at few scales, which depend on the hydraulic-potential strengths and bed geometry [6]. In SW-GW interactions and hyporheic exchange, earlier studies used three types of scales such as sediment scale (<1 m), local scale (1–1 km), and catchment scale (>1 km) [7]. However, Todd and Mays [8] classified only two scales such as local scale and regional scale which are associated with small watershed and large watershed, respectively. Here, SW-GW interaction is associated with the direction of streamflow, shallow GW aquifer property, and local GW flow system.
The scope of this chapter is to discuss the vertical distribution of GW, types of the aquifer system, types of SW-GW interface, and SW-GW interaction at both local and regional scales. This chapter has been divided into four sections; (i) groundwater distribution and aquifer characteristics, (ii) the SW-GW interactions at local and regional scale, (iii) types of SW-GW interface, and (iv) the methods for investigation of SW-GW interactions and aquifer system.
2. Groundwater distribution and aquifer characteristics
The distribution of groundwater is classified into two zones based on the water table, namely, unsaturation zone and saturation zone. The aquifer system is mainly divided into confined and unconfined aquifers, and its characteristics depend upon the main physical parameters such as porosity, permeability, transmissivity, specific yield, specific storage, and hydraulic conductivity.
2.1 Vertical distribution of groundwater
The groundwater occurrence is typically categorized into two major zones based on the water table namely unsaturation zone and saturation zone. The zone of unsaturation is also known as the zone of aeration (vadose zone), which is also sub-classified into the soil moisture zone, intermediate vadose zone, and capillary zone. The unsaturation zone is comprised of interstices or void spaces that are partially filled with water and air. All interstices are fully saturated with water under hydrostatic pressure in the saturated zone under the water table.
2.1.1 Soil-moisture zone
The soil-moisture zone occurs across the main root zone beneath the earth’s surface, but its thickness varies with the types of soil and vegetation. This zone plays a significant role in the recognition of hydrological processes [9] and also important for the interaction of the land-surface atmosphere [10]. The practices of agriculture and irrigation, particularly in arid and semiarid areas, primarily depend on the timely characterization of spatial and temporal soil moisture fluctuations in the root zone as a consequence of the soil moisture effect on health status and production of crops and salinization [11]. Several environmental factors such as physicochemical characteristics of water, surface slope and roughness, soil hydraulic conductivity, the porosity of the soil, and pre-existing soil pore moisture content are controlling the soil matrix’s capacity to transfer water of which affecting the infiltration process [12].
2.1.2 Intermediate vadose zone
The intermediate vadose zone is located beneath the soil moisture zone and upper part of the capillary zone. Water that drops into this zone can be either drawn into the capillary interstices of the transition area through the molecular attraction or drawn downwards to the adjacent saturated zone.
2.1.3 Capillary zone
The zone is the lowest part of the aeration zone and directly above the water table where water as a component of the capillary action can be drawn back toward it. For a capillary zone of clay with a 0.0005 mm porous radius, the typical height may be 3 m, contrasted with fine sand of less than 10 cm with a 0.02 mm porous radius. Capillary water is the water stored above a surface of the water table in the capillary openings of unsaturated or saturated substances.
2.1.4 Saturation zone
The saturation zone is above the water table which is often referred to as the phreatic zone or aquifer system. Water that has profoundly infiltrated through the vadose zone enters the saturation zone and filled all pore spaces with water. The thickness of the saturation zone varies from several meters beneath the earth’s surface to numerous hundred meters. The factors to determine the thickness of this zone depend upon the local geology, accessibility of openings or pores in the rock formation, and water flow within the zone from recharging to discharge points. This saturation can take place range from several days or weeks to many months in duration. Moreover, groundwater is controlled by quantity and rainfall intensity, temperature, rock porosity, and permeability, dryness of the air, vaporization intensity during the rainy season, land slope, vegetative covering, and water absorption ability for soil. As well, significant volume of water can be contained within fractures and joints structures. The following are typical opening types contained in rock: (1) openings in gravel and sandstone formations with individual particles; (2) vugs, caverns, and solution channels in dolomite and limestone rock; and (3) joints, crevices, gas holes and faults in metamorphic rocks and igneous formations.
2.2 Types of aquifers
Aquifers are generally categorized into two major classifications, confined and unconfined aquifers; leaky and fractured aquifers are sometimes addressed in some other aquifers (Figure 1).
An unconfined aquifer is a layer of water-bearing formations or rocks that do not have a confining bed at the top of the groundwater which is referred to as the groundwater table where the pressure becomes equivalent to the atmospheric pressure. The variation of groundwater levels varies and depends on the pumping from the wells, permeability, area of recharge and discharge, in effect impacting the increasing or declining water rates in wells that are extracted from aquifers. The water table is free to rise or to fall which is often called the free or phreatic surface. Contour graphs and water table profiles of wells that use the water to determine water quantities available as well as water distributing, and movement may be prepared from elevations of wells. The perching water sources, as shown in (Figure 1) are a case of unconfined aquifers. Their high susceptibility to contamination is a major problem with non-confined aquifers. If something dumps on the surface, it will penetrate vertically and go down into the storage of groundwater.
2.2.1 Confined aquifer
The definition of the confined aquifer as “a formation in which the groundwater is isolated from the atmosphere at the point of discharge by impermeable geologic formations; confined groundwater is generally subject to a pressure greater than atmospheric” [13]. It is also known as “artesian or pressure aquifers” and it occurs mostly just above the base of confined rock bodies or layers which is mostly composed of clay that can protect it from surface pollution. Punctured wells from artesian aquifers are more prone to fluctuate with their depth of water because of changes in pressure than the amount in stored water. When such an aquifer is well penetrated, the water level should increase over the base of the confined layer, as illustrated by the flowing and artesian wells of (Figure 1). The water reaches a confined aquifer in a region in which the confining layer reaches the surface. The groundwater flow system into aquifers is frequently affected by gravity and geological formations in such areas either vertically or horizontally. A zone that provides water to a restricted area is considered a recharge area and water may even be leak into a restricted bed. Water ups and downs in confined aquifers penetrating wells mainly result from pressure changes instead of storage volume changes. Confined aquifers thus show only limited variations in storage and are predominantly used as conduits to move water to natural or artificial discharges from recharge areas.
2.2.2 Leaky aquifer
Aquifers that are fully unconfined or confined appear less often than aquifers that are leaky, or semi-confined. This is a common occurrence of plains, alluvial valleys, or former lake basins where a semi-pervious aquitard or semi-confining bed is underlain or overlain by a permeable layer. Pumping water from a well into a leaky aquifer eliminates water in two directions such as the vertical flow into the aquifer through the aquitard and the horizontal flow in the aquifer.
2.2.3 Fractured aquifer
The fractured rock aquifers vary from the subsurface water systems that are stored in the geological formation. Although sedimentary aquifers hold and move a significant amount of water between specific sedimentary granules through pore spaces, however, fractured rock aquifers hold and move water in an otherwise impermeable rock mass through as cracks, joints, and fractures (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
The figure is showing the aquifer system in fractured rock formations.
Therefore, fractured rock aquifers have hydraulic characteristics that vary from those found in sedimentary aquifers with accessible water (common in terms to be described as bore yield) and are typically defined by nature (opening, size, and extent) and degree of interconnection between discontinuities in the rock mass. The long-term yield from well in fractured rock aquifers depends on the location of the degree of discontinuity and the relationship of discontinuities in the total mass of the rock instead of on the permeability of the geological substances near the extraction phase. The aquifers in fractured rock typically depend on the amount of precipitation that caused the surface water runoff of which considerably greater than in flat regions. Moreover, permeability fractured rock aquifers can also be dramatically decreased by the weight of the overlying rock mass as open spaces progressively decrease between fractures and cracks.
2.3 Characteristics of aquifer
Several properties that contribute to the identification and characterization of the aquifer are discussed.
2.3.1 Porosity
Porosity (n) is the intrinsic characteristic of a substance and refers to the amount of void or empty space in each material. The porosity (void space) occurs between the fragments of soil or rock. It is defined by the ratio between the volume of the void space and the volume of rocks/soils.
n=VvV∗100%E1
where Vv is the volume of void space in a unit volume of earth material; and V is the unit volume of earth material (solids and voids).
2.3.2 Hydraulic conductivity and permeability
Permeability is defined as the ability of water movement through rock or soil which is directly related to porosity and it applies to the interconnected of pore spaces in rock or soil. Considering the relationship between driving and resisting forces on a microscopic scale during flow to porous media, hence, the permeability, k, is a function only of the area where the hydraulic conductivity K is defined:
k=KμρgE2
where k is the permeability, K is the hydraulic conductivity, g is the acceleration due to gravity, ρ is the fluid density, and μ is the viscosity.
Hydraulic conductivity (K) is a physical characteristic that calculates the capacity of substance in the context of an applied hydraulic gradient to transfer water across the pore spaces and fractures of rock/soil [14]. It depends on various physical variables including porosity, the structure of the soil matrix, grain size distribution, type of soil fluid, particle arrangement, water contents, void ratio, and other factors [15, 16].
2.3.3 Transmissivity
The transmission (T) is the rate of discharge where the water is transferred under a hydraulic gradient over a unit width of an aquifer. It is calculated by a formula and expressed in m2/s, or m3/day/m or l/day/m.
T=KbconfinedaquiferE3
T=KhunconfinedaquiferE4
where K is the hydraulic conductivity, b is the aquifer thickness, and h is equivalent to the depth of confined aquifers.
2.3.4 Specific yield
Specific yield (Sy) as defined by Freeze and Cheery [14] is the storage term for unconfined aquifer where the amount of water from the unconfined aquifer releases from the storage per unit surface area of aquifer per unit decline in the water table. It is also known as unconfined storativity.
In other view, specific yield can be defined as the ratio of the volume of water that a saturated rock or soil will yield by gravity to the total volume of the rock or soil [15]. It is expressed in percentage.
Sy=VwV∗100%E5
where Vw denotes the volume of water in a unit volume of earth materials; and V indicates the unit volume of earth material, including both voids and solids.
2.3.5 Specific storage
Specific storage (Ss) is the volume per unit amount of a saturated formation that is a deposit from the storage because of the compressibility of the mineral skeleton and the pore water per unit change in head. The specific storage is given by Jacob (1940) and is typically represented in cm−1 or m−1.
Ss=ρωgα+nβE6
where ρω denotes water density, g is the acceleration of gravity, α shows compressibility of the aquifer skeleton, n indicate porosity, and β is the compressibility of water.
3. Groundwater and surface water interaction
Groundwater moves across flow paths arranged in space and develop a flow system. GW flow system is classified into local, intermediate, and regional flow systems (Figure 3) [17]. Water travels to the adjacent discharge area in a local flow system. One or more topographical low and high located between their discharge and recharge regions describe an intermediate flow system; however, contrary to the regional flux system, it does not occupy both the bottom of the basin and the major topographic high [18]. Water flows at a longer distance than the local flow system in a regional flow system and often discharge into large streams and lakes.
Figure 3.
GW flow system at the local and regional scale.
3.1 Characteristics of SW-GW interactions at the local scale
The range of groundwater at the local flow system is from 10 m to 10 km between the adjacent aquifers system and the stream reach. The recharge and discharge zones are associated with high and low areas respectively, associated with sub-watershed boundaries and local streams, respectively. The local GW flow system depends on the slope of topography and hydrogeology of the region (subsurface rock, streambed-sediment characteristics, and climatic conditions). At this scale, the seasonal effect on the hydrological response to recharge is high due to local flow systems, high water flux, and unsteady flow conditions. The fluctuation of the water table in local GW flow systems varies in different climatic conditions. For instance, the low water level in arid and semi-arid climate due to the low amount of precipitation and infiltration while the higher water level in a tropical environment is due to higher rainfall and infiltration. Therefore, SW-GW interaction is found more in a tropical and humid climate.
Generally, SW-GW can be introduced for homogeneous interaction of a stream and adjacent shallow aquifers system with hydrological processes, which is controlled by a SW-GW head and a streambed leakage coefficient. In hydrological processes, water moves with huge quantities of nutrients and streambed sediment and modifies the earth’s surface through deposition and erosion. The hydrological processes give information about the drainage basin, small watershed, stream basin, evaporation, transpiration, evapotranspiration, runoff, and infiltrations rate (Figure 4). The hydrological exchange between GW and SW is through the downwelling and upwelling processes (Figure 5). Upwelling processes are those in which local GW flow moves toward SW and on the other hand, the situation is referred to as downwelling processes. During these processes, if the shape of the longitudinal streambed profile is convex then the SW movement is through downwelling processes in the hyporheic zone whereas, if the shape of the longitudinal streambed profile of SW is concave then SW movement is through upwelling processes in the hyporheic zone [19]. The shapes of longitudinal streambed profiles are related to pool-riffle sequence and sediment bars, dunes, and ripples. The movement of stream water from riffles to pools is showing in (Figure 5) which is affected by the channel’s sinuosity and bed load materials.
Figure 4.
River water and groundwater interactions in the hyporheic zone at the local scale.
Figure 5.
Downwelling, upwelling, and hyporheic exchange processes.
3.2 Characteristics of SW-GW interactions at the regional scale
The interaction of SW-GW is related to low topographical pathways varying from 10 to 100 km or more at a regional scale. The recharge or discharge trends of groundwater, regional topographic, hydrological conditions are mainly characterized by the regional groundwater flow system at a regional scale. The hydrological processes of the large watershed such as precipitation, surface run-off, infiltration, evapotranspiration, base flow, streamflow, and channel conditions are described in Figure 6. All hydrological processes can cover on the regional scale of a large watershed and a small stream reach conditions can cover local scales. Slow hydrological response to recharging areas will result in an insignificant seasonal impact on the regional GW flow system. The regional flow system is developed with long-distance SW flows and low charging levels on higher topographical slopes. It explains why recharging and discharge levels fluctuate more at the local level than at the regional level. The recharge or discharge rate investigation of the regional flow system can be analyzed using environmental tracer isotopes and hydro-chemical characteristics (major ions and heavy metals) [6].
Figure 6.
River water and groundwater interactions at the regional scale.
4. Different types of SW-GW interactions
There are several types of interactions between GW and SW. A losing river does not lose water as it flows downstream by percolation, but it can also lose water through evaporation, use of plants, and consumption of human activities.
4.1 Gaining stream or effluent stream
In this connection, the level of GW is higher than the riverbed which recharges the river (Figure 7A). It can also be described as entering of GW into SW when SW reaches its base level which results in gaining stream connection.
Figure 7.
Types of stream water and GW interactions, while (A) a stream water gains from GW, known as gaining stream, (B) a stream loses water to GW at shallow depth known as disconnected or losing or transition stream, (C) a stream loses water to GW at great depth known as a disconnected stream, (D) a stream loses water, but connected with GW known as a connected stream (E) a stream stage and the GW head are equally known as the parallel Stream, and (F) a stream shows the gain on one side and the loss on the other side to GW known as flow-through stream.
4.2 Losing stream or influent stream
In this connection, given the level of GW is lower than the streambed, hence, SW recharges the GW. Losing streams connection divided into two types in which it is either connected or disconnected with the GW table. The term “transition” is used to define the condition of connected and disconnected streams. As shown in (Figure 7B), the unsaturation zone is presented in transition with a shallow GW table between riverbed. Note, there are distinguished interactions of the disconnected stream with shallow and deep water table [20].
4.3 Losing disconnected stream
In this connection, the unsaturation zone of sediments exists between the channel and regional water table hence it can be said that the system may be hydraulically disconnected (Figure 7C). The term disconnected has been criticized because it can suggest a system where there is no exchange of recharge and discharge of the GW system [21]. Therefore, the rate of infiltration of a disconnected system has been referred to as a “maximum losing condition”—stream discharge mechanism. Thus, the water table occurs at greater depth in the disconnected system and at shallow depth in the transition zone.
4.4 Losing connected stream
A stream is a stream that loses water while it flows downstream. The water penetrates the ground and recharges the local GW flow as the water table lies below the level of the channel with the absence of an unsaturation zone (Figure 7D).
4.5 Parallel stream
This interaction occurs when the stage of the stream and the head of the groundwater is equal (Figure 7E).
4.6 Flow-through stream
Where the stage of the channel is less than the head in the groundwater on one bank side and larger than the head in the groundwater on the opposite bank side, this process is seen as a flow-through reaches (Figure 7F). This interaction occurs most frequently when the stream cuts perpendicular to the regional GW flow, which in the case of fluvial plains is along their axis.
5. Methods
The methods for the investigation of aquifer systems such as remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS), resistivity test, and pumping tests will be discussed. Several related approaches also will be discussed such as seepage meter, Darcy’s law, heat tracer method, and environmental tracer method for the investigation of SW-GW interactions.
5.1 Resistivity survey
In groundwater system, evaluation geophysical methods (geothermal gravity, electrical resistivity, etc.) have been well recognized. The electrical resistivity survey is one of the tools that is very effective to identify subsurface profiles without interfering with the structure of the soil [22]. The usage of this method enables the measurement of groundwater quantities and quality. This includes detailed knowledge concerning the geological and hydrological information of the GW system such as subsurface mapping to identify aquifer-protective structures, the analysis of infiltration of the vadose zone, measuring the extent of volume and internal aquifer structure, and groundwater contamination [23]. It is effectively used to estimate soil porosity and soil permeability as a non-destructive process. In addition, it is commonly utilized for the interaction of changes in the resistivity of the subsurface with the soil characteristics. The negligible porosity and permeability of the hard rock, as well as igneous and metamorphic rocks, in terms of soil exploitability, but the alteration processes taking place in the first 10–100 m of depth can significantly increase their fracture permeability. In the zone influenced by modification, this may create moderate secondary porosity aquifers.
These aquifers are very critical for irrigation and the availability of potable water in many parts of the world. Altered methods often influence the overall porosity of the rock such as water content which results in a varying spectrum of electric resistivity within the transition region [24]. Consequently, it is a good potential technique for the study of alteration zones in hard rocks, electrical resistivity in rocks influenced by differing weathering degrees. Schlumberger array system [25] was used to perform the resistivity survey. “ABEM SAS 1000 Terrameter” was the device used for performing Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES). For resistance measurement, four electrodes were selected at a certain time. Two existing electrodes situated on the outside of the potential electrodes were inserting currents into the field. The potentially different electrodes were quantified and the ground resistance was measured by Eq. (2).
ρ=Kg∗resistanceofearth=Kg∗VIE7
Kg=πAB22∗MN22/MNE8
where ρ denotes the apparent resistivity (ohm-meter), Kg is the geometric constant, I indicate current (ampere), V is the voltage (volt), AB is spacing between the current electrode (m) and MN is spacing between the potential electrode (m). The geometric factor (Kg) is based on field observation calculation and by multiplying the geometric factor with data of resistivity the apparent resistivity values can be calculated. For instance, the transmissivity estimates were 0.588, 0.578, and 0.756 m2/min, respectively, by the analysis of grain size distribution, the resistivity survey, and the pumping test [25]. The finding on the results indicated that the values of aquifer transmissivity have been found much similar to each other by measurement of grain size distribution, pumping test, and resistivity survey.
5.2 Pumping test
Pumping test is a field technique and it is used for the assessment of the aquifer characteristics such as hydraulic conductivity (K), storage coefficient (S), and transmissivity (T). Aquifer hydraulic parameters are spatially and temporarily influenced by their heterogeneity, complicated geologic conditions, as well as multipart boundaries but these characteristics in various aquifer areas, are challenging to describe efficiently [26]. The geological formation of the aquifer (confined, leaky, unconfined, and fractured aquifer) influences the hydraulic parameters to estimate; thus, various interpretive techniques are applied. Implementation of geophysical studies and pumping test techniques may be used to maximize the comprehension of hydrogeology models by accurately detecting such essential aquifer characteristics: permeability, thickness, porosity, transmissivity, hydraulic conductivity, etc. Various pumping test methods are used to determine aquifer hydraulic characteristics; but, long term, step pumping, and recovery tests are mostly utilized. Aquifer characteristics can be found by using easy methods such as the first analytical solutions proposed by [27] Thiem (1906) for a steady-state condition that gives an equation for the groundwater flow in aquifers subject to pumping. After this, [28] Theis (1935) and Cooper and Jacob (1946) [29] find extremely restrictive conditions in terms of a transient state that limit their implementation to aquifers that are uniform, homogeneous and isotropic, constant thickness, porous and permeable which produce pumping with a constant discharge in a completely penetrating well. The following formulas calculate the aquifer properties by Theis-Jacob method:
srt=Q4πTW42S4TtpE9
T=KB=γbm312μNfE10
where Eq. (5) shows that the srt is the drawdown, Q is the pumping rate, T is the hydraulic transmissivity, W is the well function for a confined aquifer, S is the aquifer storativity and tp is the pumping period (t) for t ≤ tp. The Eq. (6) is showing that K is the hydraulic conductivity, Nf is defined by imposing Nf×bm3= ne × B, and ne is the effective porosity (≅0.003 ± 0.002) of the studied fractured aquifer given by tracer tests [29]. For example, Alfy et al. [30] were used the pumping test and geophysical logging for the investigation of the hydraulic and petro-physical characteristics of the folded UmmerRadhuma (UeR) Formation, Saudi Arabia. The findings were obtained showing that, concerning efficient porosity, permeability, hydraulic conductivity, and transmissibility, the average values of 220%, >100 mD, 3.30 × 10−5–1.34 × 10−3 m/s, and 1.49 × 10−3–6.04 × 10−2 m2/s.
5.3 Remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS)
Intensive performance applications of RS and GIS are spatial data analysis and monitoring methods for groundwater sources. RS data integration with the GIS environment seems to be very beneficial in considerably identifying the specific groundwater potential areas. In the short time available, RS and GIS cover a vast and unacceptable region of the earth’s surface to assess areas of possible groundwater and to identify natural recharging locations [31]. RS and GIS information are valuable for many geological resources including mineral exploration, hydrogeology conditions, structural, geomorphological, lithological features, depth, and thickness of the aquifer system and other geological areas [32]. Furthermore, in the area of groundwater studies, researchers have used thematic layers such as geomorphology, geology, drainage patterns, lineaments, vegetation, intensities of rainfall, and slopes [33]. A geophysical resistivity survey was performed by [34] and borehole lithology results were compared for aquifer characterization with groundwater potential mapping which was created by RS and GIS. For a hydrogeological study, [35] integrated electrical resistivity survey data with RS outputs in a GIS environment. Moreover, [36] suggested that the geophysical resistivity data integrated with high-resolution satellite data collected from RS and GIS techniques provide more accurate information on geological and hydrological characteristics and also give possible groundwater potential zones in the hard rock formations.
5.4 Seepage meter
Seepage meter is one of the most common instruments for directly measuring SW-GW seepage flux. Initially, it was developed to measure water loss from a canal in 1940 by [37], and also it is used for other purposes such as measuring seepage flux in small lakes, estuaries, rivers, and several other environments [38]. The basic concept of the seepage meter is the difference between initial (Vo) and final (Vf) volume of water through a surface area (A) in time (t) and is given as
SeepagefluxQ=Vf−VotAE11
This method was described as a plastic bag type seepage meter, which is based on isolating principle and covers a portion of SW-GW interactions with a bottomless cylinder which important in determining the directions of water exchange at the local scale [38]. The streambed features (riffle-pool sequences) can be recognized by seepage meters at the local scale because this method is useful to investigate the water flux estimates of lower streambed sediments [39]. Seepage meters can also be used to determine the volumetric change in flow, discharge, or recharge zones along with the streambed sediments in the hyporheic zone at a local scale. The seepage meter is favorable for those streams which have low current velocities which represent a local scale stream [17]. For instance, four seepage meters have been used, along with riverbed sediments of Biebrza River, Poland to quantify the hyporheic exchange flux at a local scale [40].
5.5 Heat tracer method
Subsurface temperature variation is associated with the movement of water. This variation affects the chemistry of water which can be traced by the heat tracer method. According to Anderson [41], the heat tracer method is used to determine hyporheic exchange, GW flow patterns, and rate of discharge and recharge at the local regional scale. SW temperature fluctuates throughout the season and also daily while GW temperature remains constant throughout the year. This method has been used by Schmidt, Raich, and Schirmer [42] for SW-GW interactions at the local scale and suggested that streambed temperatures can be quickly, reliably, and cheaply assessed the SW-GW interactions at several locations. The successful combination of their conceptual methods described by Constantz [43] with these technical improvements to assess SW-GW interactions, GW discharge or recharge, SW movement through the streambed, and GW flow systems. In the past, heat tracers’ methods have been used to evaluate losing and gaining stream. For instance, the temperature was investigated by Cox, Su, and Constantz [44] and also determined the special conductance, and chloride between the aquifers system using the heat tracer method in the Russian River, Mendocino, California. Their results indicated that the special conductance and chloride data were not correlated with RW data. It means GW was not significantly varied by the exchange of SW and GW system and temperature variations in GW were negligible.
5.6 Darcy’s law method
Darcy’s law [45] measures the hydraulic gradients, aquifer hydraulic conductivity, cross-sectional area of the aquifer perpendicular to the flow, and to evaluate the rate of GW flow. Darcy’s law expressed as,
Darcy′slawq=−KdhdlE12
where q is a specific discharge (L/T), K is hydraulic conductivity, l is the distance (L), and h is the hydraulic head. The hydraulic gradient is measured by piezometers and mini-piezometer at both local and regional scales. Piezometer indicates that the hydraulic head difference at great depth or vertical GW flow while mini-piezometer at shallow depths indicate GW downwelling or upwelling processes. The hydraulic conductivity is based on streambed sediments. It can be utilized as the estimation of streambed sediments by the slug test. A slug test is based upon the immediate increase or fall of the water level in the bore and the conformity of the water level to the original position when the water returns. The velocity and direction of GW flow can be determined by the mini-piezometer method. Furthermore, the estimation of flow between the SW-GW aquifer systems through semi-impervious stratum in one dimension which is used based on Darcy’s law.
Darcy′slawq=KΔhE13
where q flows between SW-GW, Δh is the river head and aquifer head, and K is hydraulic conductivity of the semi-impervious streambed stratum. The investigation of the Platte River by Chen et al. [45] in eight tributaries of eastern and south-central Nebraska, the USA, with the help of this method. The river joins the Missouri River in the eastern part of Nebraska and its interactions with high plains aquifer systems.
5.7 Environmental tracer method
Environmental tracer method is used to analyze the SW-GW interactions on both local and regional scales which are based on isotope data and geochemical data such as major ions or heavy metals. Stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopes are useful for assessing the flow of precipitation, source of water, age of water, and hydrological processes. In addition, this method has been used to determine the GW influx to a tropical river with major ions to supplement GW flux results [46]. Furthermore, it has been used to determine the gaining, losing disconnected and connected stream reach condition based on the geochemical parameters and stable isotopes [47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53]. Moreover, it is important to understand the recharge or discharge zone along with the GW flow system.
6. Conclusions
The number of groundwater studies continues to increase globally. This chapter discusses the SW-GW interactions and groundwater characteristic with appropriate assessment methodologies encompassing subsurface investigation (resistivity), hydraulics aspects of groundwater (pumping test), and mapping (RS and GIS).
Furthermore, understanding the SW-GW interactions through available methods (seepage meter, heat tracer, and environmental tracer) is useful in watershed management, that is, risk management and assessment of the aquifer system. Moreover, environmental tracer method is also a useful for the evaluation of the hydrological process, source of water, age of water, and gaining and losing disconnected and connected stream conditions.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"aquifer characteristics, GW distribution, SW-GW interaction, SW-GW methods, resistivity survey, pumping test, RS, GIS",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73528.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73528.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73528",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73528",totalDownloads:177,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 16th 2020",dateReviewed:"August 29th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 10th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Groundwater system is very vital to humanity and the ecosystem. Aquifers are determined based on the absence or presence of water table positioning, that is, confined, unconfined, leaky aquifers and fractured aquifers. The objective of this chapter is to discuss the characteristic and assessment of groundwater within the scope of vertical distribution of GW, types of the aquifer system, types of SW-GW interface, and SW-GW interaction at both local and regional scales. The properties of the aquifer depend on the physical characteristics of the materials (porosity, permeability, specific yield, specific storage, and hydraulic conductivities) which are determined by techniques like resistivity surveys and pumping tests followed by remote sensing and geographic information system for better information on the groundwater system. Furthermore, understanding the SW-GW interactions through available methods (seepage meter, heat tracer, and environmental tracer) is useful in watershed management, that is, risk management and assessment of the aquifer system.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73528",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73528",signatures:"Naseem Akhtar, Muhammad Izzuddin Syakir, Mohd Talha Anees, Abdul Qadir and Mohamad Shaiful Yusuff",book:{id:"9981",title:"Groundwater",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Groundwater",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Bahareh Kalantar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9981.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"267005",title:"Dr.",name:"Bahareh",middleName:null,surname:"Kalantar",slug:"bahareh-kalantar",fullName:"Bahareh Kalantar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Groundwater distribution and aquifer characteristics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Vertical distribution of groundwater",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Soil-moisture zone",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Intermediate vadose zone",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Capillary zone",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.4 Saturation zone",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.2 Types of aquifers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.1 Confined aquifer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.2 Leaky aquifer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.3 Fractured aquifer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.3 Characteristics of aquifer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.3.1 Porosity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.3.2 Hydraulic conductivity and permeability",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.3.3 Transmissivity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.3.4 Specific yield",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.3.5 Specific storage",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18",title:"3. Groundwater and surface water interaction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"3.1 Characteristics of SW-GW interactions at the local scale",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"3.2 Characteristics of SW-GW interactions at the regional scale",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21",title:"4. Different types of SW-GW interactions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"4.1 Gaining stream or effluent stream",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"4.2 Losing stream or influent stream",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"4.3 Losing disconnected stream",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"4.4 Losing connected stream",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"4.5 Parallel stream",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"4.6 Flow-through stream",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28",title:"5. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"5.1 Resistivity survey",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"5.2 Pumping test",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"5.3 Remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"5.4 Seepage meter",level:"2"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"5.5 Heat tracer method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"5.6 Darcy’s law method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_34_2",title:"5.7 Environmental tracer method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_36",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_40",title:"Conflict of Interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Akhtar N, Rai SP. Heavy metals concentrations in drinking water and their effect on public health around moth block of Jhansi District, Uttar Pradesh, India. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection. 2019;39(9):945-953'},{id:"B2",body:'Fleckenstein JH, Krause S, Hannah DM, Boano F. Groundwater-surface water interactions: New methods and models to improve understanding of processes and dynamics. Advances in Water Resources. 2010;33(11):1291-1295'},{id:"B3",body:'Conant B, Robinson CE, Hinton MJ, Russell HAJ. A framework for conceptualizing groundwater-surface water interactions and identifying potential impacts on water quality, water quantity, and ecosystems. Journal of Hydrology. 2019;574:609-627'},{id:"B4",body:'White DS. Perspectives on defining and delineating hyporheic zones. Journal of the North American Benthological Society. 2006;12(1):61-69'},{id:"B5",body:'Brunner P, Simmons CT, Cook PG. Spatial and temporal aspects of the transition from connection to disconnection between rivers, lakes and groundwater. Journal of Hydrology. 2009;376(2):159-169'},{id:"B6",body:'Barthel R, Banzhaf S. Groundwater and surface water interaction at the regional-scale – A review with focus on regional integrated models. Water Resources Management. 2016;30(1):1-32'},{id:"B7",body:'Dahl M, Nilsson B, Langhoff JH, Refsgaard JC. Review of classification systems and new multi-scale typology of groundwater-surface water interaction. Journal of Hydrology. 2007;344(1-2):1-16'},{id:"B8",body:'Todd DK, Mays LW. Grounwater Hydrology. 3rd ed. USA: Hamilton Printing; 2005'},{id:"B9",body:'Western AW, Zhou SL, Grayson RB, McMahon TA, Blöschl G, Wilson DJ. Spatial correlation of soil moisture in small catchments and its relationship to dominant spatial hydrological processes. Journal of Hydrology. 2004;286(1-4):113-134'},{id:"B10",body:'Western AW, Blöschl G. On the spatial scaling of soil moisture. Journal of Hydrology. 1999;217(3-4):203-224'},{id:"B11",body:'Mahmood R. Scale issues in soil moisture modelling: Problems and prospects. Progress in Physical Geography. 1996;20(3):273-291'},{id:"B12",body:'Hupet F, Lambot S, Javaux M, Vanclooster M. On the identification of macroscopic root water uptake parameters from soil water content observations. Water Resources Research. 2002;38(12):36-1-36-14'},{id:"B13",body:'Driscoll FG. Groundwater and wells. 2nd ed. St. Paul, Minnesota: Johnson Filtration Systems; 1986'},{id:"B14",body:'Freeze RA, Cherry JA. Groundwater. Bergen Country, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall Inc; 1979'},{id:"B15",body:'Kalhor K, Ghasemizadeh R, Rajic L, Alshawabkeh A. Assessment of groundwater quality and remediation in karst aquifers: A review. HHS Public Access. 2019;8:104-121'},{id:"B16",body:'Johnson AI. Specific yield compilation of specific yields for various materials—Hydrologic properties of earth materials. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper. 1967;1662-D:80'},{id:"B17",body:'Tóth J. A theoretical analysis of groundwater flow in small drainage basins. Journal of Geophysical Research. 1963;68(16):4795-4812'},{id:"B18",body:'Sophocleous M. Interactions between groundwater and surface water: The state of the science. Hydrogeology Journal. 2002;10(1):52-67'},{id:"B19",body:'Harish HK, Arina K. Ground water and surface water interaction. In: GIS and Geostatistical Techniques for Groundwater Science, Section C., G. Q. A. U. G. and G. A. 14.2. Elsevier Inc; 2019. pp. 197-207'},{id:"B20",body:'Peterson DM, Wilson JL. Variably Saturated Flow Between Streams and Aquifers. Socorro: New Mexico Water Resources Research Institute; 1988'},{id:"B21",body:'Brunner P, Cook PG, Simmons CT. Connected and disconnected streams. Water Resources Research. 2010;66:37-39'},{id:"B22",body:'Larsen F et al. Controlling geological and hydrogeological processes in an arsenic contaminated aquifer on the Red River flood plain, Vietnam. Applied Geochemistry. 2008;23(11):3099-3115'},{id:"B23",body:'Almadani S, Ibrahim E, Al-Amri A, Fnais M, Abdelrahman K. Delineation of a fractured granite aquifer in the Alwadeen area, Southwest Saudi Arabia using a geoelectrical resistivity survey. Arabian Journal of Geosciences. 2019;12(15)'},{id:"B24",body:'Gowda JP, Kumar SCP. Segmentation of white blood cell using k-means and Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization. Indian Journal of Science and Technology. 2017;10(6):1-5'},{id:"B25",body:'Keller GV. Dipole method for deep resistivity studles. Geophysics. 1966;31(6):1088-1104'},{id:"B26",body:'Arshad M, Shakoor A, Ahmad I, Ahmad M. Hydraulic transmissivity determination for the groundwater exploration using vertical electric sounding method in comparison to the traditional methods. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2013;50(3):487-492'},{id:"B27",body:'Calvache ML, Sánchez-Úbeda JP, Duque C, López-Chicano M, De La Torre B. Evaluation of analytical methods to study aquifer properties with pumping tests in coastal aquifers with numerical modelling (Motril-salobreña aquifer). Water Resources Management. 2015;30(2):559-575'},{id:"B28",body:'Thiem G. Hydrologische Methoden. Leipzig, Germany: JM Gebhardt; 1906a'},{id:"B29",body:'Theis CV. The relation between the lowering of the piezometric surface and the rate and duration of discharge of a well using ground-water storage. Eos Transactions American Geophysical Union. 1935;16(2):519-524'},{id:"B30",body:'Cooper HHJ, Jacob CE. A generalized graphical method for evaluating formation constants and summarizing well-field history. Eos Transactions American Geophysical Union. 1946;27(4):526-534'},{id:"B31",body:'Caputo MC, Carlo DL, Masciale R, Masciopinto C. Long-term pumping test and ert to visualize hydrogeologic barriers in heterogeneous and Karstic coastal aquifers. Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 2017;6(5):1-5'},{id:"B32",body:'Alfy ME, Lashin A, Faraj T, Alataway A, Tarawneh Q, Al-Bassam A. Quantitative hydro-geophysical analysis of a complex structural karst aquifer in Eastern Saudi Arabia. Scientific Reports. 2019;9(1):1-18'},{id:"B33",body:'Senthilkumar M, Gnanasundar D, Arumugam R. Identifying groundwater recharge zones using remote sensing & GIS techniques in Amaravathi aquifer system, Tamil Nadu, South India. Sustainable Environment Research. 2019;29(1):1-9'},{id:"B34",body:'Elubid BA et al. Geospatial distributions of groundwater quality in Gedaref state using geographic information system (GIS) and drinking water quality index (DWQI). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019;16(5):1-20'},{id:"B35",body:'Anbazhagan S, Jothibasu A. Geoinformatics in groundwater potential mapping and sustainable development: a case study from southern India. Hydrological Sciences Journal. 2016;61(6):1109-1123'},{id:"B36",body:'Oseji JO, Atakpo EA, Okolie EC. Geoelectric investigation of the aquifer characteristics andgroundwater potential in Kwale, Delta state, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management. 2005;9(1):157-160'},{id:"B37",body:'Kumar MG, Bali R, Agarwal AK. Integration of remote sensing and electrical sounding data for hydrogeological exploration—A case study of Bakhar watershed, India. Hydrological Sciences Journal. 2009;54(5):949-960'},{id:"B38",body:'Rashid M, Lone MA, Ahmed S. Integrating geospatial and ground geophysical information as guidelines for groundwater potential zones in hard rock terrains of south India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2012;184(8):4829-4839'},{id:"B39",body:'Israelson OW, Reeve RC. Bulletin No. 313—Canal Lining Experiments in the Delta Area, Utah, UAES Bulletins; 1944'},{id:"B40",body:'Brodie RS, Baskaran S, Ransley T, Spring J. Seepage meter progressing a simple method of directly measuring water flow between surface water and groundwater systems. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences. 2014;42(14):37-41'},{id:"B41",body:'Lee DR. A device for measuring seepage flux in lakes and estuaries. Limnology and Oceanography. 1977;22(1):140-147'},{id:"B42",body:'Kalbus E, Reinstorf F, Schirmer M. Measuring methods for groundwater-surface water interactions: A review. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 2006;10(6):873-887'},{id:"B43",body:'Anibas C, Buis K, Verhoeven R, Meire P, Batelaan O. A simple thermal mapping method for seasonal spatial patterns of groundwater-surface water interaction. Journal of Hydrology. 2011;397(1-2):93-104'},{id:"B44",body:'Anderson MP. Heat as a ground water tracer. Ground Water. 2005;43(6):951-968'},{id:"B45",body:'Schmidt C, Raich MB, Schirmer M. Characterization of spatial heterogeneity of groundwater-stream water interactions using multiple depth streambed temperature measurements at the reach scale. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 2006;10(3):1419-1446'},{id:"B46",body:'Constantz J. Heat as a tracer to determine streambed water exchanges. Water Resources Research. 2008;46(4):1-20'},{id:"B47",body:'Cox MH, Su GW, Constantz J. Heat, chloride, and specific conductance as ground water tracers near streams. Ground Water. 2007;45(2):187-195'},{id:"B48",body:'Darcy H. Les fontaines publiques de la ville de Dijon. Paris: Victor Dalmont; 1856'},{id:"B49",body:'Chen X, Dong W, Ou G, Wang Z, Liu C. Gaining and losing stream reaches have opposite hydraulic conductivity distribution patterns. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 2013;17(7):2569-2579'},{id:"B50",body:'Cook PG. A Guide To Regional Flow in Fractured Rock Aquifers. CSIRO Land and Water, Glen Osmond: Henley Beach, South Australia: Seaview Press; 2003'},{id:"B51",body:'Engelhardt I et al. Comparison of tracer methods to quantify hydrodynamic exchange within the hyporheic zone. Journal of Hydrology. 2011;400(1-2):255-266'},{id:"B52",body:'Xu W, Su X, Dai Z, Yang F, Zhu P, Huang Y. Investigations multitraceurs des interactions nappes-rivières: cas d’étude du bassin de la rivière Nalenggele, nord-ouest de la Chine. Hydrogeology Journal. 2017;25(7):2015-2029'},{id:"B53",body:'Aguilar BJ, Banks EW, Batelaan O, Kipfer R, Brennwald MS, Cook PG. Groundwater residence time and aquifer recharge in multilayered, semi-confined and faulted aquifer systems using environmental tracers. Journal of Hydrology. 2017;546:150-165'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Naseem Akhtar",address:"naseemamu6@gmail.com",affiliation:'
School of Industrial Technology, University Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
School of Industrial Technology, University Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9981",title:"Groundwater",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Groundwater",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Bahareh Kalantar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9981.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"267005",title:"Dr.",name:"Bahareh",middleName:null,surname:"Kalantar",slug:"bahareh-kalantar",fullName:"Bahareh Kalantar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"122231",title:"PhD.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Benova",email:"benova@fel.uniza.sk",fullName:"Mariana Benova",slug:"mariana-benova",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"University of Žilina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Interaction of Renewable Energy Source and Power Supply Network",slug:"interaction-of-renewable-energy-source-and-power-supply-network",abstract:null,signatures:"Branislav Dobrucky, Michal Pokorny and Mariana Benova",authors:[{id:"2239",title:"Prof.",name:"Branislav",surname:"Dobrucky",fullName:"Branislav Dobrucky",slug:"branislav-dobrucky",email:"dobrucky@fel.uniza.sk"},{id:"122231",title:"PhD.",name:"Mariana",surname:"Benova",fullName:"Mariana Benova",slug:"mariana-benova",email:"benova@fel.uniza.sk"},{id:"123654",title:"Prof.",name:"Michal",surname:"Pokorný",fullName:"Michal Pokorný",slug:"michal-pokorny",email:"Michal.Pokorny@fel.uniza.sk"}],book:{title:"Renewable Energy",slug:"renewable-energy",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"1083",title:"Dr.",name:"Reggie",surname:"Davidrajuh",slug:"reggie-davidrajuh",fullName:"Reggie Davidrajuh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1083/images/1284_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Stavanger",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Norway"}}},{id:"2576",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio",surname:"Faias",slug:"sergio-faias",fullName:"Sergio Faias",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/2576/images/1335_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"2665",title:"Mr",name:"Samuel",surname:"Jupe",slug:"samuel-jupe",fullName:"Samuel Jupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"2789",title:"Mr.",name:"Lyle",surname:"Jenkins",slug:"lyle-jenkins",fullName:"Lyle Jenkins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"2801",title:"Dr.",name:"Philip",surname:"Taylor",slug:"philip-taylor",fullName:"Philip Taylor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"2979",title:"Prof.",name:"Joao",surname:"Figueiredo",slug:"joao-figueiredo",fullName:"Joao Figueiredo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"3031",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto Bellini",surname:"Bellini",slug:"alberto-bellini-bellini",fullName:"Alberto Bellini Bellini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Modena and Reggio Emilia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"122219",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Michiorri",slug:"andrea-michiorri",fullName:"Andrea Michiorri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Durham University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"122220",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Sousa",slug:"jorge-sousa",fullName:"Jorge Sousa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"122222",title:"Prof.",name:"Rui",surname:"Castro",slug:"rui-castro",fullName:"Rui Castro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Lisbon",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"terms-and-conditions",title:"Terms and Conditions",intro:'
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
1. Terms
\\n\\n
By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\\n\\n
The following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\\n\\n
“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\\n\\n
“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\\n\\n
“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\\n\\n
All Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\\n\\n
Any use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\\n\\n
2. License
\\n\\n
Unless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\n
3. Cookies
\\n\\n
We employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\\n\\n
4. Limitations
\\n\\n
In no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\\n\\n
5. Accuracy of Materials
\\n\\n
Intechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\\n\\n
6. Links
\\n\\n
IntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\\n\\n
We reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\n
If you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\\n\\n
7. Frames
\\n\\n
Without prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\\n\\n
8. Modifications
\\n\\n
IntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\\n\\n
9. Governing Law
\\n\\n
These Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\\n\\n
Croatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\n\n
The following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n
“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n
“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n
“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\n
All Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\n
Any use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\n
2. License
\n\n
Unless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\n\n
3. Cookies
\n\n
We employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\n\n
4. Limitations
\n\n
In no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\n
5. Accuracy of Materials
\n\n
Intechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\n\n
6. Links
\n\n
IntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\n\n
We reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\n\n
If you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\n\n
7. Frames
\n\n
Without prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\n\n
8. Modifications
\n\n
IntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\n\n
9. Governing Law
\n\n
These Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\n\n
Croatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10367},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118188},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"10"},books:[{type:"book",id:"8969",title:"Deserts and Desertification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4df95c7f295de7f6003e635d9a309fe9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Yajuan Zhu, Dr. Qinghong Luo and Dr. Yuguo Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8969.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"180427",title:"Dr.",name:"Yajuan",surname:"Zhu",slug:"yajuan-zhu",fullName:"Yajuan Zhu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10754",title:"Global Warming and Climate Change",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8994a915a306910a01cbe2027aa2139b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Stuart Arthur Harris",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10754.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"12539",title:"Dr.",name:"Stuart",surname:"Harris",slug:"stuart-harris",fullName:"Stuart Harris"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10756",title:"Urban Agglomeration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"65f2a1fef9c804c29b18ef3ac4a35066",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10756.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10761",title:"Glaciology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bd112c839a9b8037f1302ca6c0d55a2a",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10761.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10762",title:"Cosmology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f28a2213571fb878839bcbacb9827a1d",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10762.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10851",title:"Volcanology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6cfc09f959efecf9ba95654b1bb4b987",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Angelo Paone and Prof. Sung-Hyo Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo Paone"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10949",title:"Clay and Clay Minerals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"44d08b9e490617fcbf7786c381c85fbc",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10949.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10950",title:"Landslides",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8fcc0f63c22c087239f07a8e06ec2549",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10950.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10952",title:"Soil Science - Emerging Technologies, Global Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3dbedd2099c57a24eaab114be4ba2b48",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Michael Thomas Aide and Dr. Indi Braden",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10952.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"185895",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Aide",slug:"michael-aide",fullName:"Michael Aide"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10954",title:"Dark Matter - Recent Observations and Theoretical Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b0fbd6ee0096e4c16e9513bf01273ab3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Michael L. Smith",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10954.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"59479",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael L.",surname:"Smith",slug:"michael-l.-smith",fullName:"Michael L. Smith"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:10},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5229},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"172",title:"Complementary Medicine",slug:"complementary-medicine",parent:{title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"},numberOfBooks:11,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:355,numberOfWosCitations:269,numberOfCrossrefCitations:139,numberOfDimensionsCitations:401,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"complementary-medicine",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6994",title:"Tea",subtitle:"Chemistry and Pharmacology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e6241cd52834161ac64d4a7b2a812796",slug:"tea-chemistry-and-pharmacology",bookSignature:"Gonçalo Justino",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6994.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76687",title:"Dr.",name:"Gonçalo",middleName:null,surname:"Justino",slug:"goncalo-justino",fullName:"Gonçalo Justino"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9108",title:"Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d0c52af195da3322be63610d6567019",slug:"medicinal-plants-use-in-prevention-and-treatment-of-diseases",bookSignature:"Bassam Abdul Rasool Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9108.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155124",title:"Dr.",name:"Bassam",middleName:"Abdul Rasool",surname:"Hassan",slug:"bassam-hassan",fullName:"Bassam Hassan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6302",title:"Herbal Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b70a98c6748d0449a6288de73da7b8d9",slug:"herbal-medicine",bookSignature:"Philip F. Builders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6302.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182744",title:"Dr.",name:"Philip",middleName:null,surname:"Builders",slug:"philip-builders",fullName:"Philip Builders"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5612",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Back to Nature",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ccf7987200bfc541e2e56bb138de86f3",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5612.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5494",title:"Chinese Medical Therapies for Diabetes, Infertility, Silicosis and the Theoretical Basis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7b3b6a2700d7fd0511770bf77290a422",slug:"chinese-medical-therapies-for-diabetes-infertility-silicosis-and-the-theoretical-basis",bookSignature:"Xing-Tai Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5494.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73821",title:"Dr.",name:"Xing-Tai",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"xing-tai-li",fullName:"Xing-Tai Li"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5222",title:"Cannabinoids in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d684a703afd17dc97d18480a982e5316",slug:"cannabinoids-in-health-and-disease",bookSignature:"Rosaria Meccariello and Rosanna Chianese",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5222.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"143980",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosaria",middleName:null,surname:"Meccariello",slug:"rosaria-meccariello",fullName:"Rosaria Meccariello"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4625",title:"Complementary Therapies for the Body, Mind and Soul",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"48cd88cd7a6ffb4ade0088448e5ac56b",slug:"complementary-therapies-for-the-body-mind-and-soul",bookSignature:"Marcelo Saad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4625.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51991",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Saad",slug:"marcelo-saad",fullName:"Marcelo Saad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2975",title:"Complementary Therapies for the Contemporary Healthcare",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"604c4ba43197c3ba1506c55c763d4ca7",slug:"complementary-therapies-for-the-contemporary-healthcare",bookSignature:"Marcelo Saad and Roberta de Medeiros",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2975.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51991",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Saad",slug:"marcelo-saad",fullName:"Marcelo Saad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"542",title:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a805c1d2d8449dcecd52eb7a48d2e6b1",slug:"a-compendium-of-essays-on-alternative-therapy",bookSignature:"Arup Bhattacharya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/542.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"66982",title:"Dr.",name:"Arup",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharya",slug:"arup-bhattacharya",fullName:"Arup Bhattacharya"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"643",title:"Recent Advances in Theories and Practice of Chinese Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"499a7fabf489d2502de4616a4c7f3da0",slug:"recent-advances-in-theories-and-practice-of-chinese-medicine",bookSignature:"Haixue Kuang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/643.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"44740",title:"Prof.",name:"Haixue",middleName:null,surname:"Kuang",slug:"haixue-kuang",fullName:"Haixue Kuang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"631",title:"Quality Control of Herbal Medicines and Related Areas",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ced81d454b4a5ded2a0aa02e0d7621d",slug:"quality-control-of-herbal-medicines-and-related-areas",bookSignature:"Yukihiro Shoyama",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/631.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35812",title:"Prof.",name:"Yukihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Shoyama",slug:"yukihiro-shoyama",fullName:"Yukihiro Shoyama"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:11,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"61866",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76139",title:"Plants Secondary Metabolites: The Key Drivers of the Pharmacological Actions of Medicinal Plants",slug:"plants-secondary-metabolites-the-key-drivers-of-the-pharmacological-actions-of-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:5520,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:32,book:{slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"54028",doi:"10.5772/67291",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:6007,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:25,book:{slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature"},signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi"},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani"},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez"},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane"}]},{id:"64851",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80348",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:9919,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:9880,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"61866",title:"Plants Secondary Metabolites: The Key Drivers of the Pharmacological Actions of Medicinal Plants",slug:"plants-secondary-metabolites-the-key-drivers-of-the-pharmacological-actions-of-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:5488,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:32,book:{slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"54028",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:5998,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:25,book:{slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature"},signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi"},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani"},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez"},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane"}]},{id:"53301",title:"From Medicinal Plant Raw Material to Herbal Remedies",slug:"from-medicinal-plant-raw-material-to-herbal-remedies",totalDownloads:3603,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature"},signatures:"Sofija M. Djordjevic",authors:[{id:"84281",title:"Dr.",name:"Sofija",middleName:null,surname:"Djordjevic",slug:"sofija-djordjevic",fullName:"Sofija Djordjevic"}]},{id:"70638",title:"Medicinal Plants Having Antifungal Properties",slug:"medicinal-plants-having-antifungal-properties",totalDownloads:642,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"medicinal-plants-use-in-prevention-and-treatment-of-diseases",title:"Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Medicinal Plants - Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases"},signatures:"Koushlesh Kumar Mishra, Chanchal Deep Kaur, Anil Kumar Sahu, Rajnikant Panik, Pankaj Kashyap, Saraswati Prasad Mishra and Shweta Dutta",authors:[{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Sahu",slug:"anil-sahu",fullName:"Anil Sahu"},{id:"211230",title:"Mr.",name:"Pankaj",middleName:null,surname:"Kashyap",slug:"pankaj-kashyap",fullName:"Pankaj Kashyap"},{id:"221419",title:"Mr.",name:"Koushlesh",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"koushlesh-mishra",fullName:"Koushlesh Mishra"},{id:"221420",title:"Mr.",name:"Sarawati Prasad",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"sarawati-prasad-mishra",fullName:"Sarawati Prasad Mishra"},{id:"270359",title:"Dr.",name:"Chanchal Deep",middleName:null,surname:"Kaur",slug:"chanchal-deep-kaur",fullName:"Chanchal Deep Kaur"},{id:"314683",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajnikant",middleName:null,surname:"Panik",slug:"rajnikant-panik",fullName:"Rajnikant Panik"},{id:"314684",title:"Ms.",name:"Shweta",middleName:null,surname:"Dutta",slug:"shweta-dutta",fullName:"Shweta Dutta"}]},{id:"53014",title:"Cardiac Glycosides in Medicinal Plants",slug:"cardiac-glycosides-in-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:4675,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature"},signatures:"Nagy Morsy",authors:[{id:"193379",title:"Dr.",name:"Nagy",middleName:null,surname:"Morsy",slug:"nagy-morsy",fullName:"Nagy Morsy"}]},{id:"50397",title:"Dietary Omega-6/Omega-3 and Endocannabinoids: Implications for Brain Health and Diseases",slug:"dietary-omega-6-omega-3-and-endocannabinoids-implications-for-brain-health-and-diseases",totalDownloads:2091,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"cannabinoids-in-health-and-disease",title:"Cannabinoids in Health and Disease",fullTitle:"Cannabinoids in Health and Disease"},signatures:"Clémentine Bosch-Bouju and Sophie Layé",authors:[{id:"178351",title:"Dr.",name:"Sophie",middleName:null,surname:"Layé",slug:"sophie-laye",fullName:"Sophie Layé"}]},{id:"48731",title:"Animal Assisted Intervention for Rehabilitation Therapy and Psychotherapy",slug:"animal-assisted-intervention-for-rehabilitation-therapy-and-psychotherapy",totalDownloads:2300,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"complementary-therapies-for-the-body-mind-and-soul",title:"Complementary Therapies for the Body, Mind and Soul",fullTitle:"Complementary Therapies for the Body, Mind and Soul"},signatures:"Okjin Kim, Sunhwa Hong, Hyun-A Lee, Yung-Ho Chung and Si-Jong\nLee",authors:[{id:"174303",title:"Prof.",name:"Okjin",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"okjin-kim",fullName:"Okjin Kim"},{id:"174309",title:"Prof.",name:"Sunhwa",middleName:null,surname:"Hong",slug:"sunhwa-hong",fullName:"Sunhwa Hong"},{id:"174310",title:"Prof.",name:"Hyun-A",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"hyun-a-lee",fullName:"Hyun-A Lee"},{id:"175622",title:"Prof.",name:"Yung-Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Chung",slug:"yung-ho-chung",fullName:"Yung-Ho Chung"},{id:"175623",title:"Prof.",name:"Si-Jong",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"si-jong-lee",fullName:"Si-Jong Lee"}]},{id:"58270",title:"Toxicity and Safety Implications of Herbal Medicines Used in Africa",slug:"toxicity-and-safety-implications-of-herbal-medicines-used-in-africa",totalDownloads:2170,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Merlin L.K. Mensah, Gustav Komlaga, Arnold D. Forkuo, Caleb\nFirempong, Alexander K. Anning and Rita A. Dickson",authors:[{id:"190435",title:"Dr.",name:"Caleb",middleName:null,surname:"Firempong",slug:"caleb-firempong",fullName:"Caleb Firempong"},{id:"212111",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustav",middleName:null,surname:"Komlaga",slug:"gustav-komlaga",fullName:"Gustav Komlaga"},{id:"217045",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnold Forkuo",middleName:null,surname:"Donkor",slug:"arnold-forkuo-donkor",fullName:"Arnold Forkuo Donkor"},{id:"217049",title:"Prof.",name:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao",middleName:null,surname:"Mensah",slug:"merlin-lincoln-kwao-mensah",fullName:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao Mensah"},{id:"217488",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander K.",middleName:null,surname:"Anning",slug:"alexander-k.-anning",fullName:"Alexander K. Anning"},{id:"223959",title:"Prof.",name:"Akosua Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Dickson",slug:"akosua-rita-dickson",fullName:"Akosua Rita Dickson"}]},{id:"70593",title:"Herbal Remedies for Breast Cancer Prevention and Treatment",slug:"herbal-remedies-for-breast-cancer-prevention-and-treatment",totalDownloads:707,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"medicinal-plants-use-in-prevention-and-treatment-of-diseases",title:"Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Medicinal Plants - Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases"},signatures:"Yahyea Baktiar Laskar, Romen Meitei Lourembam and Pranab Behari Mazumder",authors:[{id:"304193",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Yahyea",middleName:"Baktiar",surname:"Laskar",slug:"yahyea-laskar",fullName:"Yahyea Laskar"},{id:"309357",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranab Behari",middleName:null,surname:"Mazumder",slug:"pranab-behari-mazumder",fullName:"Pranab Behari Mazumder"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"complementary-medicine",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/122231/mariana-benova",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"122231",slug:"mariana-benova"},fullPath:"/profiles/122231/mariana-benova",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var t;(t=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(t)}()